Pronominal substitutions. Lexical repetitions, synonymous connections, pronominal substitution

How important are personal pronouns in English? We can safely say that personal pronouns are the basis of any language, especially English.

If they did not exist, even the most famous phrase I love you(Russian: I love you) could not exist! After all, it already contains two personal pronouns: I- Me and you- You.

The pronoun is one of the most terrifying masks man has invented.

The pronoun is one of the most terrifying masks created by man

Personal pronouns in English have many similarities with Russian pronouns: they also change according to gender, number, and even cases. But there are also pitfalls to be aware of when learning personal pronouns on your own.

Today we will tell you what personal pronouns are there in English, we will give examples of sentences and reveal all the secrets of their use.

Personal pronouns in English!

Comparative table of personal pronouns in the nominative and objective cases, English.

As you know from the Russian language course, personal pronouns replace a noun. These can be names of people, places or objects. Mostly, personal pronouns are used instead of a noun to avoid repetition and make speech easier.

We usually add personal pronouns to a sentence when the noun has been mentioned before, that is, when the reader or listener knows what we are talking about.

For example:

Liz bought a new car two months ago. She absolutely loves it.(Russian Liz bought the car two months ago. She is crazy about it)

In the second sentence She absolutely loves it two pronouns are used: personal pronoun she replaces proper name Liz, and the personal pronoun it used instead of a noun car .

Important!

Personal pronouns in English help avoid repeating the same noun over and over again in a story.

The noun that is replaced is called antecedent(eng. antecedent). If you know the antecedent, you can always choose the correct personal pronoun that agrees on numbers (singular or plural), persons (first, second or third), gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and cases (nominative, objective, ).

Basic grammatical features of personal pronouns in English:

English personal pronouns have a singular ( I, he, it etc.) and plural ( we, they and etc.);

Personal pronouns in the English language change according to gender in the 3rd person singular: husband. ( he- he), female ( she-she), sr.( it-it);

• This type of pronoun varies by person: 1st person ( I,we), 2nd person ( you), 3rd person ( he, she, it, they)
• Personal pronouns in English have two cases: nominative ( he, she, we, they etc.) and object ( me, them, us and etc.).

But first things first. Let's first look at How do personal pronouns change in English? by persons, genders and numbers in various cases.

Personal pronouns in English: nominative case

English personal pronouns in the nominative case are called Subject Pronouns. Word subject the subject is translated into Russian, and in linguistics the term is used Subjective Case(Russian subject case).

The English subject case corresponds to the Russian nominative, which answers questions Who? So what? and acts as the subject of a sentence.

Therefore, English personal pronouns in the nominative case perform the function of the subject.

Pronouns I, we(Rus. I, we) are the first person singular and plural and are used on behalf of the speakers.

Remember!

Pronoun I(Russian я) is always written with a capital letter, regardless of its place in the sentence.

Pronoun you is the second person singular and plural and corresponds to the Russian pronouns “you”, “you”, “You” (polite form). This pronoun is used in relation to the interlocutor or interlocutors.

Quite a large number of people learning English from scratch are trying to use the English pronoun you with a singular verb, but this is incorrect. Even when addressing one interlocutor, personal pronoun you always bears the characteristic of the plural.

Compare:

You are a student(Russian: You are a student.)

You are students(Russian: You are students)

Pronouns he, she, it(Russian he. she, it) and they(Russian they) are representatives of the third person singular and plural.

As you probably already know, the verb is in the 3rd person singular. numbers (that is, when used with personal pronouns he, she, it) has a number of features in the formation of sentences in a number of other times.

Let's look at how personal pronouns are used in a sentence with examples.

Examples of sentences with personal pronouns in English with translation

Object case of personal pronouns in English

Objective case Objective Case) in English performs functions similar to those performed in Russian by other cases except the nominative.

Therefore, there are quite a few options for translating personal pronouns in the objective case into Russian, as you can see in the table.

Table of personal pronouns in the nominative case:

As you can see from the table, we can draw an analogy between pronoun her(objective case of personal pronoun she) in a sentence I see her with Russian accusative I see (who, what?) her.

English personal pronouns in the objective case often appear in sentences as direct or indirect object .

