Movement of goods and services in the global economy. Current state of world trade Regulation of international trade

The set of international trade development indicators can be divided into seven groups:

1. volumetric (absolute) indicators,

2. resulting,

3. structural,

4. intensity,

5. efficiency,

6. speakers

7. comparisons

1. Volumetric (absolute) indicators

Export– the value or physical volume of exported goods, works, services, results of intellectual property from the customs territory of the state abroad.

The fact of export is the moment of crossing the customs border.

The UN Statistical Commission understands export as the export of goods from the state:

1) produced, grown or mined in the country;

2) previously exported from abroad and processed in the customs territory or under customs control;

3) re-export – export of goods:

Previously exported, but not processed;

From the territory of free zones;

From assigned warehouses.

Import– value or physical volume of goods, works, services, results of intellectual property imported into the customs territory of the state.

The UN Statistical Commission understands import as the import of goods into a state:

1) of foreign origin from the country of origin or intermediary for the purpose of final consumption or processing for export or final consumption;

2) for processing under customs control;

3) from the territory of free zones and assigned warehouses;

4) re-import - export of goods previously exported but not processed.

Country of export– country of origin of the product: production (subsequent processing), shipment, sale.

Country of import– country of destination of the goods (consumption, delivery, purchase).

The volumes of export and import goods do not include:

1) supplies that are carried out on a free basis (humanitarian aid, gifts);

2) goods that are supplied as contributions to the technical assistance fund of the UN and other international organizations;

3) the cost of transit goods;

4) personal luggage of individuals and private parcels.

Foreign trade turnover– the sum of the value of exports and imports of countries or a group of countries for a certain period.

WTO = E + I (6.1)

Where E is the volume of exports (in value units);

I is the volume of imports (in value units).

World trade turnover– the sum of the value of imports and exports of all countries in the world.

General (general) trade– foreign trade turnover taking into account the cost of transit goods.

GT = E + I + T(6.2)

where T is the cost of transit goods transported through the territory of the country.

Physical volume of foreign trade– assessment of exports or imports of goods at constant prices of one period (1 year) to obtain information regarding the movement of the commodity mass without the influence of price changes.

Physical volume index:

where I f.o. – physical volume index;

P 0 – price of goods in the base period;

q 1 – quantity of goods in the period being studied;

q 0 – quantity of goods in the base period.

2. Resulting indicators:

Trade balance

S t = E t – I t (6.4)

where C t – trade balance;

E t – value of commodity exports;

And t is the cost of commodity imports.

If E > I – active balance, if E< И - пассивный баланс, Э = И – чистый баланс, нетто-баланс.

Export Import Coverage Index

I e/i = (6.5)

I e/i< 100 - торговый баланс пассивный, I э/и >100 - active trade balance.

Terms of trade index- the ratio of export and import prices of a certain product, a country as a whole, or a group of countries.

1. The export price index is calculated:

where P e – export price index;

x i – the share of each i-th product in the total value of exports in the base year;

p i is the ratio of the current export price for this product to its price in the base year.

2. The import price index is calculated:

where P and – import price index;

y j is the share of each i-th product in the total value of imports in the base year;

p j is the ratio of the current import price for this product to its price in the base year.

3. The “terms of trade” index is calculated:

I u.t. = , (6.8)

where I a.t. – “terms of trade” index;

P e – export price index (in units of national or other currency);

P and – import price index.

If I ut =1 - the terms of trade have not changed, I ut >1 - the terms of trade have improved, I ut< 1- условия торговли ухудшились.

Export concentration index (Hirschman index) and used for international comparisons. Shows how wide a range of goods a country exports:

(6.9)

where H j is the export concentration index of country j (j is the country index);

239 – number of types of products according to the UN classification;

i – product index (from 1 to 239);

x i is the value of exports of i-th goods by country j;

x is the total value of exports of country j, which is calculated by the formula:

If H tends to 0, then the trend is positive (a wide range of goods are exported); If H tends to 1, there is a negative trend, a narrow range of exports.

Country's import dependence coefficient:

where And ij is the volume of imports of the i-th product into country j;

P ij is the volume of consumption of the i-th product in country j.

(6.12)

where P ij is the volume of production of the i-th product in country j;

And ij is the volume of imports of the i-th product in country j;

Eij is the volume of exports of the i-th product in country j.

If P ij tends to 0, the country is import-independent; P ij tends to 1 – import-dependent country.

Net Trade Index shows for each product (product group) the level of excess of exports over imports (positive index value) or the level of excess of imports over exports (negative index value).

(6.13)

where I h.t. – net trade indicator;

E i - export of product i;

And i is the import of product j.

If I ch.t. = -1 – goods are only imported, I h.t. = +1 - goods are only exported.

3. Structural indicators

In international practice, the geographical and product structure is analyzed.

Geographical structure– distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, identified on a territorial or organizational basis.

Territorial structure– generalization of data on international trade of countries in one part of the world or an enlarged group of countries (industrial, developing).

Organizational structure– distribution of international trade:

Between countries belonging to the integration association;

Between countries allocated to a certain group in accordance with analytical criteria (oil, grain exporting countries, net debtors)

Commodity structure– distribution of trade flows for individual goods. It is based on the UN Standard International Classification (SITC) or the Harmonized System for Description and Coding of Goods.

There are:

The commodity structure of exports is a systematized set of goods that are exported from a country or region.

The commodity structure of imports is a systematized set of goods that are imported into a country or region.

The directions for systematizing commodity flows are presented in Fig. 6.3.

Figure 6.3 - Systematization of commodity flows on the world market

Export Diversification Index– index of deviation of the export structure from the structure of world exports.

(6.14)

where I d.e. – index of export diversification of country j;

h ij – part of the i-th product in the total exports of country j;

h i – part of the i-th product in total world exports.

If I d.e. tends to 1, then the structure is close to the world average; if I d.e. tends to 0, then it differs significantly from the world one.

Geographic concentration index of exports or imports characterizes the state of the world market for a particular product based on the following characteristics: the number of exporters (importers) and the share of the main exporter (importer).

