World population. Cheat sheet: Russia and the medieval states of Europe and Asia The origin and formation of feudal relations in Europe and Asia

Today I would like to talk about the differences (and similarities, if any) between the Asian and European regions in terms of their natural resource potential.

Natural resource potential of Asia

The Asian natural potential of practical interest lies primarily in its forest lands, where unique varieties of wood are extracted: sandalwood, rosewood, camphor and others. At the same time, forests are concentrated mainly in the southeastern regions.

Asian countries (for example, China) are also large exporters of fruits and vegetables, but there is another problem: the lack of territories suitable for agricultural production, since the main part of the Asian landscape is represented by mountain systems and plateaus. In addition, along with China, Iran and a very limited number of countries (mainly concentrated on the outskirts of the Asian region), the vast majority of countries experience a very significant lack of moisture supply.

As for the provision of mineral resources, Asia is in complete order:

• China dominates coal mining;
• India leads in the production of muscovite (potassium mica);
• Indonesia is one of the main suppliers of tin, bauxite and aluminum.

However, of course, the basis of Asian exports is oil, and here the first place belongs to Saudi Arabia.

Natural resource potential of Europe

Until the beginning of the 20th century. Europe was, as they say, its own supplier; iron ore, coal and other minerals were mined and processed here, but then, instead of maintaining highly paid miners, it became more profitable to import the same coal. However, today the situation is changing in the opposite direction. Europe, trying to reduce resource dependence on developing countries, began to explore “new horizons”: for example, oil and gas production on the North Sea shelf.

However, for now, Asia remains the main “producer” and exporter of natural resources, and Europe is a consumer, processor and, importantly, investor.

on the topic: "Foreign Europe and Asia"

FOREIGN EUROPE

Foreign Europe covers an area of ​​5.1 million km2. The length from north to south is 5 thousand km, from west to east - more than 3 thousand km. EGP is defined by three features:

1) the neighboring compact position of these countries in relation to each other;

2) the coastal position of most countries;

3) a high degree of ruggedness of the coastline, which contributed to the development of maritime transport.

Currently, in Europe there are 40 sovereign, economically developed states - monarchies and republics, unitary and federal states. There is one colonial territory belonging to Great Britain - Gibraltar. Since the beginning of the 90s. In Europe there is a single European economic space - the European Union, the collapse of the socialist camp and the unification of Germany occurred.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Europe's mineral resources are severely depleted, so their supply is low. In the north there are ore minerals associated with the Baltic shield and fuel minerals formed in the thick sedimentary cover of the ancient platform; in the south, minerals of both igneous and sedimentary origin were discovered in the young folded zone. The largest oil and gas provinces have been explored on the shelf of the North Sea (mainly developed by Great Britain and Norway), on the coast of the Netherlands, as well as in Italy and Romania. Coal deposits are being developed in Germany, Great Britain, Poland, the Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Romania, Spain, and Bulgaria. Iron ore deposits are in Sweden, France, Norway, Spain. Europe is not rich in non-ferrous metals. There are deposits of copper ore in Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Yugoslavia, Romania, and aluminum ores in Greece, Hungary, and France. There are large reserves of salts in Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland; the latter is also rich in sulfur and silver.

Hydropower resources are significant in the regions of the Alpine, Scandinavian, Dinaric, Balkan and Carpathian mountains. The provision of water resources is insufficient, with the exception of Scandinavia, the Alpine and Balkan territories. In addition, many rivers are heavily polluted. In the structure of the land fund, a large share is made up of cultivated lands, although the provision of arable land per capita is below the world average. There are practically no reserves for land expansion, so some states, primarily the Netherlands, are “conquering” territory from the sea. Sweden and Finland have large forest resources.

POPULATION

More than 510 million people live in foreign Europe. The population is growing slowly, because natural growth is very small or equal to zero, and in Germany and Hungary it is even negative. At the same time, the share of elderly people is increasing - 20-23% of the population, and the share of children is falling - 16-17%. This is one of the reasons why Europe has become the world's main center of labor immigration (14 million foreign workers). In terms of national composition, the population is quite homogeneous: the majority belongs to the Indo-European language family, the smaller part to the Uralic language family. Along with single-national states, there are multinational states, in some of them there is an aggravation of interethnic relations, for example in Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Spain, Romania, Belgium. The dominant religion is Christianity, represented by Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy. The population density is one of the highest in the world: in the Netherlands and Belgium - more than 300; in Germany and Great Britain - more than 200 people/km 2 . The level of urbanization is one of the highest in the world: in Belgium - 97%, Iceland - 91%, the Netherlands - 89%, Denmark and Germany - 86% each, Sweden - 83%, France - 73%. The number of agglomerations here is greater than in the USA and Japan combined. The largest are London, Paris and Rhine-Ruhr. In recent years, the process of suburbanization has intensified.

FARM

Overseas Europe remains the largest center of the world economy. Its total GDP is 30% of the world's, it ranks first (more than 50%) in world trade, and is a leader in gold and foreign exchange reserves and foreign investments. The economic power of the region is determined by the G7 member countries: Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy, with Germany taking the lead. In small and medium-sized countries, the economy specializes in certain industries. The former socialist countries of Eastern Europe have a transitional economy from command-administrative to market and, therefore, are in difficult conditions.

Mechanical engineering- a leading industry in foreign Europe. It accounts for 30% of all industrial products and 70% of its exports. The industry focuses primarily on labor resources and the scientific base.

Chemical industry ranks second after mechanical engineering. Here the undisputed leader is Germany. In recent decades, there has been a reorientation of the chemical industry from brown coal and salts to hydrocarbon raw materials. Enterprises in the industry gravitate towards oil refining centers located in river estuaries (Rhine, Scheldt, Thames, Seine, Elbe, Rhone) or along the routes of main oil and gas pipelines.