Compare:

I phoned him to congratulate him.(Russian: I called him to congratulate him), where is the pronoun him is a direct complement.

She apologized to me.(Russian: She apologized to me) - where is the pronoun (to) me used with a preposition and is an indirect object

Personal pronouns with prepositions in English

An example of the use of personal pronouns as subject, direct and indirect object in English

English personal pronouns in the subjective (nominative) case serve as the subject of a sentence.

For example:

I like your flowers.- I like your (your) flowers.

They are working in the garden.- They are working in the garden.

We go to the cinema.- We're going to the cinema.

But with personal pronouns in the objective case, not everything is so simple. Let's consider the main functions in the sentence of object pronouns in English, and with which Russian cases they are more similar.

• Object pronouns in English as direct object corresponds to the accusative case in Russian (whom? what?)

Doesn't love me(Russian: He loves me)

Do you know him?(Russian. Do you know him?)

I see her everywhere(Russian. I see her everywhere)

• Personal pronouns in the objective case can serve as non-prepositional indirect object and are similar to the Russian dative case, answering the question to whom? what?:

He have her book(Russian: He gave her a book)

Mary told us to choose a dish(Russian Mary told us to choose a dish)

• Sometimes English object pronouns perform role of the subject in short remarks, which is typical for spoken language, which is not entirely grammatically correct:

Who did it? - Not me! /Me(Russian. Who did this? - Not me! / I)

I am feeling tired - Me too(Russian: I'm very tired. - Me too)

• Combination of pronoun with preposition to corresponds to the dative case in Russian (to whom?) and performs the function indirect (indirect) object:

Show the book to him(Russian: Show the book to him)

I sent a letter to them(Russian: I sent a letter to them)

• Pronoun combination with prepositions by and with corresponds to the instrumental case in Russian (by whom? what?) and is indirect object:

This article was translated by her(Russian. This article was translated by her)

I want to go with you(Russian: I want to go with you/with you)

• After the words except(Russian except) and but(Russian except) only object pronouns should be used:

Nobody but him helped me(Russian. Nobody but him helped me.)

Everyone except me went home(Russian. Everyone except me went home.)

Personal pronouns in English: sentences with examples

Only I can change my life. No one can do it for me. (Russian: Only I can change my life. No one can do this for me).

In this section we will talk about the generally accepted rules for using personal pronouns in English.

When to use I and me, we and us, he and him, etc.

As we have already written, English pronouns are in the nominative case ( I, you, he, she, it, we, they) act as the subject.

They are typically used before a verb to show who is doing the action.

For example:

Peter complained to the chef about the meal.(Russian Peter complained to the chef about the dish.)

She wasn’t very helpful so he spoke to the manager.(Russian. She didn’t really help, so he turned to the manager)

In the second sentence the pronouns she And he indicate who directly performed the action (she didn’t help, he turned).

Pronouns in the objective case ( me, you, him, her, it, us, them) are additions. In a sentence they are usually used after a verb or preposition.

Also, they can be used as short answers, mainly in colloquial speech.

For example:

A: Where’s the knife? I can't find it(Russian. Where is the knife? I can’t find it)

B: It is in the drawer.(Russian: He is in the box)

In the first sentence pronoun it used in the objective case, and is the object on which the action is performed (I can’t find it=knife). In the second sentence this is the same pronoun it is in the nominative case and is the subject (He = knife in the drawer)

Examples of using personal pronouns in English

Subjective pronoun	Translation into Russian	Object pronoun	Translation into Russian
He loves playing football.	He loves to play football.	Children love playing football with him.	Children love to play football with him.
They are your friends.	They are your friends.	Give the present to them.	Give the gift to them.
We are going to visit Katy at the weekend.	We are going to visit Katie this weekend.	Katy is going to visit us at the weekend.	Katie is going to visit us this weekend.
I thank you for help.	I thank you for your help.	Thank you for everything you did for me!	Thank you for everything you have done for me!
I called you yesterday but you were out.	I called you yesterday, but you weren't at home.	-Who called me? -Me. (I did)	-Who called me? -I.