Herfindahl-Hirschman index:

(6.15)

where I k is the index of geographic concentration of exports (imports) of product k;

x i k – volume of exports (imports) of goods k by country i;

x k – world export (import) of product k (x k = );

n – number of exporting (or importing) countries.

The indicator grows as the share of one exporter increases (shows the level of market monopolization).

4. Intensity indicators

Volume of exports, imports, foreign trade turnover per capita:

(6.18)

where E D is export per capita;

I D – imports per capita;

WTO D – foreign trade turnover per capita;

E is the value of national exports for the year;

I is the cost of national imports for the year;

WTO – foreign trade turnover of the country for the year (E+I);

H – the population of the country for the corresponding year.

Export quota and used to characterize the level of intensity of a country's foreign trade, to assess the openness of the national economy, and participation in the international division of labor.

(6.19)

where K e – export quota;

E – annual export volume of the country;

K e is greater, the more developed the industry, K e is less in large countries than in small ones.

If K e >1, this may be associated with significant re-exports.

World exports of C e » 20-23%, developed countries C e »< 20-23%, развивающиеся страны К э » > 20-23%.

Import quota:

(6.20)

where K i is the import quota;

I is the country’s annual export volume;

GDP is the gross domestic product of a country for the same period.

Foreign trade quota:

, (6.21)

where Kvto is the foreign trade quota;

GDP is the gross domestic product of a country for the same period.

Every year, 1/5 of all products produced in the world enters foreign trade channels, and this share is constantly increasing, especially in the context of international integration. Volume of international trade (world turnover)- the sum of only the export volumes of all countries, usually expressed in US dollars (Table 2).

table 2

Global trade volume (billions of dollars)

international trade- sphere of international commodity-money relations; the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world. At the same time, foreign trade of individual states and regions is an integral element of international trade. Although the world market and international trade are secondary, derived from the international division of labor, they, however, are not a passive reflection of the latter, but have an active reverse impact on it (and, accordingly, on the development of world and national economies).

Foreign and international trade is characterized by three important characteristics: total volume (trade turnover), commodity structure and geographical structure.

Foreign trade turnover- the sum of the value of exports and imports of a particular country (Table 3). At the same time, a distinction is made between the value and physical volumes of foreign trade.

Export (import) value- the volume of exports (imports), calculated as the volume for a certain period of time in current prices of the corresponding years using current exchange rates.

Physical volume of foreign trade- the volume of foreign trade, calculated in constant prices and allowing one to determine its real dynamics.

Table 3

Foreign trade turnover of some countries of the world in 2000 (billion dollars)

A country	Export	Import	Foreign trade turnover
Great Britain
Germany
South Korea
Malaysia
Netherlands
Saudi Arabia
Singapore

Based on the fact that in 2000 world trade turnover amounted to 6186.0 billion dollars, and world exports of services - 1435.0 billion dollars, the share of each of the 20 leading countries in world trade is determined.

A trend toward improvement has been observed since 1999, when export growth amounted to 1%. At the same time, the reduction in imports continued, caused by its rise in price due to the devaluation of the Russian currency. In 2000, the positive trends in increasing foreign trade turnover based on growth in both exports (139.5%) and imports (113.4%) continued. The improvement in the situation on world markets, associated with an improvement in market conditions, made it possible to more fully realize the competitive advantages of Russian exporters, and the emerging strengthening of the ruble led to an increase in imports, which continued in 2001.

To collect statistical data on foreign trade operations, the assessment of VO is very important, since on its basis the following is subsequently calculated:

• trade balance;
• average prices;
• the efficiency of foreign trade operations in general and other significant parameters.

Foreign trade turnover is closely related to the concept of foreign trade.

What is foreign trade

Trade relations of one state with other countries, including import operations (import) and export operations (export) of goods, are called foreign trade. This term applies exclusively to individual countries.

Foreign trade helps:

• receive additional income from the sale of national products abroad;
• saturate the state's domestic market;
• increase labor productivity;
• cope with limited resources within the country.

Taken together, foreign trade transactions of different states form world (international) trade. International trade is the oldest form of economic relations between states, which has a huge impact on the development of the world economy as a whole.

How is foreign trade turnover calculated?

So, the main concepts of foreign trade are export and import.

• Exports are the total volume of goods produced in a country that are exported from it over a certain time period.
• Imports are a set of goods produced outside a certain state and imported into it over a certain period.

Export and import transactions are recorded at the moment the goods cross the border. They are displayed in foreign economic and customs statistics. The export operation of the seller state corresponds to the import operation of the buyer state.

As a rule, export accounting is carried out at FOB (free of board) prices. In international trade relations, this means that the price of a product includes the costs of its transportation on board an international ship or other transport and insurance until loading is completed.

Imports are recorded at CIF (cost, insurance, freight) prices. This means that the price of the goods includes the costs of its transportation and insurance, customs duties to the buyer’s port of shipment. That is, all these costs are borne by the seller. The formula for the total volume of foreign trade turnover is as follows:

VO = Import of goods + Export of goods

A country's VO is calculated in monetary units, since different goods cannot be compared in physical measurements, for example, in tons, liters or meters.

How is the balance of foreign trade turnover calculated?

The balance of foreign trade turnover is also a significant concept for assessing the economy of a particular country. It can be calculated using the following formula:

Balance VO = Export of goods - import of goods

The balance of foreign trade turnover can be either positive or negative. A positive VO balance (the government sells more than it buys) indicates economic growth. On the contrary, a negative balance indicates that the market is oversaturated with imported goods, and the interests of domestic producers may be infringed.

World foreign trade turnover

World trade turnover is the total exports of all countries and is expressed in US dollars.

The participation of a particular state in world trade is reflected by indicators such as export and import quotas.

• Export quota is the ratio of export transactions to gross domestic product (GDP). This indicator allows you to understand what part of the goods and services produced within the state is sold on the international market.
• Import quota is the ratio of import operations to the volume of domestic consumption of state products. Shows the share of goods imported into the country in domestic consumption.

Statistical data on global foreign trade turnover is collected, summarized and systematized. For this purpose, international nomenclatures were developed (they are taken into account during the construction of national foreign trade classifications).