IN fuel and energy industry In most countries, the leading place was taken by oil and gas, produced both in the region itself and imported. In Germany and Great Britain, coal production fell sharply, and in the Netherlands and Belgium it ceased. In Eastern Europe, coal continues to play a large role, especially in Poland and the Czech Republic. Most thermal power plants are focused on coal basins, however, despite some slowdown, nuclear power plants are playing an increasingly active role. In mountainous areas, the role of hydroelectric power stations is great; The share of pumped storage power plants is growing.

Metallurgical industry- the oldest industry, formed in areas of fuel or iron ore extraction: in Germany (Ruhr, Saarland), Great Britain, France (Lorraine), Spain (Aviles), Belgium (Liège), Luxembourg, Poland (Upper Silesia), Czech Republic ( Ostrava-Karvinsky district). Later, the industry refocused on imported raw materials and began to move to seaports - Taranto (Italy), Dunkirk (France), Bremen (Germany), or closer to the borders of the former USSR - Galati (Romania). Currently, a course has been set for the construction of mini-factories. The largest producers today are Germany, Italy, France, and Great Britain, and everywhere there is a decline or stabilization of production volumes due to resource conservation policies.

Aluminum industry develops in countries rich in bauxite or cheap electricity - Norway, Switzerland, Germany, Austria. Leaders in aluminum production are Germany, Norway, France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands. Recently, the industry has increasingly focused on imported raw materials. Thus, France has reduced bauxite production by 20 times over the past 25 years, and ranks third in Europe in aluminum smelting.

Copper industry focused on its own and imported raw materials. Leaders in copper production are Germany, Italy, Belgium, Poland.

Forestry industry focuses on its own forest resources and has become an internationally specialized industry in Sweden and Finland.

Light industry has lost its former meaning. The main centers of the industry are shifting from the northern regions (Great Britain, France, Belgium) to the southern ones, where there is more cheap labor. Portugal became the largest center of the clothing industry, Italy - the leather and footwear industry, Greece - the fur industry.

Europe is fully self-sufficient in basic types agricultural products and is interested in foreign markets. After the Second World War, there was a transition from small peasant farming to large, specialized, highly commercial farming, included in the agribusiness system. The main type of agricultural enterprise is the farm, although landownership predominates in the south. The countries of Northern Europe are characterized by the predominance of intensive dairy farming, and in the crop production that serves it - feed crops. Fishing has become a branch of international specialization in Iceland, Norway, and Denmark. In Central Europe, dairy and dairy-meat farming predominates, as well as pig and poultry farming. Crop production satisfies the food needs of the population and provides livestock with feed crops. Southern Europe is dominated by crop production; Along with grain crops, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, almonds, tobacco, and essential crops are grown here.

Transport system Europe belongs to the Western European type. The transportation range here is much shorter than in the USA or Russia, but the availability of a transport network and its density are greater. Road transport plays a major role in the transportation of goods and passengers. The railway network as a whole is shrinking. The role of river transport routes, especially the Rhine and Danube, is great. At the intersection of land and water transport routes, large transport hubs emerged - port-industrial complexes, which were characterized by the development of maritime industries and “port” industries operating on imported raw materials. These include Rotterdam, London, Hamburg, Antwerp, Le Havre, etc.

In Europe, many kilometers of railway and road tunnels have been dug in the Alps, and the largest 50-kilometer underwater tunnel is operating across the English Channel between England and France.

Following the example of the USA in Europe, in the vicinity of Cambridge, Munich, Nice, Lyon, research parks And technopolises. However, there is still a lag in the field of high technology in European countries compared to the United States and Japan. Thus, spending on science per person in the EU countries is $200, in Japan - $470, and in the USA - almost $600.

Difference between Europe and Asia. Artist Yang Liu lived in China until she was 14 years old, and then moved to Germany. The result was a series of works that may be more useful than thick reference books. In the blue square is the behavior of a Western person, in the red - in the same situations.

The main difference between Asia and Europe is the level of responsibility that people bear for themselves in life. There are many disadvantages in Asia, but we need to learn one advantage from them - stop sharing our responsibilities.

If the Western world learned to do this again, as it knew how to do it before, then Europe would stop dragging down the world economy and producing more debt than goods and services. After all, any economy is, first of all, people, each of whom is either responsible for himself or shifts responsibility onto another. And it’s hard to argue with economic data.

Japan, among other reasons, has achieved the highest level of quality in its products, due to the high degree of undivided responsibility resting on each of its workers. Seven cooks cannot make good soup, but one cook can make good soup. The Japanese know well that the sum of seven responsibilities will always be less than one responsibility.

I often hear “I don’t like Asia, I prefer Europe.” No, it’s not Europe that people like, but the fact that someone is responsible for us there. Many of my readers from European countries are now thinking, “Yes, no one really needs us here either. We are on our own. No one is responsible for me here.” Of course, you got a slice of responsibility, but in Asia you would get the whole pie of responsibility.

Freedom of expression

Queue behavior

Noise level in cafes and restaurants

Travel behavior

Drink preferences

Party Behavior

Relationship with the manager

Own ego

Popularity of modes of transport

Popular dishes

Problem Solving Approach

Attitude towards elders

The child's position in the family

General characteristics of Europe

Europe is a part of the world.

Together with Asia, Europe makes up a single continent called Eurasia.

There are more than 40 states in Europe. They differ in area, population, government structure and level of socio-economic development. These are mostly republics; 12 countries have a monarchical form of government.

Europe plays a special and very important role in the world economy and political life of the planet.

Subregions of Europe - countries of Western, Central and Eastern Europe (or Central-Eastern).

Western Europe contains economically developed countries.

Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy - these countries are part of the G7.

The five “dwarf countries” with a population of approximately 10 million people are Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Vatican City,

The countries of Western Europe are united by political and economic ties.

Until 1995, the European Union (EU) united 12 European countries and accepted three more European states: Austria, Sweden, and Finland. Currently there are 28 countries in the EU.

