EntranceWhat does this sign mean in English? Full stop, period, comma or English punctuation in practice
The comma in the English language is the most common and, therefore, the most difficult to write. It is in cases with the use of a comma that there are the greatest number of different difficulties and questions, which is often determined by the opinion of the author, personal emotional perception and interpretation of a particular case and situation described in the text. A comma in English, unlike Russian, is not always placed to separate it from the main clause, while in Russian subordinate clauses are always separated by a comma.
When a comma is not used
Commas are not separated in English:
- subordinate subject / predicate / object:
It is important that she should be there on Wednesday.It's important that she be there on Wednesday.
My rule is that you should not drink.My condition is that you don't drink.
I insist that you call him soon.We insist that you call him quickly.
- subordinate clauses, where there is a circumstance when they come after the main clause:
She told her all when she went downstairs.She told her everything as she walked down the stairs.
I had to end my work earlier to aid mother.I had to finish work early to help my mother.
The police may take your car if you park it there.The police may confiscate your car if you park there.
The most typical situations of using a comma
The most typical situations of using a comma.
- The comma in English is always used when addressing.
Waiteress, I would like a menu, please.Waitress, bring menu, Please.
Father, there is no one here.Father, there is no one here.
- The comma in English is used to separate individual items of enumeration:
Purple, lily, red flowers filled several vases.The vases were filled with purple, lilac, and red flowers.
Notrose, went around the table, leaned down and took the little armchair.He stood up, walked around the table, bent down and took a small chair.
She laughs, drinks and speaks too much. He laughs, drinks and talks too much.
It should be remembered that in this case a comma before and can be used, but not necessarily.
- Used (but not necessarily) between 2 main clauses connected by conjunctions and / as / but / and others. The comma is used especially often in English when the first sentence is long:
He will affirm it, and I will help him with his problems. him with his problems.
They stopped to look at each other, and she asked about this hard day.They stopped to look at each other and she asked about this difficult day.
The crowd was stupefied, as the clown tried to entertain with his jokes.The crowd was mesmerized as the clown tried to entertain with his jokes.
- Used after circumstances in subordinate clauses coming before the main clause:
When she went downstairs, she told him that Selena had already come.When she went downstairs, she told him that Selena had already arrived.
To support my sister, he had to leave Moscow.To help my sister, he had to leave Moscow.
Having called Sara, she quickly went to the station.After calling Sarah, she quickly drove to the station.
When in doubt, you should come to see me.When in doubt, come to me.
If you park the car there, the police will seize it.If you park your car there, the police will confiscate it.
- Used after any part of a sentence where there is additional information about the subject:
The waiter, who was old, told that he knew me. .
Subtleties of use
The strict principle of the English language is that the use of a comma between the subject (several subjects) and the predicate is prohibited. This case represents one of the few situations where a comma can be used, but keep in mind that only additional information is underlined by a comma, and on both sides:
The girl who was so pretty, assured that he saw me. / The girl, who was so pretty assuared that he saw me. — Both sentences are incorrect. No second comma .
The girl, who was so pretty, assured that he saw me - Right.
The man, who aided me that night, told that he recognized me.The man who helped me that night said he recognized me. — Incorrect, there is no additional information about the subject here, but only an explanation, no commas are required.
Right :
The man who aided me that night told that he recognized me.
The strike at the nuclear plant, which lasted theree days, is already over. — D Additional data is separated by commas, as there is additional information. Strike on nuclear factory, lasted three day, finished.
The woman with whom Tom was in love left him after five years. - P clarification, no commas required . Woman, V which Volume was in love, left his later five years.
The manson, which was empty for three years, has been sold out.The mansion, which had been empty for three years, was sold.
The girl whom I desired to meet was away on vacations.The girl I wanted to meet went on vacation.
Apostrophe
An apostrophe, or in common parlance a comma (in English it is placed at the top) goes together with the letter s in all cases of use of the possessive case, except for the plural of objects and things, it is formed according to the standard rule (then the apostrophe goes without s):
father's look;
the princess's ring;
men's gloves (man-men);
students" tasks.
Note:
The comma in English is on top when forming the possessive case of proper names ending with a letter -s, you can use both options:
King Charles's wife/ King Charles' wife.