There are several definitions of international trade. But two of them reflect the essence of this concept best:

• In a broad sense, MT is a system of international relations in the exchange of goods and services, as well as raw materials and capital, consisting in the conduct of foreign trade operations by one country with other states (import and export) and regulated by accepted international norms.
• In a narrow sense, this is the total trade turnover of all world states or only a part of countries united on a certain basis.

Obviously, without MT, countries would be limited to consuming those goods and services that are produced exclusively within their own borders. Therefore, participation in global trade brings the following “advantages” to states:

• through export earnings, the country accumulates capital, which can then be used for the industrial development of the domestic market;
• an increase in export supplies entails the need to create new jobs for workers, which leads to greater employment;
• international competition leads to progress, i.e. causes the need to improve production, equipment, technologies;

Each individual state, as a rule, has its own specialization. Thus, in certain countries agricultural production is especially developed, in others - mechanical engineering, in others - the food industry. Therefore, MT makes it possible not to create a surplus of produced domestic goods, but to exchange them (or money from their sale) for other necessary products from importing countries.

MT forms

Trade and financial relations between states are in constant dynamics. Therefore, in addition to ordinary trade operations, when the moments of purchase and payment for goods coincide, modern forms of MT also appear:

• tenders (bidding) are, in fact, international competitions to attract foreign companies to carry out production work, provide engineering services, train employees of enterprises, as well as tenders for the purchase of equipment, etc.
• leasing - when production equipment is leased to users in other countries for a long-term lease;
• exchange trading - trade transactions are concluded between countries on commodity exchanges;
• countertrade - when in international trade transactions, instead of paying in money, products of the purchasing state must be supplied;
• licensed trade - sale to countries of licenses to use trademarks, inventions, industrial innovations;
• auction trade is a method of selling goods with individual valuable properties in the form of public auction, which is preceded by a preliminary inspection.

MT regulation

Transport regulation can be divided into state (tariff and non-tariff) and regulation through international agreements.

Tariff methods are essentially the application of duties levied on the movement of goods across borders. They are established in order to limit imports and, therefore, reduce competition from foreign manufacturers. Export duties are not used very often. Non-tariff methods, for example, include quotas or licensing.

International agreements and regulatory organizations such as the GAAT and the WTO are of particular importance for MT. They define the fundamental principles and rules of international trade that each participating country must adhere to.

* This work is not a scientific work, is not a final qualification work and is the result of processing, structuring and formatting the collected information intended for use as a source of material for independent preparation of educational works.

Course work

on world economy

Subject: " Features of modern world trade»

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………
1. The concept of the world market and international trade……..….
1.1. Theoretical foundations of foreign trade……………..…..
1.2. World market………………………………………..……..
2. Russia and its place in the world market………….………………….
2.1 Structure of foreign trade……………………………..
2.2 Russia’s place in the world market……………………………
2.3 Place of the military-industrial complex in the world market……………………………...
2.4 Prospects for Russia’s foreign trade activities.........
3. Russia’s accession to the WTO…………………..……………………...
3.1 Concept and structure of the WTO……………………………………………………...
3.2 Objectives of the WTO……………………………………………………………...
3.3 Distinctive features of the WTO………………………………….
3.4 Stages and conditions for new countries to join the WTO……..
3.6 Positive and negative features of joining Russia in the WTO……………………………………………………..
Conclusion……………………………..………………………………
Bibliography……….…………………………………………...
Applications……………………………………………………………...

Introduction

One of the most dominant factors of the modern world economy is the process of globalization, which is characterized by cross-border movement of capital, international trade in goods and services, and labor migration. In turn, the foundation of the process of globalization of the world is geoeconomics as a new paradigm of the world order. It is based, according to experts, on reproductive systems that have escaped national boundaries and formed into gigantic global internationalized reproductive cycles.

The world trade system is also impacted by transport and telecommunications technologies. As a result, the movement of raw materials, goods and services has accelerated; There have been qualitative changes in financial markets. Now, during one operating day, capital can flow from country to country, from region to region, no matter how far they are from each other. Transnational corporations were able to coordinate production in different parts of the world. Thanks to electronic means of international communication, information and transport costs have sharply decreased.

The driving force of globalization is high knowledge-intensive technologies, which facilitate international exchange, lead to an increase in the share of exports and imports, and include the regional economy in the system of the global division of labor. This, in turn, leads to the general liberalization of foreign trade and money markets of various countries, to the internationalization of production and distribution networks, to the rapid and widespread adoption of technologies, thanks to which the international flows of goods, services and capital become unhindered and at higher speeds. . The industrial production of the states involved in this process is undergoing reorganization, as the products of individual countries cross their borders, and enterprises enter the financial markets of the world. In the context of globalization, the structure of production and finance of various countries becomes interconnected and interdependent. The process is accompanied by an increase in the number of foreign transactions, and the effect is a new international division of labor, in which the creation of national wealth depends to a greater extent on economic entities of other countries 0 .

Openness and transparency of the economy, state and society - obvious attributes of modern economic development - have caused fundamental changes in interstate cooperation in the world. In the last two decades, a turning point has come: the previous protectionist tendencies associated with the oil crisis have subsided, a process has unfolded of a gradual reduction in the size of customs barriers and a growing recognition of the need to liberalize international economic relations.

Any state, if it wants to obtain maximum benefits within the framework of modern economic relations, must pursue a balanced, rational foreign economic strategy. Firstly, it is necessary that the liberalization of trade and financial turnover be carried out on the basis of the country's national interests in accordance with bilateral and multilateral agreements. Secondly, the policy of increasing openness on new terms is becoming increasingly widespread - within the framework of integration unions, which include several countries.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the ever-increasing importance that trade is acquiring in the modern world, as well as the expanding processes of integration and globalization, in which Russia has recently taken an active part.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the features of modern world trade, the dominant processes in world trade and the impact these processes have on Russia. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of problems:

Give the concept of the world market and international trade.

Determine the theoretical foundations of foreign trade.

Identify Russia’s place in the world market and determine trends in the development of trade relations.

Indicate the place of world trade organizations in the global trade process.

Determine strategic ways for the development of Russian foreign trade.

Consider the problems of Russia's accession to the WTO.

The object of consideration is the world market.

The subject of consideration is the prospects for Russia's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO).