Personal pronouns he, she, it

Personal pronouns he, she, it are representatives of the third person singular, and determine the form of feminine, masculine and neuter gender.

Nowadays in colloquial speech you can notice the use of several pronouns, a kind of “neutral form”, if the speaker is not sure about a person’s belonging to a certain gender, for example: he or she, he/she, s/he, (s)he.

For example:

The bank manager could help with your problem. He or she will probably be able to give you a loan.(Russian: The bank manager can help you. He or she will probably be able to give you a loan.)

It is necessary to remember some features of the use of the pronoun “it” in English.

Personal pronoun it defines objects and is often translated as “he/she” in Russian. The English pronoun it denotes not only inanimate objects, but often even animals.

Pronoun it often used in impersonal sentences when there is no subject:

gives an assessment of some action, for example: It is important to know this(Russian. It is important to know this);

indicates space and time: It is 10 km to the airport(Russian: 10 km to the airport), It is 10 o"clock now.(Russian: It’s 10 o’clock now.)

• indicates the weather: It is getting dark(Russian: It’s getting dark)

Example sentences with pronouns he, she, it

Using it and that, it and this

Many English language learners are interested in how sentences like this differ This is a pen from It is a pen, since both sentences are translated This is a pen.

Difference in usage this and it often underestimated, since many believe that there is no difference and “they will understand you either way.” But it's not that simple...

Pronoun this

when refers to a person, thing or thing that is spoken of or which is nearby or implied or has recently been mentioned: These are my pens(Russian. These are my hands)

• when indicating something that is being researched or discussed nearby or is currently being explored: This is iron and that is tin.(Russian: This is iron, and that is tin)

Pronoun it used in the following cases:

when identifying an inanimate object: Took a quick look at the house and noticed it was very old(Russian: I looked at the house and noticed that it was old)

refers to a person or animal whose sex is unknown or irrelevant: I don't know who it is(Russian. I don’t know who it is)

• defines a group of people or things, or an abstract entity: Beauty is everywhere and it is a source of joy.(Russian: Beauty is everywhere and it is a source of admiration)

Remember!

Definitive pronoun this used in relation to a person or thing that is being spoken about, which is implied or which will be discussed later, while personal pronoun it usually refers to an inanimate thing, or is used in relation to a person, thing, idea, etc., taken in a more abstract way.

There are other special uses pronouns it and that in English.

1. Pronoun this used as a definition and comes before a noun:

This cat is black(Russian. This cat is black).

Pronoun It cannot be used in this function.

2. Pronoun it used in impersonal sentences as a formal subject that is not translated:

It is dark(Russian: Dark).

If you use in this sentence this, there will be no error, but the meaning will change, since now the sentence is not impersonal, but personal, in which this will be translated because it replaces the above noun: This is my room and that is yours. This (one) is dark and that (one) is not.(Russian. This is my room, and that one is yours. Mine (this room) is dark, but yours (that room) is not)

3. Pronoun it can also be a substitute word for the above-mentioned noun and act as a subject and as an object:

This is a cat. This cat is black = It is black(Russian. This is a cat. This cat is black. = She is black)

I will take this (book) not that (one)(Russian. I buy this book, but not that one). The semantic emphasis on this particular book is this, and not on that one - that .

I will take it.(Russian: Buying/Taking), semantic emphasis on taking – will take

Choice it or this in this case it depends on what task the speaker faces:

nessesary to use this, if you need to point to a specific object in the field of view or highlight this object against the background of other “distant” objects;

• nessesary to use it, if you need to generalize without transferring the semantic load to the addition, as if we said: “everything that you already know from the previous sentence, so I won’t be specific.”

4. Pronoun it used in intensifying sentences as a formal subject:

Roll call response: It's me (I)(Russian: I / Here / I am present)

Answer to the question Who's there? when knocking on the door: It's me, Tom!(Russian: I / It's me, Tom)

In fact, these sentences are intensifying: It is I who has been called over. It is I, Tom, who has knocked at your door.(Russian. It’s me, the one you called. It’s me, the one who knocked on the door.) In this function this cannot be used.

Also, one of the differences between the pronouns under consideration is that this introduces new information (rheme), and it– known information (topic), therefore this always translated, but it- No.