The countries of Central and Eastern Europe include the former socialist states (Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Romania, the Czech Republic, Albania), the republics formed after the collapse of Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Macedonia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), the Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia), independent republic states (Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Russia), currently part of the CIS. Western Europe is the second region (economic) of the foreign world after the United States.

This region accounts for 1/3 of the industrial products produced by Western countries; its role in world trade is also great. Western Europe is an important financial center.

In the 20th century The modern political map of Europe has seriously changed. Its formation was influenced by the results of the First World War (1914–1918) and the Second World War (1939–1945).

The First World War was caused by aggravation of contradictions during the struggle for spheres of influence, sources of raw materials and world domination.

The Second World War was unleashed to redistribute the world by aggressive states: Nazi Germany, Japan and fascist Italy. 72 states were involved in this war.

During the wars, territorial changes occurred.

Currently, the political map of Europe is also undergoing significant changes, for example, the collapse of the USSR, the formation of the CIS, the unification of two German states, the division of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the disintegration of Yugoslavia into several states due to the war, etc.

In the life of Europe, an important place is occupied by the activities of the military organization NATO, which seeks to subordinate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to its influence.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICA

America is a part of the world consisting of two continents (North and South America), connected by the Isthmus of Panama.

Most of the continent of North America is occupied by two economically developed countries: the USA and Canada. However, this continent includes the island of Greenland. Latin America is the name of the countries that are located in the southern part of the continent of North America, in the West Indies (islands of the Atlantic Ocean: the Bahamas, Greater and Lesser Antilles) and on the mainland of South America.

The area of ​​Latin America is about 21 million km2. It consists of 33 sovereign states, possessions of Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and the USA.

The formation of the modern political map of the world in America has a long history.

The USA and Canada are two highly developed capitalist states that have enormous political, economic and financial influence on their Latin American neighbors.

The states of Latin America are exceptionally rich in natural resources, have a unique and eventful history, and a distinctive culture. Latin American countries are ahead of many developing countries in Asia and Africa, but lag behind the industrialized countries of the world. These countries were and are economically and financially dependent on European states and the United States.

The USA is currently a federal republic. A significant part of the country's territory is favorable for life and economic activity due to its natural resources. The USA is rich in natural and other resources. The role of the United States of America in the world economy is enormous; it accounts for approximately 1/3 of the industrial output of capitalist countries. The United States is the undisputed leader in the global chemical industry in terms of volume and variety of products.

They rank third in terms of population.

The United States has powerful economic, military, scientific and technical potential, and is the world's largest producer of industrial and agricultural products.

Canada is a highly developed country that is part of the G8.

Canada is the largest producer of nickel, zinc, and newsprint in the foreign world.

Canada occupies a prominent place in the world in terms of mineral resources: oil, uranium, natural gas, coal and other vital minerals.

The agriculture of this state is highly commercial, diversified, technically well equipped, with the widespread use of hired labor.

POLITICAL MAP OF AFRICA

The continent occupies 1/5 of the globe's landmass; there are 55 sovereign states on the continent, most of which existed before the 20th century. were colonies. Population – over 600 million people.

In the scientific literature, Africa is divided into five subregions, such as North Africa (Maghree countries, Mediterranean coast), Western (northern part of the Atlantic coast and the coast of the Gulf of Guinea), Central (Chad, Zaire, Central African Republic, Congo, etc.), Eastern (located east of the Great African Rifts) and Southern.

Virtually all African countries are republics.

Africa is very rich in minerals, but they are still poorly studied.

In general, African countries are far behind in their development.

In the 1950s there were only four legally independent states on the continent: Ethiopia, Liberia, Egypt, and South Africa.

1960 was the “year of Africa.” During this period, 32 colonies achieved independence; this process actually continued until the 1990s. Most states currently have a republican form of government; there are three monarchies: Morocco, Swaziland, Lesotho.

According to the UN typology, almost all African states are classified as developing. The success of the struggle of African states to strengthen economic and political independence depends on the political forces of power.

In 1963, the Organization of African Unity was formed, its goals are to promote the strengthening of the unity and cooperation of the states of the continent, protect their sovereignty, and fight against all forms of neo-colonialism.

The Arab League came into being in 1945 and includes the Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East. The League advocates strengthening economic and political cooperation among Arab peoples. In African states over the years of independent development, the general rule was the privileged position of the ethnic group whose representatives were in power.

For almost 20 years there were civil wars in Angola, Chad, Mozambique; For many years, war, devastation and famine have reigned in Somalia. The inter-ethnic and inter-religious conflict in Sudan continues. It lasts more than 10 years.

In 1993, there was a military coup in Burundi, and civil wars are common in Liberia. Democracy is not taking root in Nigeria. For almost 23 of the 30 years after independence, the country lived under military rule. In 1993, democratic elections were held, and immediately another military coup took place, all democratic institutions of power were dissolved, political organizations, meetings and rallies were banned.

Another sovereign state has recently appeared on the map of Africa - Eritrea.

South Africa is the only state in Africa that is highly developed and which, in many respects, ranks first in Africa. The subsoil of South Africa is rich in diamonds, platinum, and ores, but this country lacks oil and gas.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ASIA

The largest part of the world is Asia, which is home to over half of the total population of our planet.

Many independent states in foreign Asia are republics, but currently there are also countries that have a monarchical form of government. There are about 14 of them - kingdoms, empires, emirates, etc.

Asia until the middle of the 20th century. was the most important component of the colonial system of imperialism. After the Second World War, the collapse of the colonial system began, but at present there are still colonial possessions (Mao Men is the main territory of the Indian Ocean).

After the war, an attempt was made to involve independent Asian states in military blocs. By now they have, of course, already broken up. These were military-political groups: SEATO (USA, UK, Australia, France, etc.), ANZUK (Australia, New Zealand, UK, Malaysia, Singapore), CENTO (Great Britain, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan), ANZAM ( New Zealand, UK, Australia, Malaysia).