1. The concept of the world market and international trade

1.1. Theoretical foundations of foreign trade

The first and oldest form of international relations - folk trade, arose under the influence of the international division of labor. The latter gave rise to the need to exchange goods produced in individual countries. In addition, practically no country has the necessary resources to fully satisfy the entire system of constantly evolving social needs. Trade in goods and services is available to almost everyone, even underdeveloped countries: if they do not have goods in demand, they offer environmentally friendly recreation areas and the exotic beauty of the African and Pacific coasts. As a result, foreign trade became a public source of income for all countries and created additional conditions for economic growth. At the same time, countries find themselves in a certain dependence on each other. In order to better satisfy the needs of the population of their country, each of them buys imported goods and services.

International trade is the international exchange of labor products (goods, services, intellectual property) of all countries of the world. International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world 0. It consists of two counter flows - exports and imports. The main participants in international trade: foreign trade companies (exporters and importers), states, groups of countries, as well as individuals.

Diverse international trade activities can be classified depending on product specialization: trade in finished products; trade in goods that have undergone primary processing; trade in raw materials. The higher the level of development of a country, the less raw materials and more finished products the state exports.

Depending on the type of export-import operations, international trade activities can be classified:

Export and import of finished goods;

Import and export of raw materials and semi-finished products for processing with subsequent return to the country;

Temporary import or export of goods with subsequent return to the country (for example, for participation in international competitions, exhibitions, presentations);

Re-export and re-import (re-export is the export abroad of goods previously imported into the country, for example, if the goods are not paid for, are defective or are resold to a third country; re-import is the import from abroad of previously exported national goods);

Import and export of goods related to one international transnational company;

Counter compensation trade;

Bargain transactions on a non-currency basis (payment for goods occurs in kind with another product);

Trade compensation transactions on a cash basis (when the goods are partially paid for in money, and partially by counter-delivery of the goods);

Industrial compensation transactions (for example, the supply of equipment for the production of goods will be paid for by the goods produced with its help).

To assess international and foreign trade, indicator group 0 is used:

1) trade turnover - the value of exports and imports for a certain period in current prices;

2) commodity structure – the ratio of various commodity groups in the structure of world exports;

3) geographical structure - the structure of world trade depending on the region of the world, part of the world, continent.

The first theoretical basis for foreign trade was the theory of mercantilists. It is based on the fundamental role of gold (money) and focuses on maximum safety and increasing the amount of gold in the country. In this regard, it was recommended to stimulate exports and limit imports so as not to waste gold on purchasing goods outside the country. At the same time, bans were introduced on the trade of colonies with all countries except the mother countries, and on the development of production in the colonies. In fact, the mercantilists proposed the enrichment of some at the expense of others, but their merit lies in the fact that they were the first to draw attention to the problems of foreign trade, emphasized its importance for the economic development of the country, described and justified a certain ratio of costs for exports and imports, i.e. e. laid the foundations for the balance of payments.

A. Smith developed the first classical theory of foreign trade - the theory of absolute advantage. He argued that those countries that actively participate in the international division of labor will benefit the most. A country that has certain advantages in the production of a product must specialize in the production of this product and supply it to other countries. This statement of A. Smith was supplemented by D. Ricardo, creating the theory of comparative advantage. He proved that foreign trade brings additional benefits even to those countries that have an efficient economy. Ricardo built his theory on the basis of the labor theory of value. In modern conditions, comparative advantages are determined through opportunity costs, i.e. the costs of producing one product are determined through the costs of another product.

The Heckscher-Ohlin theory arose in the first third of the 20th century. In it, the factors determining the international division of labor are associated not only with the natural conditions of production in the country, but also with the conditions created in the process of production development. She proceeded from the fact that the historical and natural conditions of development predetermined the uneven provision of countries with factors of production, and, above all, labor resources and capital.

In the process of international trade, prices for factors of production in trading countries are equalized. Initially, the price of available factors of production will be low, and those that are scarce will be high. Gradually, the initial advantages of both countries are lost, and each country must look for new opportunities to export its products by improving production. This mechanism was substantiated by the American economist P. Samuelson, and therefore the theory of the relationship between production factors is often called the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theory.

There are a lot of modern theories of foreign trade; in fact, each school and its individual directions offer their own points of view on this problem. The most common are the following 0:

Neo-technological theories try to explain foreign trade relations by the costs of research and development, the level of average wages and the share of skilled labor. They explain the emergence of advantages by a monopoly on individual discoveries and new technologies, which makes it possible to dominate the production of these goods and the world market until these technologies are mastered by other countries. Then new research is needed to produce new products.

The theory of specific factors says that the different endowments of individual countries with specific factors, i.e. factors that can only be used for the production of a given product leads to further development of these factors in export industries and reduction in import-competing industries.

The theory of the firm is concerned with the increasing role of individual firms and corporations in international trade. Ultimately, it is not the nation that always gains comparative advantage, but the individual firm exporting the product. Technologically complex products are created by the company based on the needs and demand existing within the country. Only after expanding production and saturating the domestic market can a company enter the foreign market; in order to sell its products, it is necessary to find a buyer country whose demand structure in the domestic market would be as close as possible to the demand structure of the exporting country. This explains the possibility of trade transactions between countries at the same level of development, in particular between advanced industrial countries.

The theory of international competitiveness of nations, developed by the American economist M. Porter, says that the place of each country and its specific producers in the world market is determined by the following four basic conditions: the quantity and quality of various factors of production, demand conditions in the domestic market, the presence of related and service industries, company strategy and internal competition.

1.2. World market

Relatively stable flows of goods and services led to the emergence of a new form of commodity exchange - the world market. The modern world market is a sphere of stable commodity-money relations for the exchange of produced national products. The subjects of these relations can be states, individual organizations and enterprises, as well as individuals. Just as within the country, in the structure of the world market one can distinguish markets for goods and services, labor markets, capital markets and, in addition, markets for the achievements of science and technology. As part of the latter, information markets are becoming increasingly important in modern conditions. In addition, it is possible to distinguish individual markets on a regional basis - European, Asian, South American, Far Eastern, etc.