Used in abbreviated forms to indicate missing letters or numbers:
I"m - I am;
he "s - he is / has;
"86 - 1986.
The apostrophe is placed together with the letter -s when forming the plural of letters, numbers or abbreviations (with numbers and capital letters the apostrophe can be omitted):
In the 1970's /the 1970s;
VIP's / VIPs;
He could not distinguish his L's. He did not clearly pronounce the letter L.
Separation upon handling
The comma in English when addressed is used in the English dialect (in the American dialect a colon is used) when preparing business correspondence, as well as in simple everyday speech.
Dear Mr. Frendick, We have received your letter...
Used in official or business correspondence after the last phrases of the greeting, separating it from the surname and position (between which there is no punctuation):
Yours faithfully, / Yours sincerely, Ranason-.Ltd.A. Simpson Manager.
A comma is used in addresses on an envelope or in the upper zone of a letter (above the text), emphasizing the addressee's last name / organization name / address / (a comma is not required between house numbers and street names):
Stephen P. Denny, 5678 Starling Avenue, Harlem, L.A. 10857.
Also used to separate explanatory words from direct speech if there is no other punctuation:
"How were you?" Nick asked. "He was ok," she replied. "Do you still hurt?" he asked. "No", she said, "not much." He said, "I am not aware."
Comma for introductory phrases and other words
There is no comma before because in English.
He can't get into the house because she had lost the keys.
Because he was strange, I broke up with him.Because he was strange, I broke up with him.
Comma in English after so, well, however, probably, certainly, naturally)
In fact, I had a little chance to do it.
Probably, Tom would come to Paris at 8 pm.
In the presence of those having a participle or gerund:
Heartbroken, he has gone to his cottage.Heartbroken, she went to the cottage.
Used before the word for , if it comes as a conjunction (secondary clauses joined by this conjunction extremely rarely go ahead of the main one):
I begged her to be there, for I had some information to tell her.I asked her to be there because I needed to tell her some information.
I Could tell about this woman, for I had seen him before.I could talk about this woman because I have seen her before.
Features of use
This is just a fraction of the rules that need to be used in everyday life. And this has always helped to be on top when communicating with educated people and, without hesitation, to make contact and discuss topics on forums.
In the English language, or more precisely, in the American dialect used in the United States, everything is much simpler. Americans do not pay as much attention to this grammatical issue as, for example, in Russian grammar.
The fact is that two different teachers can tell you different rules about the correct use of a comma in an English sentence, and both may be right. And all because in America there is no strict, organized system for using commas. But still, there are general rules by adhering to which a person can gain basic knowledge about English punctuation.
Conclusion
In standard English, the comma is a multifunctional punctuation mark, and its modern use is an example of not only transformations in the use of punctuation, but also how the entire target concept of what counts as a normative sentence in English is being modified. Until the very end of the 19th century, authors and writers used a semicolon where a single comma is now usually used, and a comma in cases where no punctuation is now required at all. Throughout the 20th century, dramatic changes have occurred in the punctuation rules of modern English.
Hello friends! I discovered one interesting fact - punctuation in the English language is a topic that does not receive due attention. Often, students of English are so caught up in the goal of “speaking” this very language that they forget about such supposedly “not the most important” nuance as English punctuation. Naturally, there is some truth in this. This is really not an initially necessary topic to study. However, the need to know it arises with the first letter to your, for example, foreign-language friend. This letter, no matter how grammatically correct it is composed, in the absence of proper “formatization”, will completely distort the overall “composition”. And in general, any written work needs the correct placement of punctuation marks. Punctuation marks create very important strokes, without which the “picture of the text” would lose its clear outlines.
The rules of punctuation in the English language are simple, but necessary. So, today we will study the rules of punctuation in the English language.
Punctuation marks in English:
Rules for placing commas in simple sentences
How to place commas correctly in English - If a sentence contains an enumeration, that is, a number of homogeneous members, they are separated by commas. Usually there is a conjunction “and” before the final homogeneous member, which is also preceded by a comma if there are three or more members in total in the sentence.