Asia is divided into subregions. Southwest Asia consists of 16 countries, such as Afghanistan, the Republic of Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and others, which formed this subregion. In these regions, monarchies have been preserved and republican forms of government predominate.

South Asia includes 7 countries of the Eurasian continent. This region is located south of the Himalayas on the Indian subcontinent, in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and on the nearby islands in the Indian Ocean. The countries located in this subregion have a historical commonality of development.

Southeast Asia. It includes the territory of the Indochina Peninsula and numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago. Important trade routes run through the countries of Southeast Asia.

Central and East Asia. It includes the following territories and states: Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), Japan, Republic of Korea, China, Taiwan, Mongolia.

Japan is a highly developed state and is a constitutional monarchy. The emperor is a symbol of the state and the unity of the people.

On the political map of the world, significant changes in Central and East Asia occurred in various periods of history, from antiquity to the present day.

China and the DPRK ™~ socialist countries.

China is one of the oldest states in our world, which arose back in the 14th century. BC e.

Mongolia is a post-socialist country with a long history of its existence. It was founded by Genghis Khan at the beginning of the 13th century.

The Republic of Korea and Taiwan belong to the group of developing countries.

Korea is an ancient state in East Asia, it has a unique culture and, accordingly, history.

POLITICAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA

Australia, New Zealand and other small and large islands in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, due to a certain commonality of historical and geographical development, are considered as a special region - Australia and Oceania.

Politically and economically, this region is diverse. This region is home to highly developed Australia and New Zealand, small island backward countries and some territories that still remain colonies.

Australia, or the Commonwealth of Australia, is a state that is located on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and many small islands.

Australia is a federal state within the British Commonwealth, which is headed by Great Britain.

The first Europeans to enter Australian soil were the Dutch W. Janszoon (1606) and A. Tasman (1642). The beginning of European colonization was laid by the British (James Cook, 1770). White colonialists drove the indigenous people off their lands and killed them, and later the aborigines were forcibly resettled on reservations. Australia was originally a place of exile for criminals from Great Britain, but in the 19th century. deposits of gold and other minerals were discovered. All this led to an increase in the flow of free migrants to the region. Australia is a country of settler capitalism.

In 1901, six colonies united to form the Commonwealth of Australia, which received the status of a dominion of Great Britain. In 1931, it was granted complete independence from the metropolis.

Australia currently takes an active position on a number of major international issues, is one of the initiators of the Treaty on a Nuclear Free Zone in the South Pacific, and takes part in UN peacekeeping activities. Australia and New Zealand are members of the South Pacific Forum (SPF), the South Pacific Commission (SPC), the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) and other international agreements.

New Zealand is a state within the British Commonwealth, which is located on two large islands (North and South) and a number of smaller ones. It was a British colony (since 1840).

In 1907, New Zealand received dominion status, and in 1931 it acquired the right to independence in its affairs (external and internal). In the modern world, New Zealand is a highly developed industrial-agrarian country.

Oceania is the largest collection of islands on the planet (about 10 thousand) in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean.

The total area of ​​Oceania is over 1 million km2, and Oceania includes New Zealand.

At the end of the 19th century. There was a colonial division of the islands of Oceania.

In the 1960s There was a collapse of the colonial system, which also affected Oceania.

TERRITORY, BORDERS AND GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF RUSSIA

Russia is the largest state on the globe by area (17.1 million km2), located in the northern part of the Eurasian continent. The European part of Russia (about 1/3 of the country's territory) occupies most of the Russian Plain, the Urals, Ciscaucasia and the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. The Asian part of Russia is Siberia and the Far East (about 2/3 of the territory).

The length of Russia from west to east is large and amounts to 9 thousand km.

Almost the entire territory of Russia is located in the eastern hemisphere; the Wrangel Islands and the Chukotka Peninsula belong to the western hemisphere.

The country is divided into 11 time zones.

The length of the country from north to south is about 4 thousand km. The northern mainland tip of Russia is the Taimyr Peninsula, and the northern point of the Russian Federation is located on Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago. The southernmost point of Russia is located on the crest of the Main Caucasus Range, in the Caucasus. The highest point of the Russian Federation is located on Mount Elbrus.

The total length of Russia's borders is the largest in the world and amounts to 58.6 thousand km; sea borders are almost twice as large as land borders.

The maritime borders in the north and east of the country lie 12 nautical miles from the coast, and 200 nautical miles from the shores of the mainland and islands is the border of the maritime economic zone of the Russian Federation.

The northern borders of the country pass through the waters of the seas of the Arctic Ocean: Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukotka. The Russian sector of the Arctic is located within the Arctic Ocean from the coast of Russia to the North Pole.

The eastern borders of Russia pass through the waters of the Pacific Ocean: Bering, Okhotsk, and Japanese. Our country's closest maritime neighbors here are Japan and the USA.

Between the peninsulas of Alaska, Chukotka, Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands is the Bering Sea. The Sea of ​​Okhotsk is located between the mainland, as well as the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Sakhalin, Kuril and Hokkaido islands. Primorsky Krai and the southern shores of Sakhalin Island are washed by the waters of the Sea of ​​Japan.

The huge extent of the seas from north to south causes significant differences in climatic conditions.

In the west, Russia's maritime borders pass through the waters of the Baltic Sea, which connect our country with many European countries.

In the southwest, the maritime borders pass through the waters of the Azov and Black Seas, where Ukraine and Georgia border on our country.

The border with some countries of the so-called near abroad runs in the south along the waters of the internal Caspian Sea. Natural conditions and resources of Russia The landscape of Russia is based on large tectonic structures - platforms, shields, folded belts, they are expressed in various forms - mountains, lowlands, hills, etc.

Most of Russia's territory is occupied by plains. Within Russia there are two large ancient Precambrian platforms - Russian and Siberian.

Sections of platforms whose foundations are buried deep under the sedimentary cover are called slabs. The places where the crystalline foundation reaches the surface of the platforms are called shields.