Another significant difference is that the word it used in expressions related to time and weather, as well as in some fixed expressions, for example:

It's five past twelve(Russian: Time is five minutes past twelve)

It often rains in our region(Russian: It often rains in our region)

It isn’t easy to believe him again(Russian: It's not easy to trust him again)

Using the pronoun they

Pronoun they used to identify people, animals and objects in the plural.

Also, pronoun they refers to institutions, authorities, or groups of people in general.

Example sentences with the pronoun they

Special cases of using personal pronouns in English

In colloquial speech, the rules for using personal pronouns in English may not be followed. The picture shows the inscription I do. Me too instead of I do. So do I.

Using personal pronouns in informal conversation

• You and me or you and I?

Sometimes there is a difficult choice between: You and me or you and I? It seems that both options sound familiar and correct. But in fact, one option is correct (and therefore standard), and the second is grammatically incorrect, but still used in informal speech.

To determine the correct option, look at which part of the sentence this combination is: subject or object:

You and I will work tomorrow

(Russian: You and I will work tomorrow)

Now take it away you and we get: I will work tomorrow(Russian: I will work tomorrow) or Me will work tomorrow(Russian: I will be working tomorrow)

The second sentence is incorrect because the object pronoun me cannot be a subject. However, in informal conversation, you can hear You and me will work tomorrow, even though it is grammatically incorrect.

Another example:

They invited you and I

They invited you and me(Russian: They invited you and me)

Now let's remove the pronoun you :

They invited I(Russian: They invited me)

They invited me(Russian: They invited me)

Here the second sentence is correct because subject pronoun I cannot be an addition.

• Personal pronouns after “Than” and “As”

The correct grammatical form is to use personal pronouns in the nominative case followed by an auxiliary verb:

You are taller than I am(Russian: You are taller than me)

I earn as much money as he does

However, quite often a simple pronoun in the objective case is used; this option is simply considered typical for a colloquial, informal style:

You are taller than me(Russian: You are taller than me)

I earn as much money as him(Russian: I earn as much money as he does)

• Using personal pronouns in short answers

An object pronoun cannot be the subject of a sentence, but such use can be found after verb to be in short answers:

Who is there? - (It is) me!(Russian. Who's there? - (It's) me)

Who gave you this? - (It was) him.(Russian. Who gave you this? - (It was) him)

• “Omitting” a personal pronoun

Sometimes, a personal pronoun next to an auxiliary verb can be omitted in colloquial speech.

Don't know = I don't know(Russian: I don’t understand = I don’t understand)

Just kidding = I am just kidding(Russian: I'm kidding = I'm kidding)

Understand? = Do you understand?(Russian: Got it? = Do you understand?)

When are personal pronouns not used?

One of the features of personal pronouns is that they are not used after infinitive constructions if the subject and object are the same person:

This phone is easy to use (it).(Russian. This phone is easy to use.)

You are easy to understand (you).(Russian. You are easy to understand.)

But, the pronoun should be used if the impersonal pronoun it begins:

It is easy to understand you.(Russian: You are easy to understand)

Video about English personal pronouns

If there was anything unclear to you in our article, we recommend watching a video about personal pronouns in English.

Video on Personal Pronouns

Instead of a conclusion:

Pronouns help replace a person or thing, you need to be extremely careful not to confuse them, because this can confuse the listener or completely change the meaning of the sentence.

However, due to the fact that grammatically English personal pronouns They are very similar to Russian ones; their study and use does not cause serious problems.

We hope that after reading this article you will be able to use personal pronouns in English with ease!

Exercises on personal pronouns in English

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the personal pronoun:

Sample: Who is that woman? Why are you looking at her?

“Do you know that man?’ “Yes, I work with _ .’

Where are the tickets? I can't find_.

I can't find my keys. Where are _?

We're going out. You can come with _.

Margaret likes music. _ plays the piano.

I don't like dogs. I'm afraid of _ .

I"m talking to you. Please listen to _.

Where is Ann? I want to talk to_.

My brother has a new job. He doesn’t like _ very much.

In contact with

Substitutions at the morphological level are a method of translation in which a grammatical unit in the original is transformed into a unit of the target language with a different grammatical meaning.