In order for a country to enter the world market, it needs to have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand, currency or other means of payment for imports, as well as a developed foreign trade infrastructure: vehicles, warehouses, communications, etc. Settlements for foreign trade transactions are made by banking organizations, and the country’s insurance business provides cargo and transportation insurance . Of course, if necessary, you can use the infrastructure services of other countries, but, as a rule, these are expensive services, and each country involved in the world market strives to create its own infrastructure.

Two counter flows of goods and services form each country's exports and imports. Export is the sale and export of goods abroad, import is the purchase and import of goods from abroad. The difference between the value estimates of exports and imports forms the trade balance, and the sum of these estimates is foreign trade turnover.

In the process of development, the world market clearly identified two components: the market for basic goods and the market for finished products.

All developing countries that specialize mainly in the export of raw materials and labor-intensive goods trade in the basic goods market. Russia also sells the bulk of its exports here. The competitiveness of such goods depends mainly on two factors: quality and costs of production, transportation and storage. Since the quality of similar products is approximately the same, costs become a pricing factor. And as a result of price competition, the country that has higher labor productivity, lower wages, and better equipped or organized production wins. And in this market the competition is quite fierce. In modern conditions, it is even intensifying due to the fact that the share of this market in total sales is declining, and the number of participants is increasing due to countries with transition economies, and above all, the former Soviet republics.

The second segment of the world market is the finished goods market. Currently, it is also stratified into three clearly defined levels: lower, middle and higher. The criterion for their selection was the level of manufacturability of the products. At the lowest level of the market there is trade in ferrous metallurgy products, construction materials, textiles, clothing, footwear and other light industry products. At the middle level they trade in machine tools, vehicles, rubber and plastic products, basic chemicals and woodworking products. Aerospace equipment, automated office equipment, information technology, electronics, pharmaceutical products, precision and measuring instruments, and electrical equipment are sold at the highest level. The last level markets are the most promising and are developing at a much faster pace than others. There is fierce competition here between developed countries that build their economies on the highest achievements of modern scientific and technological revolution, and are not interested in the emergence of new competitors in these markets.

Competitiveness in the world market is the ability of a state to create more wealth per unit of expenditure than its competitors in the world market. When determining this indicator, 378 different criteria are taken into account, primarily income per capita, inflation rate, and foreign trade balance. The opinions of 21,000 executives of the world's largest companies are taken into account, as well as the availability of natural resources, means of communication, etc.

Foreign trade policy is a set of measures used by the state to regulate trade relations and relations with other countries. Historically, two types of foreign trade policies have emerged - protectionism and free trade. There is a constant kind of competition between them, since both types have advantages and disadvantages, and depending on specific historical conditions, one of them prevails.

Protectionism is a policy of protecting national producers and consumers. From the manufacturer’s point of view, such measures are necessary to support newly created, young industries, protecting them from competition from foreign firms that have certain advantages in this industry. But while protecting national producers, protectionism creates new problems: prices rise on the domestic market, demand and consumption decrease. In addition, the lack of foreign competition reduces incentives to improve production, increases the privileges of certain industries and productions, and contributes to the development of stagnation in the economy. Protectionism uses customs duties and non-tariff barriers.

Free trade is based on state non-interference in foreign trade. Supporters of the principles of free trade believe that the goals that protectionism sets for itself are too expensive for countries, and through free trade they can be achieved at lower costs. Despite this, in practice free trading in its pure form is used extremely rarely. Each country builds its policy on a combination of these and other methods, taking into account the tasks of its development.

The modern world market is a complex system that is constantly changing depending on the supply and demand of goods and services. Therefore, the first distinctive feature of the modern market is its dynamism. The second feature is a change in the balance of forces. If previously the United States dominated world exports, now Western Europe is participating in the struggle for primacy, followed by Japan and the “new industrial states” of Southeast Asia. The third feature is the formation of large regional trading blocs. There are 9 of them: European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Mercosur (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay), South African Committee Development (SADC), West African Economic and Monetary Union (EWAU), Andean Pact.

2. Russia and its place in the world market

2.1 Structure of foreign trade

Foreign trade is currently one of the most important sectors of the Russian economy, since it is it that determines the dynamics of many macroeconomic parameters. The structure of Russia's foreign trade is determined by the following factors:

The division of the national economy, depending on competitiveness in the foreign and domestic markets, into 3 groups of industries:

a) resource industries that are competitive in the foreign market (oil, gas, forestry, diamond industries, partly energy, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy);

b) manufacturing industries that are competitive in the domestic and partly in the foreign market (aerospace, nuclear industry, partly power engineering, heavy machine tool industry, etc.);

c) industries that are unable to enter the foreign market, but are necessary for the domestic market (automotive industry, agricultural engineering, light and food industries, production of building materials).

2.2 Russia’s place in the world market

Russia is just gaining its place in the world market. This is a long process in which everything is important: both the characteristics of the country entering the market and the characteristics of the market itself. Currently, Russia trades only in the basic goods market, selling raw materials and energy resources (Table 1). With some goods, Russia may appear in certain markets for finished goods, but it is too early to talk about gaining strong positions in these markets, especially if we are talking about their upper level. The two lower levels are more accessible, although there is fierce competition between trading countries. Non-price competition methods dominate here. First of all, the quality of goods competes; the constant expansion and updating of the range of products offered, the development of design, and the improvement of consumer properties have predetermined a steady demand for only the best samples of goods. The production of such goods in Russia for the world market is, as a rule, impossible.

Table 1

Foreign trade of Russia in 2004 0

Structure	million US dollars	in % compared to 2003	in % of total
energy products,
crude oil
metals and products made from them, including:
ferrous metals and products made from them
non-ferrous metals and products made from them
wood and pulp and paper products
machinery, equipment and vehicles
food products and agricultural raw materials for their production
chemical industry products, rubber

2.3 Place of the military-industrial complex in the world market

The greatest opportunity to conquer the market for finished goods is provided by the conversion of the military-industrial complex (MIC), whose industries have high technology, productive fixed assets, and have high personnel and scientific and technical potential. Military-industrial complex enterprises, even in a closed economy, maintained contacts with foreign companies, participated in international exhibitions and auctions, and therefore have some experience of international competition. All this creates a real opportunity to occupy a certain niche in the finished goods market.