- I want to buy milk, chocolate cake, and brad. - I want to buy milk, chocolate cake and bread
However, if the so-called final homogeneous term consists of several words, then the comma is omitted
- I want to pass my exams, to travel and to find common language with my relatives. — I want to pass exams, travel and find a “common” language with my loved ones
- In English, as in Russian, introductory words need to be highlighted.
- Unfortunatly, the doctor was late. - Unfortunately the doctor was late
- His brother, I’ve forgotten to mention, works in the Ministry of Education. — His brother, I forgot to mention, works at the Ministry of Education
- Again, as in Russian, explanatory words are highlighted.
- Ion Creanga, the great Moldavian writer, died on December 31. — Ion Creangă, the great Moldovan writer, died on December 31
- The independent participial phrase is also separated by commas.
- The director being absent, the resolution of the problem was postponed. — Since the director was not there, the solution to the problem was postponed
- After words that introduce direct speech.
- She said, "I will write an essay." — She said, "I'll write an essay."
- Address is emphasized in English, as in many other languages.
- — Kate, I’m waiting for you. — Kate, I'm waiting for you
- After contacting by letter.
- Dear Tom, I want to tell… — Dear Tom, I want to tell you...
Please note: in Russian, an exclamation mark often follows an address in a letter:
- Dear Andrey! I want to tell you...
In English, the address is always separated by a comma.
- At the end of the letter, after words like “with respect”, “with love”.
- Yours faithfully, Rotari Olga — Best regards, Rotar Olga
- When designating dates, the date and year are separated by a comma.
- This decision was taken on the 13th October, 1993. — This decision was made on October 13, 1993
- Parts of the address such as the name of the street, city, postal area are separated by commas
Rules for using commas in compound sentences
- Several simple sentences combined into one compound sentence without any conjunctions are separated by commas.
- A light breeze was blowing, the sun was shining brightly, a wonderful day began. — A light breeze was blowing, the sun was shining, a wonderful day had begun
- Simple sentences joined using coordinating conjunctions other than and (and), or (or), require the use of a punctuation mark.
- I asked her for help, but she didn’t want doing any tries to help. — I asked her for help, but she didn't want to make any attempt to help.
Complex sentence and missing comma
The rules of the Russian language regarding the punctuation of complex sentences differ in many ways from those in English. If in Russian the “law” states that the main clause is separated from the subordinate comma, then the rules of English often reject the need to use it.
- Subject, additional and predicate clauses are not separated by punctuation.
- How this happened is clear to me. — It's clear to me how it happened
- Individualizing and classifying attributive clauses are not separated by a comma.
- I saw the documents which were lying on that table. — I saw the documents that were lying on that table
However, descriptive ones, which provide some new details about an already known object or subject, stand out.
- They went to the river, which was stormy last week. - They went to the river, which had been very wild for the past week.
- We spoke with the director, who was very tired because of the problems existing in the company. — We spoke with the director, who was very tired due to problems in the company
- If the adverbial clause comes before the main clause, only then does it stand out.
- If you decide to leave the house, close the windows and door. — If you decide to leave the house, close the windows and door
Close the windows and door if you decide to leave the house
Use of other punctuation marks in English
Where should the colon be placed?
Apostrophe in English
A punctuation mark such as an apostrophe indicates an abbreviation of one or more letters in the following cases
- When shortening several words
- So as = so's
- Don't = don't
- When abbreviating one word
- Them = ‘em
- Today = t'day
- In date abbreviations
- Summer of 1998 = summer of "98
- When forming the possessive case
- Mother's pen - mother's pen
- Parents" car - parents' car
The need to use a dash
The dash is more often used in informal texts. The rules of formal writing are not so favorable to this punctuation mark.
- An unexpected clarification in the middle of a sentence
- Nick - he is Kate’s brother - was very glad to see his old friend. - Nick (Kat's brother) was very happy to see her old friends
- Additional thought in a sentence
- He will be here by Friday - at least, he promised to be. — He'll be here by Friday, or so he promised.
- An unfinished thought in English is also indicated in writing by a dash, which is completely alien to Russian speakers, since the ellipsis plays this role.
- If you want to understand me - If you want to understand me...
When we need a question mark
We need a question mark in interrogative sentences accordingly.
- Why did she cry? — Why was she crying?