In translation practice there are various types of grammatical substitutions.

Parts of speech substitutions

Part of speech substitution is the most common type of morphological transformation. Such substitutions are usually caused by “different uses of words and different rules of compatibility in English and Russian, and in some cases, the absence of a part of speech with the corresponding meaning in Russian.”

The simplest type of such replacement is pronoun conversion of the source language into a noun or proper noun of the target language and vice versa. Pronouns are specified based on broad context data.

We also produce chocolate, pastries, chewing gums, lolly-pops and cakes.

The money that we get from selling them is given to the children’s hospital.

We also produce chocolate, baked goods, chewing gum, caramel and cakes. The money received from the sale of these goods goes to the needs of the children's clinic.

It should be noted that quite often in translation there is a substitution inverse to the above, when a noun or proper name is replaced by a pronoun:

50% of the company's profits are used. The company uses 50% of its profits

A very common practice in translation is to replace an adjective with a noun or adverb.

She was a real beauty

When interpreting from Russian into English, considerable difficulties arise when replacing a verbal noun with a verb, and vice versa, replacing a verb with a verbal noun.

In English, names of figures (usually with the suffix -er) are widely used not only to designate persons of a certain profession (cf. Russian names “writer, artist, singer, dancer”, etc.), but also to characterize the actions of “non-professionals”. The meanings of such nouns are regularly conveyed in translation using Russian verbs:

He is a poor swimmer

She doesn't know how to write letters She is not good as a letter-writer

As can be seen from the examples, replacing a verb with a noun is often accompanied by replacing an adverb with an adjective with this noun.

Verbs are often replaced by corresponding nouns:

We hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday. It is our hope, that an agreement will be reached by Friday.

Russian nouns are often replaced by English adjectives derived from geographical names:

Australia's economic prosperity was followed by a crisis. Australian prosperity was followed by a slump.

Often, a similar replacement is also used in relation to English adjectives in the comparative degree with the meaning of increasing or decreasing volume, size or degree:

The strike in support of demands for higher wages and shorter working hours began on Monday. The stoppage which is in support of higher pay and shorter working hours, began on Monday.

As noted earlier, the Russian language is characterized by a tendency towards

substantivization or objectification of actions and processes.

The consequence of this pattern is a large number of verbal nouns in the positions of subject, object and circumstance.

In English, the tendency to objectify actions is less clearly expressed, and verbal constructions are generally used less frequently than in Russian. When translating, this difference creates the need for a number of transformations.

In the Russian language, statements are widely used in which the subject is expressed by a phrase consisting of a verbal noun, meaning a certain process, and another name, meaning the subject or object of the process. For example: The complication of the situation in Cyprus is due to the fact that the settlement of the problem of this island state has been unjustifiably delayed.

The phrase “complication of the situation” consists of the verbal noun “complication” and the name “situation”, which means the subject of the process expressed by the verbal noun (cf.: “the situation has become complicated”). In the phrase “problem resolution,” the name “problem” with the verbal noun “resolution” performs the function of an object (cf.: “resolve the problem”).

The English style manuals advise against using abstract nouns as subjects. In other words, when translating the above statements, it is necessary to change the subject, replacing the verbal noun in the subject position with a specific name.

This transformation is made possible by a translation technique called the deployment of a reduced predicate (a reduced predicate is a predicate in a phrase expressed by an adjective, participle or verbal noun, but performing the functions of a verb). This technique consists in the fact that during the translation process the phrase is expanded into a separate sentence. In this case, the name of the action is transformed into a verbal or nominal predicate, and the specific actor in the role of the subject is determined based on the context, depending on the function of the name with a verbal noun.

Our union is working towards overcoming the split in the international movement of coal miners" unions.

This example clearly shows that in the case when a name with a verbal noun performs the function of a subject, it is easily converted into the subject of an English statement. The context is limited to the verb-nominal phrase itself.

In cases where a name with a verbal noun means an object, the translator identifies a specific figure, relying on a broader context: “The resumption of negotiations was postponed under a variety of pretexts.”