2.4 Prospects for Russia’s foreign trade activities

In general, assessing the prospects for Russia's foreign trade activities, it is expected that the growth rate of foreign trade turnover with non-CIS countries in 2004-2006. will be in the range of 96.2-108.1%, including exports - 89.1-106.2%, imports - 107.2-111.9 percent 0 . Table 2 shows the main forecast indicators.

table 2

Main indicators of the forecast of socio-economic development of the Russian Federation until 2006

Consumer price index, December versus December, %
Gross domestic product, % to previous year
Option I
Option II
Industrial products, % compared to the previous year
Option I
Option II
Investments in fixed assets from all sources of financing, as a percentage of the previous year
Option I
Option II
Export – total, billion US dollars
Option I
Option II
Imports – total, billion US dollars
Option I
Option II

Option I is based on a scenario that is based on relatively stable, but compared to the current period, somewhat less favorable external and internal conditions, including taking into account the possibility of a deterioration in the commodity situation on international markets.

Option II assumes a fairly favorable combination of external and internal conditions: relative stability of the exchange rate, improvement of trade and political conditions for access of domestic goods to foreign markets, successful completion of negotiations on accession to the WTO, improvement of the global general economic and commodity situation in the main positions of Russian exports.

That. The strategic direction of Russia's foreign trade policy is the country's integration into the world economic community. The Russian position on this issue is clear and consistent: Russia must join the World Trade Organization as soon as possible, but this process must take place on standard conditions equal to those of other WTO member countries.

3. Russia's accession to the WTO

3.1 Concept and structure of the WTO

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was founded in 1995. It is the continuation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concluded in 1947.

The WTO is both an organization and a set of legal documents that define the rights and responsibilities of governments in international trade in goods and services (Appendix). The right basis of the WTO is 0:

1. General Agreement on Trade in Goods (GATT) as amended in 1994.

2. General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).

3. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

3.2 Objectives of the WTO

The main objectives of the WTO are to liberalize international trade, ensure its fairness and predictability, create a favorable environment for economic growth and improve the economic well-being of people.

3.3 Distinctive features of the WTO

The World Trade Organization has the following characteristic features:

1. The WTO is, first and foremost, an organization created to ensure freer international trade. WTO actions are aimed at eliminating trade barriers between countries.

2. The WTO is not any supreme body whose decisions are binding on the governments of all member countries of this organization.

3. WTO member countries agree among themselves on issues of international trade, but in compliance with WTO rules.

4. WTO membership does not prohibit the establishment of customs duties on certain types of goods. However, the usual amount of such duties does not exceed an average of 5-7%.

5. The WTO is a democratic organization where decisions are made on the basis of consensus and only in exceptional cases (and such were only in GATT practice) - by majority vote.

6. All WTO member countries are equal to each other, regardless of their size and level of economic development.

7. The WTO agreements contain provisions that allow governments of participating countries to take measures to protect the environment, to protect the life and health of people, animals and plants.

3.4 Stages and conditions for new countries to join the WTO

The procedure for joining the World Trade Organization, developed over half a century of the existence of the GATT/WTO, is multifaceted and consists of several stages. As the experience of applicant countries shows, this process takes on average 5-7 years. All accession procedures listed below fully apply to Russia.

At the first stage, within the framework of special Working Groups (there are 67 countries in the Working Group on Russia’s accession to the WTO, including all major trading partners), a detailed consideration at the multilateral level of the economic mechanism and trade and political regime of the acceding country takes place for their compliance with the norms and rules of the WTO. After this, consultations and negotiations begin on the terms of membership of the applicant country in this organization. These consultations and negotiations are usually carried out at the bilateral level with all interested WG member countries.

First of all, the negotiations concern “commercially significant” concessions that the acceding country will be ready to provide to WTO members on access to its markets (recorded in the bilateral Protocols on access to markets for goods and services), as well as on the format and timing of assuming obligations under the Agreements arising from membership in the WTO (documented in the Report of the Working Group).

In turn, the acceding country, as a rule, receives the rights that all other WTO members have, which will practically mean the end of its discrimination in foreign markets. (Although, for example, China was not able to achieve all these rights in full). In the event of illegal actions on the part of any member of the organization, any country will be able to file a complaint with the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), whose decisions are binding for unconditional execution at the national level by each WTO participant.

In accordance with the established procedure, the results of all negotiations on liberalization of market access and accession conditions are formalized in the following official documents 0:

The report of the Working Group, which sets out the entire package of rights and obligations that the applicant country will assume as a result of the negotiations;

A list of obligations on tariff concessions in the field of goods and on the level of support for agriculture;

List of specific obligations for services and List of exemptions from the MFN;

The Protocol of Accession, which legally formalizes the agreements reached at the bilateral and multilateral levels.

One of the main conditions for new countries to join the WTO is to bring their national legislation and practice of regulating foreign economic activity in accordance with the provisions of the package of agreements of the Uruguay Round.

At the final stage of accession, the national legislative body of the applicant country ratifies the entire package of documents agreed upon within the Working Group and approved by the General Council. After this, these obligations become part of the WTO documents and national legislation, and the candidate country itself receives the status of a WTO member.

In 1993, Russia made a formal application to join the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and in accordance with the procedures, the Working Group on Russian Accession to the GATT was created, transformed after the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 Working Group on the Accession of the Russian Federation to the WTO (WG). The mandate of the Working Group is to study the trade regime and develop conditions for Russia's participation in the WTO.

The negotiation process for Russia's accession to the WTO began in 1995. At the first stage, it was focused on reviewing at the multilateral level within the framework of the WG the trade and political regime of Russia for its compliance with WTO standards.

Following the presentation of initial Russian proposals on market access for goods and proposals on levels of agricultural support in 1998, negotiations began at the bilateral level. In 1999, the first edition of the List of Specific Obligations for Access to the Services Market and the draft List of Exemptions from Most Favored Nation (MFN) treatment were transferred to WTO members. Since 2000, negotiations began to be full-scale, that is, to cover all aspects of Russia’s accession.

As part of the accession process, the Russian delegation is conducting negotiations in four areas, and their basis is documents and negotiation proposals approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.