On the territory of Russia there are three vast flat areas: the East European Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau and the West Siberian Plain.

To the east of the Lena River there are mountain ranges of Mesozoic folding - the Chersky, Verkhoyansky and Kolyma highlands.

In the extreme northeast and east of the country there is the Pacific fold belt (Kamchatka, Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands ridge).

The Kuril Islands are the tops of the highest mountains rising from the bottom of the sea, most of them are under water.

Russia has almost all types of mineral resources and ranks one of the first places in the world in terms of their reserves (gas, oil, coal, limestone, glass and construction sands, chalk, gypsum and other mineral resources, iron ores, copper ores and much more).

Recently, in different regions of Russia, they have begun to develop deposits of manganese, titanium-zirconium and chromium ores. Siberia and the Far East are regions of the Russian Federation exceptionally rich in ore and non-metallic minerals.

Industrial diamond mining has been organized in Yakutia.

The peculiarities of the climate of Russia are determined by geographical factors: geographical location, size and extent of the territory from west to east and from north to south, a wide variety of terrain, etc.

The northern part of the country extends far beyond the Arctic Circle, and therefore the climate in most of the territory is harsh.

The length of the country from north to south leads to changes in the total solar radiation received. The southern regions of our country have high air temperatures.

Climate has a great influence on the formation of the most important sectors of economic activity and people's living conditions.

There are many natural areas in Russia, and therefore there is a great diversity of flora and fauna. The boundaries of the zones are extended along parallels, the deviations are relatively small. Natural zones stretch from north to south: arctic desert, tundra, forest-tundra, forest, forest-steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert zones.

Russia's fresh water reserves are significant. On the territory of the country there are 2.5 million rivers and about 3 million lakes, the largest lake in the world is the Caspian, the deepest freshwater lake is Baikal.

The largest area in Russia is occupied by the forest zone. Land resources are enormous - this is 1/8 of the entire landmass of our planet (17 million km2).

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal Law of December 2, 1998 No. 191-FZ “On the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation” defines the status of the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of the Russian Federation in its exclusive economic zone and their implementation in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation.

The exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation is a maritime area located outside the territorial sea of ​​the Russian Federation and adjacent to it, with a special legal regime established by Federal Law, international treaties of the Russian Federation and international law.

The definition of an exclusive economic zone also applies to all islands of the Russian Federation, with the exception of rocks that are not suitable for supporting human life or for carrying out independent economic activities.

The internal limit of the exclusive economic zone is the external limit of the territorial sea.

The external border of the exclusive economic zone is located at a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the width of the territorial sea is measured, unless otherwise provided by international treaties of the Russian Federation. The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone between the Russian Federation and states whose coasts lie opposite the coast of the Russian Federation or are adjacent to the coast of the Russian Federation is carried out in accordance with international treaties of the Russian Federation or generally recognized principles and norms of international law.

Lines of the external boundaries of the exclusive economic zone or replacing them, lists of geographical coordinates of points approved by the Government of the Russian Federation indicating the main initial geodetic data and delimitation lines determined by international treaties of the Russian Federation or on the basis of generally recognized principles and norms of international law, are indicated on maps of the established scale and published in "Notices to Mariners".

Natural resources of the exclusive economic zone are living and non-living resources found in the waters covering the seabed, on the seabed and in its subsoil.

Living resources of the exclusive economic zone - all types of fish, marine mammals, mollusks, crustaceans, as well as other aquatic biological resources.

Non-living resources of the exclusive economic zone - mineral resources of the waters covering the seabed, including chemical elements and their compounds contained in sea water, the energy of tides, currents and wind, and other possible types of non-living resources.

Abstract >> Culture and art

Can be traced as one of the defining characteristics cultural dynamics in non-Western societies... cultures spanning major parts of the planet: Europe, Asia, Africa, Latin America. At the same time, when researching...

1. The origin and formation of feudal relations in Europe and Asia....p.2

2. Specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state…………… p.4

3. The Rise of Moscow…………………………………………………….page 9

The origin and formation of feudal relations in Europe and Asia.

The term "feudalism" appeared in France in XVII century and was originally used in the field of law: it was introduced into historical science in XIX century by the famous French historian Francois Guizot.

Feudalism arose as a result of the disintegration of slave-owning orders in only a few countries whose peoples created high civilizations in ancient times (China, India, Greece, Rome). For most other peoples, feudal relations arose as a result of the decomposition of the primitive communal formation (in Germany, among many Slavic peoples, in Scandinavia, in Japan, among the Mongols, in a number of African countries). The path of formation of feudalism is also known, which is characterized by the interaction of these processes (an example is the Frankish state, which arose in the 5th century AD under King Clovis).

In many countries, feudal relations developed over a long period of time, which was determined by the nature and slow pace of development of the productive forces.

When defining the medieval era as a time of dominance of feudal relations, it should be borne in mind that the concepts of “Middle Ages” and “feudalism” are not entirely identical even for Europe, where in the early Middle Ages feudal relations coexisted to a certain extent with the patriarchal structure, and later with the capitalist one. . In Russia, the feudal period falls on IX-XIX century

Feudalism is seen as a progressive social system compared to the slave system. The transition to feudalism from the primitive communal system was also progressive, since the established individual production was more consistent with the level of development of the productive forces, and therefore was more efficient.

The progressive features of feudalism were most consistently manifested in its Western European version. The economy of feudalism was based on the practically monopoly ownership of the land by the class of feudal landowners and was of a natural nature.

In the conditions of an agrarian economy, land was the main means of production, and feudal property made it possible to exploit the direct producers-peasants and determined the social structure of society and its political structure. The feudal lords gave away most of their land to the peasants, who carried out independent small-scale farming on it with their own tools. labor by giving part of the product produced to landowners in the form of rent or tax. Rent for the farmer was the only way to receive income from his land property, and for the peasants it was a duty for the use of the land. Historically, it came in three forms: labor (corvee), produtovy (in-kind rent) and money.