But do not forget that questions translated into indirect ones do not need a question mark.
- He asked where his portfolio was. — He asked where his briefcase was
Rare need for a semicolon
- Place a semicolon between sentences that are grammatically separated
- The house needs renovation; the shed needs painting. — The house needs renovation; the barn needs painting
- Complex sentences which, due to their grammatical complexity, cannot be separated by a comma
Using an exclamation point
The rules for using an exclamation mark in English are no different from the rules for using this punctuation mark in Russian.
- Orders
- Don't answer! - Do not answer!
- Greetings
- Hi! — Hello!
- Glad to see you! — I'm glad to see you!
- Sentences accompanied by strong emotions (joy, admiration, annoyance)
- What a beautiful dress! — What a beautiful dress!
Hyphen - connector
A hyphen (dash) is a punctuation mark used to connect parts of compound words.
- To check-out - check, enter
- Reading-room - reading room
The final punctuation mark is a period
- There is a period at the end of declarative sentences.
- I can make you happy. — I can make you happy
- Abbreviations are followed by a period.
For example, this Latinism: e.g. (exempli gratia) - “for example,” which you can often find in English.
Rules for hyphenation of English words
The rules for word hyphenation also apply to the topic we are studying today - punctuation in English. Among the most basic rules you need to follow are the following.
I really love the expression “author’s punctuation.” After all, this means that you can stick on punctuation marks in any type and quantity, and no one will make a comment. It’s just a pity that teachers don’t want to understand this and mercilessly draw a swan when you miss a couple of commas, a colon, a dash and other squiggles in a small story.
Fortunately, the British are less pretentious people. They have a looser attitude towards punctuation, so English teachers usually don't focus much on punctuation. You can write a life-long sentence without adding a single character. True, it will still have to be completed. Either a period, or an exclamation/question mark, or an ellipsis. There was a story going around among our teachers that if, while taking the exam for the Faculty of Philology, an applicant writes an interrogative English sentence and forgets to put this humpbacked “?” at the end, then the teacher will immediately put “fail” and ask him to leave in English.
So that no one sends us anywhere without saying goodbye, let’s get a little familiar with the capricious squiggles.
.
- full stop/period (dot)
,
- comma (comma)
?
- note of interrogation/question mark (question mark)
!
- note of exclamation/exclamation mark (exclamation mark)
-
hyphen (hyphen)
-
dash
;
semicolon (semicolon)
:
- colon (colon)
…
- dots (ellipsis)
‘
- apostrophe (apostrophe)
, ()
- brackets/parenthesis (square, round brackets)
“ “
- inverted commas/quotation marks ( quotes)
.
- dot (dot, which is used in Internet addresses, email addresses and for abbreviations)
POINT WHICH IS “FULL STOP”
It is logical that, as in Russian, it completes a declarative sentence:
My
name
is
Ivan
.
e
.
g
.
(For example), Mr
.
POINT WHICHDOT
I will never forget my “shame” when a Western partner called and dictated his email address to me over the phone. Instead of a dot before the uk extension, I courageously inserted the word “dot” and sent the address in this form to my boss. Lucky that he had a sense of humor. And I have since remembered: mike @tralala .uk reads as “m, i, k, e, at, t, r, a, l, a, l, a, dot, u, k.”
In addition, in English, a period is used to shorten words:
e
.
g
.
(For example), Mr
.
U.S.A. (although it is possible and simple Mr or USA
)
.
SEALED, who is “in a coma”
Here, again, everything is the same as ours. Only even if you don’t put a comma, no one will be offended.
. when transferring:
I have a PC, TV, i-phone and 2 books
.
. after introductory words and constructions:
Anyway
,
you
are
wrong
!
To be better, you must study better.
(Be that as it may, you are wrong! To be better, you need to study better)
. after participial phrases:
The clock having showed 5, she ran out from his flat.
(As the clock struck 5, she ran away from his apartment)
. after also, if this word is used for emphasis:
Also, you mustn’t tell me such things! (
Oh, and also: you shouldn’t say things like that to me!)
. in complex sentences, as well as in those sentences where you need to make a semantic pause:
I
decided
to
be
honest
with
you
,
but
today
I
don
’
t
think
so
(Yesterday I decided to be honest with you, but today I don’t think so anymore).