1. Negotiations on tariff issues. The goal is to determine the maximum level (“binding”) of import customs duty rates for the entire Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity, the right to apply which Russia will receive after joining the WTO.

Currently, about 90% of tariff lines have been agreed upon with partners. Among the problem areas where agreement between the parties has not yet been found are a number of agricultural products, aircraft, cars, furniture, etc.

2. Negotiations on agricultural issues, in addition to the tariff aspect, include a discussion of the permissible volumes of domestic state support for the agricultural sector (AMS) within the so-called “yellow” basket (subsidies subject to reduction) and the level of export subsidies for agricultural goods and food. Consideration of these issues, as a rule, takes place in multilateral consultations with the participation of members of the Quad group (USA, EU, Japan, Canada), the countries of the Kern Group (leading liberal exporters of agricultural products) and other interested states. These negotiations are extremely complex.

The last round of consultations on agriculture took place on 21 June 2005 in Geneva. The Russian side, in response to numerous requests from the WG member countries, provided data on the volume of domestic support in 2001-2003. in the format required by the WTO. At the same time, Russia’s position on the permitted volumes of state support remained unchanged (representative period 1993-1995 with a volume of support of 9.5 billion dollars).

3. Negotiations on access to the services market are aimed at agreeing on the conditions for access of foreign services and service providers to the Russian market. Negotiations are most acute in such sensitive sectors as financial, energy and telecommunications, access to which is of particular commercial interest to leading WTO members. In addition, some countries are interested in improving the conditions for access to the Russian market for individuals - service providers (India, Canada, Switzerland).

As a result of the completed negotiations, Russia agreed to accept obligations in approximately 100 service sectors (out of 155 sectors provided for by the WTO classification). In some cases, Russia's position provides for more stringent conditions for the work of foreign suppliers on the Russian market compared to the conditions provided for by current legislation. This position will allow, if necessary, the use of additional tools to protect national suppliers from foreign competition in the future.

4. Negotiations on systemic issues are devoted to determining the measures that Russia will need to take in the field of legislation and its enforcement to fulfill its obligations as a WTO participant.

3.6 Positive and negative features of Russia’s accession to the WTO

It is necessary to be aware that joining the WTO has both a number of advantages for Russia and several inevitable disadvantages, the negative impact of which our government seeks to minimize during the negotiations.

First of all, Russia will be limited in the use of instruments of state regulation of economic exchanges and subsidies. In addition, the ability to protect the domestic market for goods and services from foreign competition will be limited to four instruments, such as export tariffs, anti-dumping, protective and countervailing tariffs.

Undoubtedly positive aspects include, first of all, the introduction into Russian legislation of stable, predictable rules of the game and uniform approaches to the application of mechanisms for regulating foreign economic activity. The extension of these rules to Russia will increase its investment attractiveness for foreign investors and make the economic and legal climate more predictable for Russian economic entities. Of course, this process will require certain changes to the current legislation.

Secondly, although not immediately, the conditions for access to world markets for Russian goods and services will improve significantly. This should have a positive impact on the economic activity of Russian enterprises, and, as a consequence, on the revenues of the Russian budget. In addition, Russia will have access to a mechanism for resolving trade conflicts and the right to participate in the development of new rules of international trade.

It is also necessary to mention the creation of better conditions for integration within the CIS, strengthening the role of the Federation in relations with entities on economic issues, and creating optimal starting conditions for the start of negotiations on Russia’s accession to the Single European Economic Space.

At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that for potential Russian partners in the WTO, the benefits of Russia’s accession to this organization are realized almost immediately, and for Russian producers - over a fairly long period of time 0 .

All WTO members undertake obligations to implement the main agreements and legal documents, collectively called “multilateral trade agreements”. Thus, from a legal point of view, the WTO system is a kind of multilateral contract, the rules and regulations of which govern over 92% of all world trade in goods and services. Russia's obligations in the event of accession to the WTO are partly already contained in Russia's international agreements: the Partnership Agreement with the EU, the Energy Charter Treaty, agreements on the protection and promotion of investment. It should be noted that a significant part of these general obligations coincides with national legislation.

In addition, there are a number of additional obligations. They relate, for example, to freezing import tariffs and limiting agricultural subsidies. It is these obligations that are the subject of negotiations. The parties participating in negotiations with Russia are discussing the level of tariff protection of the goods market and the level of protection of the services market.

The main problem of Russia's accession to the WTO is, first of all, the removal of restrictions on the supply of goods from abroad, in a sense, restrictions on competition from foreign companies. This will lead to the fact that domestic manufacturers may not be able to compete on equal terms with both very high-quality Western products and very cheap Chinese ones. Another thing is that this process will occur gradually (that is why such long negotiations are underway), and our enterprises will have time to adapt to new conditions.

Therefore, experts believe that, despite increased competition from foreign manufacturers when Russia joins the WTO, the impact of this event on domestic industry will not be very significant or catastrophic, although each enterprise will have to take care of itself and improve the efficiency of its own work.

Conclusion

Foreign trade is the main form of world economic relations. In terms of dynamics and value indicators, it is ahead of the growth of world production, the movement of capital and other types of foreign economic relations, which is one of the most important characteristics of the modern world economy. The growth rate of international export-import transactions exceeds the growth rate of the main segments of world production, incl. industrial goods, minerals and agricultural products.

The increasing importance of trade in the world economy, as well as its intensive development, is due to the objective process of globalization and the increasing interdependence of most countries of the world. The intensification of world trade was facilitated by significant progress in the development of the international division of labor.

In the field of trade exchange, international regimes and multilateral agreements were developed within the framework of the WTO, an international organization operating on the basis of a multilateral treaty establishing the principles and rules of world trade. The activities of the WTO are aimed at liberalizing export-import transactions and, in particular, at reducing and eliminating tariff and non-tariff barriers.

A further increase in international trade was facilitated by the significant liberalization of the foreign trade policies of developing countries, the expansion of trade between them and, in addition, the preservation of favorable conditions in the markets for industrial products in many developing and developed industrial countries. The revolution in the field of information technology and communications was also essential for this process.

In recent years, there have been significant changes in the structure of world trade. In particular, the share of communications and information technology services has increased significantly, while at the same time the share of trade in commodities and agricultural products has decreased.