The collection of payments for land on which peasants had worked for centuries, but did not have the right to freely dispose of it or the products of their labor, was accompanied by coercive measures (non-economic coercion). In Western Europe, the dependence of peasants was personal in nature - the peasant was considered attached to the lord, and not to the land. The attachment of peasants to the land existed in Eastern and some countries of Central Europe (for example, in Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic, and some regions of Northern Germany).

Commodity production (simple) and trade under feudalism are mainly associated with the development of cities. European cities are becoming centers of craft production and trade with XI century. The development of commodity-money relations and exchange between city and village developed the natural character of the economy.

The needs, mainly of the nobility, were increasingly satisfied through trade, but reproduction was still carried out on a subsistence basis.

In cities, in addition to artisans, there were other social groups: merchants, bankers, officials, and intelligentsia. During the period of the decomposition of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations, the formation of new classes took place - the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Feudal society was divided into classes, each of which had its own rights and responsibilities and performed certain functions. These are the clergy (praying), the nobility (warring), godparents and artisans who were part of the third estate (producing material goods).

Class rights and obligations existed in unity: the presence of rights implied obligations, and failure to fulfill the latter led to deprivation of rights. Thus, a vossal who ignored military service was deprived of rights to plots of land: those who enjoyed “market rights” had to comply with their obligations to the workshop or guild.

The classes also had their own special system of relations. In the clergy, it corresponded to the hierarchical structure of the Catholic Church. The military class was subject to vassalage, which bound the vassal and the lord through personal relations of service and obligatory patronage.

Corporate connections played a significant role in social relations. Medieval man obeyed the ethical and legal norms of the corporation and its traditions. Gradually, a special psychological type of a knight, clergyman, merchant, guild artisan, etc. emerged, that is, the mentality of a medieval person.

Such was feudalism, which manifested itself in different forms and at different times in different countries of the world.

Specifics of the formation of the Moscow state.

The Moscow state still remained an early feudal monarchy. Because of this, relations between the center and the localities were initially built on the basis of sovereignty - vassalage. However, over time, the situation gradually changed. The Moscow princes, like all others, divided their lands among their heirs. The latter received the usual inheritances and were formally independent in them. However, in fact, the eldest son, who acquired the “table” of the Grand Duke, retained the position of senior prince. From the second half XIV V. a procedure was introduced according to which the eldest heir received a larger share of the inheritance than the others. This gave him a decisive economic advantage. In addition, along with the grand-ducal “table” he necessarily received the entire Vladimir land.

The legal nature of the relationship between the great and appanage princes gradually changed. These relations were based on letters of immunity and treaties concluded in large numbers. Initially, such agreements provided for the service of an appanage prince to the Grand Duke for a reward. then she began to get involved with the ownership of vassals or fiefdoms. It was believed that appanage princes received their lands from the Grand Duke for their service. And already the beginning XV V. an order was established according to which the appanage princes were obliged to obey the Grand Duke simply by virtue of his position.

Grand Duke. The head of the Russian state was the Grand Duke, who had a wide range of rights. He issued laws, supervised government administration, and had judicial powers.

The real content of princely power changes over time towards greater completeness. These changes went in two directions - internal and external. Initially, the Grand Duke could exercise his legislative, administrative and judicial powers only within his own domain. Even Moscow was divided in financial, administrative and judicial relations between the brother princes. IN XIV - X centuries the grand dukes usually left it to their heirs as common property. With the fall of power and appanage princes, the Grand Duke became the true ruler of the entire territory of the state. Ivan III and Vasily III they did not hesitate to throw into prison their closest relatives - appanage princes who tried to contradict their will.

F. Engels considered the power of the head of a centralized state to be a progressive phenomenon, “a representative of order in disorder, a representative of the emerging nation as opposed to fragmentation into rebellious vassal states.” Thus, the centralization of the state was an internal source of strengthening the grand ducal power. The external source of its strengthening was the fall of the power of the Golden Horde. At the beginning, the Moscow grand princes were vassals of the Horde khans, from whose hands they received the right to the grand-ducal “table”. After the Battle of Kulikovo, this dependence became only formal, and after 1480 The Moscow princes became not only factually, but also legally independent, sovereign sovereigns. The new content of grand-ducal power was given new forms. Starting with Ivan III Moscow grand princes called themselves “sovereigns of all Rus'.” Ivan III and his successor tried to appropriate the royal title to themselves.

In order to strengthen international prestige, Ivan III married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus - the only heir to the no longer existing throne of Constantinople. Attempts were made to substantiate Ivan's claims ideologically III to autocracy. In addition to marriage ties with Sophia, Paleologus is trying to establish, of course, the mythical origin of the Russian princes from the Roman emperors. A theory of the origin of princely power was created.

Noble historians, starting with N.M. Karamzin, believed that from Ivan III Autocracy is established in Russia. This is true in the sense that Ivan III, who completed the liberation of Rus' from the Tatars, “kept” his princely table, independently of the Horde. However, talking about autocracy in the full sense of the word, i.e., about an unlimited monarchy in XV and even XVI V. Not yet. The power of the monarch was limited by other bodies of the early feudal state, primarily the Boyar Duma. Boyar Duma. An important body of the state was the Boyar Duma. It grew out of the council under the prince, which existed in the ancient Russian state.

The design of the Duma should be attributed (... XV V. The Boyar Duma differed from the previous council in its greater legal and organizational structure. It was a body that did not meet sporadically, but acted constantly. The Duma had a relatively stable composition. It included the so-called “Duma ranks” - introduced boyars and okolnichy. The competence of the Duma coincided with the powers of the Grand Duke, although this was not formally recorded anywhere. The Grand Duke was not legally obliged to take into account the opinion of the Duma, but in fact could not act arbitrarily, because any of his decisions was not implemented unless it was approved by the boyars. Through the Duma, the boyars carried out policies that were pleasing and beneficial to them. True, over time, the great princes increasingly subordinated the Boyar Duma to themselves, which is associated with the general process of centralization of power. This especially applies to the reigns of Ivan III and Vasily III. The significant role of the Boyar Duma in the system of state bodies and the dominance of large feudal lords in it are one of the characteristic features of the early feudal monarchy. Feudal congresses. They had the same character as during the times of Kievan Rus, but as centralization of the state strengthened, they gradually withered away.