UNLIKE RUSSIAN English comma is NOT PUT:
. in the address(the regular one, not the one with the dog):
221
B
Baker
Street
London
. in a complex sentence between the subject and the predicate, if this information is not basic, but additional:
The
dog
which
was
following
me
all
day
long
turned
to
be
our
aunt
’
s
pet
(It turned out that the dog that had been following me all day was our aunt’s favorite).
QUESTION AND EXCLAMATION MARKS
Well, here, I think, there’s not even anything to chew on: interrogative - for questions, exclamation - for exclamations.
Don
’
t
you
know
that
?
Didn't you know?
That's striking! Amazing!
COLON, or COLUMN
Those who are okay with Russian will not be surprised: in English, the colon is used in the same cases. That is, when you need to explain something in more detail or list it. But there is also some difference: if a full sentence comes after a colon, then it must be written with a capital letter.
I’ve got 3 friends: Ann, Mary, Inna.
(I have three girlfriends: Anya, Masha, Inna).
I’m furious: Your cat has broken my favorite vase
!
(I'm furious: your cat broke my favorite vase!)
Semicolon or semicolon
You will find such a complex sign only in official letters, literary texts and articles in serious newspapers/magazines. Semicolons are needed in long, complex sentences that are already full of all sorts of other characters.
A dash that you can't give so easily
Most often it is used in the same way as in Russian: for example, you suddenly need to explain something right in the middle of a sentence, or list it with a generalizing word.
Last summer I was absolutely alone - you know, my boyfriend was in Paris - and that annoyed me so much!
(Last summer I was completely alone - you know, my boyfriend was in Paris - and it irritated me so much!)
There is also a very original use of the English dash... instead of an ellipsis!
My mother has never-(My mother never...)
Hyphen that starts with the letter "x"
Many people in Russian confuse a hyphen with a dash. In fact, they even look different. The hyphen is short, it is needed only to connect complex words ( rock -n -roll). A dash is long and is used as a punctuation mark in a sentence.
An apostrophe, which is an apostrophe and nothing else, because it appeared recently in the Russian language
This is the same little mark that we go through in grammar. Helps:
. form the possessive case ( Mary
’
s
book- Masha's book)
. successfully replace missing letters (I 'm fine = I am fine)
. form the plural for years (1960's - sixties), abbreviations (VIP's - VIPs).
Quotation marks and ellipsis
Both are traditional. Those. quotation marks - to indicate direct speech, and ellipsis...
It seems like nothing was missed. Although, of course, there are many nuances in the use of punctuation marks, which are more important for philologists than for those who study English for communication and career growth. However, no one
It seems like nothing was missed. Although, of course, there are many nuances in the use of punctuation marks, which are more important for philologists than for those who study English for communication and career growth. However, no one forbids sharing these nuances with those who suffer: that’s why there are comments on the article.
Anastasia Petrova, especially for
English punctuation marks (or Stops) show the grammatical relationships between words, phrases, phrases, and clauses; In addition, with their help you can emphasize certain words and or show intonation.
General designations
Let's look at how punctuation is translated in English and look at the general rules of use, how a dash in English differs from a hyphen and when to use a semicolon.