Certain changes are also taking place in the geographical distribution of world trade. Trade in developing countries is gradually growing, but the volume of trade flows from newly industrialized countries is increasing at a particularly rapid pace.

Among countries with economies in transition, China's foreign trade is developing more dynamically, which has allowed the country to enter the top ten largest trading powers in the world. At the same time, there is still a significant part of world trade turnover - about a third of world export-import transactions occur in leading industrialized countries (USA, Germany and Japan). The largest trading countries in the world include France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, and Belgium.

Today, the question of the place we want to occupy in the emerging world order is becoming increasingly obvious. The question of Russia’s place requires an answer to two other questions: what are the contours of the emerging world order and what is the country’s “starting position” for participation in world processes. Both the scenario of constructive inclusion in the new cooperation of the post-industrial world, and the transformation into an outsider country, one of the leaders of resistance to globalization, are possible. In many ways, the choice depends on Russia's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Today, there are two extreme points of view on the problem of a country's accession to the WTO. Supporters of liberalism insist on immediate accession to the WTO on any terms. Supporters of protectionism argue that Russian business today is uncompetitive and accession to the WTO will strangle domestic enterprises.

1) reducing restrictions on international trade will lead to cheaper imports, which is beneficial both for Russian enterprises using imported raw materials and components, and for Russian citizens purchasing imported goods;

2) the possibility of legal protection of domestic producers under the laws of the World Trade Organization;

3) opening up the economy and stabilizing Russian foreign trade and general economic legislation will contribute to the development of international economic relations and the investment process in Russia;

4) Russian exporting enterprises will receive greater access to foreign markets.

However, difficulties may arise when joining the WTO:

1) some industries (agriculture, aviation industry) and individual enterprises may not be able to withstand competition with foreign enterprises, unemployment will increase, and production will decline;

2) it will be difficult for Russian banks to compete with foreign commercial banks, which have large and relatively cheap resources (interest on deposits and, accordingly, loans abroad is much lower than in Russia);

3) difficulties will arise in maintaining the Customs Union with the CIS countries, since this conflicts with the WTO charter;

4) the state’s ability to regulate foreign economic activity will decrease;

5) weakening of direct state regulation of domestic energy prices can lead to a significant increase in production costs and a drop in the competitiveness of domestic enterprises.

An analysis of the potential benefits and threats of Russia’s accession to the WTO allows us to draw the following conclusions:

1) it is necessary to ensure an overall positive quantitative and qualitative balance of national interests;

2) bankruptcy of certain sectors of the national economy cannot be allowed;

3) it is advisable to provide a mechanism for protecting the national financial and banking system;

4) a sharp increase in energy prices cannot be allowed, as required by the WTO negotiators;

5) coordination of the activities of all levels of government is necessary to prepare the Russian economy for accession to the WTO.

Bibliography

1. Forecast of socio-economic development of the Russian Federation for 2004 and the main parameters of the forecast until 2006, Moscow, July, 2003.

2. Galitskaya S.V. "Money. Credit. Finance" - M.: "Exam", 2004 - 224 p.

3. Lizogub A.N., Simonenko V.I. “Economic theory” - M.: “Prior-izdat”, 2004 – 128 p.

4. Makeeva T.V. “Macroeconomics” - M.: “Exam”, 2004 – 128 p.

5. “Economics in Questions and Answers,” ed. I.P. Nikolaeva - M.: TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2004 - 336 p.

6. Simonov Yu.F., Nosko B.P., Guiliano A.A. “World economy and international economic relations” - Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 2004 – 160 p.

7. I.Z. Farkhutdinov, “Globalization and geo-economics: new legal paradigms of the world order”, “Legislation and Economics”, No. 4, April 2004.

9. D.A. Komolov “Pros and cons of joining the WTO, interview with Alexei Kudrin “Russian Economy: XXI Century”, April 2001

10. Website of the World Trade Organization http://www.wto.ru

Application

Multilateral agreements on trade in goods within the WTO

Name of the agreement	Short description
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (GATT 94)
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947.	Defines the basis of the goods trade regime, the rights and obligations of WTO members in this area
Agreement on Agriculture.	Determines the features of regulation of trade in agricultural goods and mechanisms for applying measures of state support for production and trade in this sector.
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing	Defines the features of regulation of trade in textiles and clothing
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards.	Determines the conditions for the application of sanitary and phytosanitary control measures
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.	Determines the conditions for the application of standards, technical regulations, certification procedures
Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures.	Contains restrictions on the application of measures encouraging the consumption of domestic goods in connection with investment
Agreement on the Application of Article VII of GATT 1994 (Customs Valuation of Goods).	Determines the rules for assessing the customs value of goods
Pre-Shipment Inspection Agreement.	Determines the conditions for pre-shipment inspections
Agreement on rules of origin.	Defines the principles of origin of goods
Agreement on import licensing procedures.	Establishes import licensing procedures and forms
Agreement on Subsidies and Compensatory Measures.	Determines the conditions and procedures for the application of subsidies and measures aimed at combating subsidies
Agreement on the Application of Article VI of GATT 1994 (anti-dumping).	Determines the conditions and procedures for applying measures to combat dumping
Agreement on Safeguard Measures.	Defines the conditions and procedures for applying measures to counter growing imports

0 I.Z. Farkhutdinov, “Globalization and geo-economics: new legal paradigms of the world order”, “Legislation and Economics”, No. 4, April 2004.

0 Simonov Yu.F., Nosko B.P., Guiliano A.A. “World economy and international economic relations” - p.80

0 Galitskaya S.V. "Money. Credit. Finance" - p. 87

0 “Economics in Questions and Answers”, ed. I.P. Nikolaeva - p. 233

0 Makeeva T.V. "Macroeconomics" p.91

0 Forecast of socio-economic development of the Russian Federation for 2004 and the main parameters of the forecast until 2006, Moscow, July, 2003 – p. 101

0 Website of the World Trade Organization http://www.wto.ru

0 Lizogub A.N., Simonenko V.I. "Economic Theory" - p.87

0 D.A. Komolov “Pros and cons of joining the WTO, interview with Alexei Kudrin “Russian Economy: XXI Century”, April 2001