The palace-patrimonial system of government continued to be an early feudal monarchy. The Moscow state also inherited from the previous period central government bodies, built according to the palace-patrimonial system. However, the expansion of the territory of the state and the complication of its activities come into conflict with the old forms of management, preparing for the gradual withering away of the palace-patrimonial system and the emergence of a new, administrative management. The transformation of the old system begins with its complication. It is divided into two parts. One is the administration of the palace, headed by a butler (dvorsky), who has numerous servants at his disposal. The butler was also in charge of the arable land of the princely peasants. The other part was formed by the so-called “paths”, providing for the special needs of the prince and his entourage. Their very names speak eloquently about the purpose of the paths: Sokolnichiy, Lovchiy, Konyushiy, Stolnichy, Chashnichy. To carry out their tasks, certain princely villages and entire areas were allocated to maintain the routes. The paths were not limited to collecting certain products and all kinds of benefits from designated places. They acted both as administrative and judicial bodies. Their leaders were called respectable boyars. Following the complication of the system of palace-patrimonial bodies, their competence and functions increased. From bodies that primarily served the personal needs of the prince, they increasingly turned into national institutions that performed important tasks in managing the entire state. Yes, the butler XV V. began to be, to a certain extent, in charge of issues related to land ownership of church and secular feudal lords, to carry out other duties in state administration, the previous nature of the temporary princely assignment was restored and turned into a permanent and fairly defined service. The increasing complexity of the functions of palace bodies required the creation of a large and ramified apparatus. The officials of the palace - clerks - specialized in a certain range of matters. The grand ducal treasury was separated from the palace service and became an independent department. A large palace office was created with an archive and other appendages.

All this prepared the transition to a new, command-based management system, which grew out of the previous one. This outgrowth began at the end XV V. But as a system, command management took shape only in the second half XVI V. At the same time, the term “order” itself was established. The first institutions of the order type were the Grand Palace, which grew out of the butler's department, and the State Prikaz. The Konyushenny Path turned into the Konyushenny Prikaz, which now not only served the personal needs of the prince, but was also associated with the development of the equestrian noble militia. At first XVI V. a Rank (Rank Order) was formed, which was in charge of accounting for service people, their ranks and positions. The development of the palace-patrimonial system into the order system was one of the indicators of the centralization of the Russian state, for the palace bodies, which had previously been in charge of essentially only the princely domain, now became institutions governing the entire huge Russian state.

Local authorities. The Russian state was divided into counties - the largest administrative-territorial units. Counties were divided into camps, camps into volosts. However, complete uniformity and clarity in the administrative-territorial division has not yet been developed. Along with the districts, in some places more lands were preserved. There were also categories - military districts, provincial judicial districts. At the head of individual administrative units were officials - representatives of the center. The districts were headed by governors, the volosts - by volostels. These officials were supported at the expense of the local population - they received “feed” from them, that is, they carried out in-kind monetary collections, collected judicial and other duties in their favor. Feeding, thus, was both a public service and a form of compensation for princely vassals for their military and other service. Feeders were obliged to manage the corresponding districts and volosts on their own, that is, to maintain their own administrative apparatus (tiuns, closers, etc.) and have their military detachments to ensure the internal and external functions of the feudal state. Sent from the center, they were not personally interested in the affairs of the districts or volosts they governed, especially since their appointment was usually relatively short-term - for a year or two. All the interests of the governors and volostels were focused primarily on personal enrichment through legal and illegal exactions from the local population. The feeding system was unable, in the conditions of the intensifying class struggle, to adequately suppress the resistance of the rebellious peasantry. Small patrimonial owners and landowners especially suffered from this, who were unable to independently protect themselves from “dashing people.”

The rising nobility was dissatisfied with the feeding system for another reason. He was not satisfied that income from local government went into the pockets of the boyars and that feeding provided the boyars with great political weight. Local authorities and administration did not extend their competence to the territory of the boyar estates. The princes and boyars, as before, retained immunity rights in their estates. They were not just landowners, but administrators and judges in their villages and villages.

City government bodies. City government in the Moscow state has changed compared to Kyiv times. Cities did not have self-government during this period. In appanage principalities, cities were governed on an equal basis with rural areas. With the annexation of appanage principalities to Moscow, the great princes, retaining all appanage lands usually with their former owners, always removed cities from the jurisdiction of the former appanage princes and directly extended their power to them. This was done based on the importance of cities not only as economic centers, but primarily for military reasons. Cities were fortresses. Possession of them ensured the great princes both retention of the former inheritance in their hands and defense from external enemies. Initially, the great princes ruled the cities in the same way as the previous appanage princes, that is, without separating them from their other lands. Governors and volosts, governing their district or volost, ruled to the same extent the cities located on their territory. Later, some special city government bodies appeared. Their emergence is associated with the development of cities primarily as fortresses. In the middle XV V. the position of town dweller appeared - a kind of military commandant of the city. He was obliged to monitor the condition of the city fortifications and the fulfillment of defense-related duties by the local population. Already in XV V. The towns were also used for other grand-ducal matters, in particular land matters.

The position of town dwellers was filled by local landowners, mainly nobles and boyar children. The town dwellers, who were initially rather insignificant figures in government, by the end XV V. began to play a serious role. First temporarily, and then more and more permanently, they were assigned broad powers in land, financial and other branches of management, not only within the city, but also in the adjacent county. In accordance with the expansion of functions, the names of these officials also changed. They begin to be called city officials and clerks. In charge of a number of military-economic and simple economic issues, city clerks were subordinate to the grand ducal treasurers. Sometimes two or more such clerks were appointed to one city. In the person of the city clerks, the nobles and boyar children received their own local government body, and the Grand Duke received reliable conductors of the policy of centralization.