|
Full stop/period/dot (dot) |
A period marks the end of a sentence. We went to the Zoo. |
|
|
Comma (comma) |
Commas in English indicate a pause in a statement and also separate address. Henry, can you answer my question? Separate two or more adjectives: She is attentive, kind listener. Listings: Buy cheese, bread, corn and fish. The names of the city are from the names of the states: I’m from San Diego, California. Independent offers: We still didn’t buy the presents, and his B-day is tomorrow. Direct speech: He said, “I will go.” |
|
|
Question Mark |
Placed at the end of a sentence and means the question: Was it your neighbor? |
|
|
Exclamation Point (exclamation point) |
Ends a sentence and serves to indicate excitement or expressiveness of a statement: Look at this price! |
|
|
Colon (colon) |
A colon in English is used to enter a list, to enumerate something: In the next year I would like to get a new car, a cell phone and a tablet. |
|
|
Semicolon (semicolon) |
Separates two related but independent sentences: I asked him to read this book, the information would be useful for him. Separates parts of a sentence that are already separated by commas: I will buy these plates for my mom, because she likes to have new dishes; a fishing rod for my dad, because he wanted a new one for a while; and a ball for my younger brother, because he eats too much these days. |
|
|
Hyphen (hyphen) |
The hyphen is used in compound words: check-in, self-respect, brother-in-law. With numbers written in words: forty-five, sixty-seven, nighty-eight. |
|
|
The dash in English serves to create a short pause or introductory phrase: She mentioned – with a cunning smile on her face I might add – that she is going to tell me something important. |
||
|
Quotation |
Quotation marks in English enclose a direct quotation: “Do not squander time. That is stuff life is made of.” |
|
|
Parentheses (parentheses) |
Serves to clarify: Can you buy me an apple juice (not that I don`t like apple, which you brought last time). |
|
|
Apostrophe (apostrophe) |
The apostrophe is used to express possessive forms. Andrew`s car, my brother`s Birthday. To create abbreviated forms. Don’t, wouldn’t, doesn’t, we’re, he’s. When writing dates - 1980's, 90's. |
See how a comma in English can change the meaning of a sentence and change the reader's opinion of the author.
English Punctuation
Stops in various types of sentences
The use of punctuation marks often depends on the structure of the sentence (simple, complex, complex), the function of the word or phrase in the sentence, the way parts of the complex sentence are joined, and the types of complex sentences. Next, let's look at what punctuation marks are often used in different types of sentences.
Simple sentence
Compound sentence
- Most often, you can find a semicolon between complex sentences.
Jay looked at his watch; he was already late. – Jay looked at his watch; he was already late.
- When the second sentence explains the first, a dash or colon is used.
My sister advised me to buy this dress – the color is splendid and the material is very soft. — My sister advised me to buy this dress - the color is luxurious and the fabric is very soft
- A comma is used when the connection between sentences is very close.
His eyes were on the door, his hands trembled. “His gaze was directed at the door, his hands were shaking.
- If independent clauses are joined by a conjunction and, then there may be a comma between them (if there is a close connection between the sentences) or a semicolon (if they are more distant from each other in meaning).
He was thinking about her – and then he dropped her out of his mind. “He thought about her, but then threw her out of his head.
- If there are conjunctions neither, nor between sentences, then a semicolon is used.
He didn't laugh; nor did he say something. “He didn’t laugh, but he didn’t say anything either.
- If a conjunction is used or, then sentences are most often separated by a comma, less often by a dash.
She was sad – or did it only seem to me? – Was she sad - or was it just my imagination?
- A comma or semicolon is used with the conjunctions but and while.
Tom was lazy, while Jack was very hardworking. – Tom was lazy, while Jack was very hardworking.
- If sentences are connected yet, whereas, still, a semicolon is usually used.
This book is very interesting; whereas that book is very boring. – This book is very interesting, while that book is boring.
- Direct speech (quote) in a sentence is separated by a comma or colon and placed in quotation marks.
She asked me: “What are you going to do after graduation?” “She asked me: “What are you going to do after graduation?”
Quote in English
Complex sentences
These types of sentences include those in which simple sentences depend on each other; you can ask a question from one part to another. Basically, in these types of sentences, a comma is used to separate the main clause from the subordinate clause, but even then not always. A comma is placed in a non-union connection, when the main clause is too long, the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, etc.
What he had heard earlier, he decided to tell everyone. – What he heard earlier, he decided to tell everyone.
As can be seen from all the examples, commas are used most often in English.
Review the basic rules of punctuation in English by watching the video lesson.
As in Russian, punctuation marks in English used to separate, group, define words and sentence elements. They are used to convey pauses, intonations, etc. in written speech.
Punctuation in English
| Image on letter | English name | Russian name |
| , | Comma | |
| ; | Semicolon | |
| : | Colon | |
| . | Full stop (BrE) Period (AmE) |
|
| ! | Exclamation mark | |
| ? | Question mark | |
| – | Dash | |
| () | Parentheses | |
| Square brackets | ||
| “ ” or ‘ ’ | Quotation marks | |
| ’ | Apostrophe | |
| - | Hyphen | |
| / | Slash (= forward slash, stroke, oblique), most often called slash |
Comma
Usage:
1. To set the structure of a sentence and to enter additional information about something:
This novel, a best seller, has no literary merit.