The rise of Moscow.

The unification of Russian lands was caused by the need for protection from external enemies: the Golden Horde, Poland and Lithuania.

Moscow becomes the center of unification of Russian lands. According to legend, it was founded in 1147 year by Yuri Dolgoruky and is mentioned in the chronicle as “Moskov”. Moscow belonged to the Vladimir princes, and Daniil, the son of Alexander Nevsky, became the first prince of Moscow.

The exceptionally advantageous geographical position of Moscow made it the center of routes, both water and land. Moscow was located in the center of the Russian principalities, which closed it from external enemies, and became a kind of refuge for artisans and traders. Here are the objective economic and political prerequisites for the unification of Rus'.

The first “collector” of Russian lands should be considered Ivan Danilovich Kalita ( 1325 – 1340 ) - grandson of Alexander Nevsky. On this occasion, the chronicle says: “From then on, there was great silence throughout the Russian land for forty years and the Tatars stopped fighting the Russian land.” He maintained very close, friendly relations with the khan, often visited him, and generously presented gifts to the khan's wives and nobles. Having earned trust in the Horde, Ivan Kalita obtained from the khan the right to collect tribute and liquidate the Baskas.

Kalita's authority was also promoted by dynastic marriages. His daughters Maria, Feodosia, Evdokia were married to the Rostov, Belozersky and Yaroslavl princes, respectively. Under Kalita, Moscow became the ideological (spiritual) center of Rus'. The residence of the Russian Metropolitan was moved from Vladimir to Moscow. Peter, who founded the famous Assumption Cathedral, where he was buried after his death. Sons of Ivan Kalita Semyon Proud ( 1341-1353 ) and Ivan Krasny ( 1353-1359 ) further strengthened the Moscow principality, and according to the chronicler, “all the Russian princes were given arm’s length.”

A worthy successor to the policy of unifying Russian lands was Ivan Kalita’s grandson Dmitry Ivanovich. At the age of ten, Dmitry, sent by Metropolitan Alexy, took possession of the great reign of Vladimir.

Moscow's main rival at that time was Tver. Prince Mikhail of Tver concluded an alliance against Moscow with his son-in-law, Prince of Lithuania Olgerd, and tried to take Moscow three times ( 1368 ,1370 And 1372 ), but each time he was defeated at the impregnable walls of the Moscow Kremlin.

Then Mikhail found an ally in the Horde and received a label for a great reign. But this did not stop Dmitry. The war has begun. Mikhail was forced to sign a peace treaty with Moscow and recognize himself as the “younger brother” of the Moscow prince. Next, Dmitry peacefully settled the conflict with the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich, pacified Novgorod and forced him to pay a “payback” (indemnity) in the amount of 8,000 rubles.

Under Dmitry, Rus' for the first time dared to openly fight the Horde. Russian warriors in 1378 year they defeated the Mongol-Tatars on the Vozha River. The next battle took place on the Kulikovo field 8 September 1380 of the year. Khan Mamai gathered a huge army, mobilized not only in the Horde, but also in the subject lands of the Volga region and the North Caucasus. The Lithuanian prince Jagiello and the Ryazan ruler Oleg, a rival of the Moscow prince, promised their help to the khan. The Monk Sergius gave Dmitry a blessing for the battle and allocated two of his heroes to help the Grand Duke.

Mamaev's army was defeated. Retreating, it was finally defeated by another Golden Horde khan, Takhtamysh. IN 1382 year he appeared at the walls of Moscow. The city recognized itself as a tributary of the Tatars and handed over its son Vasily to the khan as a hostage.

The Battle of Kulikovo was extremely important. It showed the ability of the Russian people to get rid of the yoke of the Golden Horde, dispelled the myth of the invincibility of the Horde, and gave impetus to nationwide unification under the rule of the Moscow Prince.

After the death of Vasily Dmitrievich, his brother, Prince Yuri of Galitsky, declared his rights to the Moscow throne. The struggle of Yuri and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka for the great reign began, which lasted almost twenty years. The internecine war was very brutal. For example, Vasily Kosoy, who was captured by Vasily Vasilyevich, was blinded by Dmitry Shemyaka. Moscow passed from hand to hand. After defeating Shemyaka in 1446 year, Vasily Vasilyevich the Dark annexed many lands of northeastern Rus' to the Principality of Moscow, strengthened his influence on Veliky Novgorod and the Principality of Lithuania, under him many Tatar warriors went into the service of the Moscow prince, which caused discontent among Muscovites.

Under Vasily the Dark, the Russian Orthodox Church refused to recognize the decisions of the Council of Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Florence and the Union of 5 July 1439 year about the union of two churches - Orthodox and Catholic and began to elect patriarchs from among Russian clergy.

Thus, feudal wars in Rus' in the second quarter XV centuries led to the strengthening of Moscow, the establishment of a new order of transfer of power (from father to son), the further expansion of the possessions of the Moscow Prince and the creation of ideological and political prerequisites for the unification of all Russian principalities. This process is actively promoted by the church, advocating strong, centralized power.

Literature:

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Karamzin N.M. “History of the Russian State” - // Collected works - T.V. - Book 2. - Petersburg, 1843.

Platonov S.F. “Textbook of Russian History.” - M. 1992.

Gumilev L.N. “From Rus' to Russia.” - M. 1992.

“History of Russia.” - M. 1993 (Published by the Russian Economic Academy named after G.V. Plekhanov).

Orgish V.P. “Ancient Rus'. Formation of the Kyiv State and the Introduction of Christianity.”

Korolyuk V. D. “Slavs and Oriental Romances in the Early Middle Ages.” M. Science 1985

Nasonov A.N. "Russian land and the formation of the territory of the ancient Russian state."

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