This novel, a bestseller, has no literary value.
2. To separate auxiliary sentences connected by conjunctions in a complex sentence:
The sky was clear and the weather was fine at Philadelphia, and the pilot requested permission to land there.
Philadelphia had clear skies and favorable weather, and the pilot asked permission to land.
However, if the sentence is short, the comma may be omitted:
The sky was clear and the pilot landed.
The sky was clear and the pilot landed.
3. When listing homogeneous members of a sentence:
The closet contains worn clothes, old shoes, and dirty hats.
The closet contains used clothes, old shoes, and dirty hats.
4. After a long introductory clause or clause:
Living for centuries, redwoods often reach a height of three hundred feet.
Redwood trees, which sometimes take centuries to grow, often reach a height of three hundred pounds.
5. To separate non-restrictive phrases, sentences or phrases (those that do not provide description):
Oil, which is lighter than water, rises to the surface.
Oil, being lighter than water, rises to the surface.
6. Together with modifiers, connecting adverbs, and other sentence elements that violate the typical word order in a sentence:
Only a very few poets, unfortunately, earned their living by writing.
Only a few poets, unfortunately, earned their living by writing.
Her exams, I believe, will be successful.
It seems to me that she will pass the exams successfully.
He arrived late, however, he didn't say an excuse.
He was late, but, however, did not apologize.
7. To separate narration from direct speech:
Mary said, "I have done it ahead of time."
Mary said, "I did it in advance."
8. To separate the “tail” in relevant questions (so-called questions with “tails”):
Haven't learned it, have you?
You didn't learn that, did you?
9. To divide thousands, millions, etc. in numbers:
10. In titles, academic degrees, positions, dates, places, addresses, etc.:
David Moors, M.A., Ph. D., came to the reception.
David Moores, Doctor of Humane Letters, came to the reception.
11. With non-exclamatory interjections, words yes And no in direct speech, and after a greeting in a personal letter:
Well, I don't think that you are correct this time.
Well, I think you're wrong this time.
No, she quite disagreed with my suggestion.
No, she did not agree with my proposal at all.
Dear John, it has been some time since I have written…
Dear John, It's been a while since I last wrote...
Semicolon
Usage:
1. To connect main sentences not connected by a conjunction:
Some people can write well; others can't.
Some can write well and some can't.
2. To connect main clauses connected by connecting adverbs (such as: however- however; furthermore- edge of that, moreover; consequently- hence; and etc.):
Speeding is illegal; Furthermore it is very dangerous.
Speeding is against the law; Moreover, it is very dangerous.
3. To connect sentences that, in turn, already contain commas, even if such sentences are connected by conjunctions:
She lives in a small cottage in Cooma, miles from the nearest town; The cottage is without gas, running water or electricity.
She lives in a small house in the city of Kuma, many miles from other cities; There is no gas, water or electricity in her house.
Colon
Usage:
1. Before starting a quotation, statement, or before listing homogeneous members of a sentence in formal speech:
Three countries were represented: England, France and Italy.
Three countries were represented: England, France and Italy.
He began his speech: "Ladies and Gentlemen..."
He began his speech: “Ladies and Gentlemen...”.
2. Between two independent clauses, if the second explains or continues the first:
Music is more than something mechanical: it is an expression of deep feeling and ethical values.
Music is not just mechanical sounds: it is an expression of deep feelings and moral values.
3. Before formal applications (including those introduced by words namely- namely, that is; that is- that is):
Our conduct, the dean said, would have one result: dismissal.
Our behavior, as the dean said, will lead to one thing: expulsion.
He gave us only one warning: namely, that we should not demonstrate again.
He gave us only one warning, and that was that we should not do this again.
Dot
Usage:
1. To complete a sentence (not exclamatory or interrogative):
She didn't come as she had promised.
She didn't come as she promised.
2. After most abbreviations and abbreviations:
Mr. - Mister, Dr. - Doctor, Ave. – Avenue, Street, B.C. – BC, etc.
Exclamation mark
Usage:
After a word, phrase or sentence to express an emotional tone:
What a nice day!
What a good day!
"Help! Help!", she cried loudly.
"Help! Help!" - she shouted.
Question mark
Usage:
1. At the end of a direct question (see indirect speech):
Do you understand what I say?
Do you understand what I'm saying?
It is good for you, isn't it?
Isn't that good for you?
2. To express uncertainty in what is written:
Pythagoras, who died in 497 B.C. (?), was a great mathematician.
Pythagoras was a great mathematician, he died in 497 (?) BC.
Dash
Usage:
1. To express the interruption of something, to highlight, underline something, and to summarize something:
He replied, "I will consider the – No, I won"t either."
He replied: "I'll think about... No, not either."
Attic fans, window fans, air conditioners – nothing would counteract the fierce humidity of that summer.
There were fans everywhere: in the attic, near the windows, air conditioners were running - but nothing could help with the sultry heat that summer.
2. To enter supporting information in a sentence:
There are many doctors – indeed, some surgeons – who have never witnessed a heart transplant.
There are many doctors - or more accurately, surgeons - who have never seen a heart transplant themselves.
3. To set the duration in time or distance:
1945 – 1998.
1945 – 1998.
Southampton - New York.
Southampton - New York.
Round brackets
Usage
To enter a comment or explanation related to something described in the sentence, as well as to enter numbers, years, etc.:
The oil company refused to buy the land (1) because the owner had no clear title to the property and (2) because it was too far from the company's other wells.
The oil company refused to buy the land because: 1 - the owner did not have a specific name for his property, 2 - the land was too far from the company's other wells.
He is hoping (as we all are) that this time he will succeed.
He hopes (like us) that this time he will succeed.
He was vice chairman of that company (1992 – 1995).
He was deputy chairman of this company (1992 – 1995).
Square brackets
Usage:
To enter interpolations, remarks, comments, when referring to something, quoting something:
I have read some famous literature works, such as: Don Quixote, and Ivanhoe.
I read some famous literary works such as: Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes and Ivanhoe by Walter Scott.
Quotes
Usage:
1. To convey direct quotes and direct speech:
He said: "I am leaving tomorrow morning."
He said, "I'm leaving tomorrow morning."
2. In the titles of essays, articles, stories, stories, poems, etc.:
"The secret life of Walter Mitty" is his favorite story.
"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty" is his favorite story.
3. To enter words or expressions said by someone else, or used with a slightly different meaning:
He called him "emperor" but he was really just a director.
He called him "emperor", but actually he was just a director.
Apostrophe
Usage:
1. To express the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns:
This is Mary's bag.
This is Mary's bag.
To make up one's mind is not easy sometimes.
Sometimes it is not easy to decide on something.
2. In abbreviations:
isn't, didn't, etc.
Hyphen
Usage:
1. After a prefix in some cases (when the prefix is not part of the word, when you need to emphasize the prefix, etc.):
Co-ordination (= coordination) - coordination
Ex-directory - former directorate
Post-Renaissance - post-renaissance, etc.
2. In complex numbers (from twenty-one to ninety-nine):
Twenty-four (= twenty four) – twenty-four
fifty-seven (fifty seven) – fifty-seven
eighty-eight (eighty eight) – eighty-eight, etc.
3. In complex words in some cases:
Form-word – auxiliary word
body-building (bodybuilding) - bodybuilding
pocket-book (pocketbook) - pocket book, etc.
4. Between elements of the definition in a sentence in order to avoid ambiguity:
He is a small-businessman.
He is a small businessman.
She has gray-green eyes.
She has grey-green eyes.
He looked across her with a don"t-ask-me expression.
He looked at her with an expression that spoke of his reluctance to answer any questions.
Slash
Usage:
1. In the meaning " or":
Dear Sir/Madam (= Sir or Madam).
Dear Sir/Madam.
Mary will eat cake and/or fruit.
Mary will eat cake and/or fruit.
2. In fractions:
1/2, 2/3, 9/10, etc.
3. In the meaning of quantity, rate, speed (synonymous with the word per):
The speed limit is 100 km/h.
The speed limit is 100 km/h.
The eggs cost $3/dozen.
Eggs cost three dollars a dozen.
4. In some abbreviations.