The article from which this statement is taken talks about negotiations between two communities in Ulster. We can therefore offer the following translation option: Under all sorts of pretexts, the two communities refused to resume negotiations.

In constructions with a name with a verbal noun in the “object” function, the verbal noun can be omitted during translation. The role of the subject in this case is played by the name itself.

The conclusion of a trade agreement with Spain will contribute to the expansion of economic cooperation between our two countries. - A trade agreement with Spain will promote economic cooperation between our two countries.

A similar transformation occurs when a name in the subject position is expressed by nouns derived from verbs that do not have a specific meaning without their objects, such as “providing assistance,” “winning,” “defeating,” “exerting influence (service, pressure).” , “committing theft (crime, murder).” Such nouns form phraseologically related phrases with another name, the specific meaning of which is contained in the object.

The name can also be derived from verbs with the general meaning of “action”, such as “carrying out a search (analysis)”, “organizing excursions (lectures, events)”, “achieving independence (results)”, “convening a conference (meeting)”, “ implementation of plans (programs)”, “conclusion of an agreement”, “provision of a loan (credit, independence)”, “emergence of danger (war)”, “creation of bases (zones)”.

In addition to the function of the subject, Russian verbal nouns can perform the functions of secondary members of a sentence - additions, modifiers and circumstances.

In similar English utterances, verbal nouns are also a common occurrence. According to the statements of English stylists, when describing processes, the English language gives preference to other linguistic means, such as the infinitive, participle gerund and adjective. Verbal names that perform the function of an object can be expressed as an infinitive or a gerund.

The forces encouraging us to enter a period of peace have already taken shape. - There are already forces that prompt us to enter an era of peace.

The personal form of the verb is often translated by participle, for example:

The company went bankrupt and employees were left without work. - The company got bankrupt leaving the workers unemployed

due to which the syntax of the sentence changes.

It is obvious that when using any grammatical replacements of parts of speech when translating, the translator often has to accompany them with the replacement of sentence members, i.e., restructuring the syntactic structure of the sentence. Thus, syntactic and morphological transformations are constantly in interaction.

Replacing a number

In English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, related nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, with the exception of cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian (money - money, ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular (struggles - struggle, outskirts - outskirts, etc.). But under certain conditions, replacing the form of a number during the translation process can be used as a means of creating occasional correspondence [Komissarov, op. rab., 78]:

We are looking for talent everywhere. We are searching for talent everywhere.

They left the room with their heads held high

Substitution of grammatical tense

As already mentioned in Chapter II, unlike English, the Russian language has a grammatical category of aspect. Over time, the English language lost this category, acquiring in return many grammatical verb tenses. In this regard, when translating from Russian into English, there is a need to replace grammatical tense. Most often, the Russian perfect past tense verb corresponds to a simple present tense verb or present perfect tense.

Sales volume amounted to 1 million. The sales account for 1 million.

Many linguists classify the so-called grammatical transformations as word-formation transformations.

The fact that the proportion of affix formations in English is much higher than in Russian, this leads to the introduction of additional lexemes into the text (for example, the suffix -able). The suffix -able is very productive and forms mainly adjectives from verbs. It usually contains a modal meaning, so it is often used to translate modal words such as “possible”, “impossible”, “impossible”, etc.:

The sea was stormy and it was impossible to swim.

The sea was rough and unswimmable.

The example shows that word-formation transformation is necessary for the compactness of the translation: two words “impossible to swim” are replaced by one “unswimmable”. And, again, when using word-formation transformation, the need for syntactic transformation arises: the sentence to swim was impossible to be replaced by the definition of unswimmable.

There are various means of text coherence:

• semantic,
• lexical,
• grammatical,
• stylistic,
• intonation,
• graphic.

Means of meaning are formalized by semantic relationships into which concepts and facts enter in the text.

Lexical means of text coherence

These include:

1) Lexical repetition

i.e. repetition of a word or word form, words of the same root to connect sentences. "This repetition helps maintain the unity of the text's theme.

It is sometimes considered a speech error, but this is not always the case. For example, or styles, repetition is the main means of coherence (Look how often the word “repetition” is used in the sentences you just read). Sometimes lexical repetition can compositionally organize a text (for example, S. Yesenin’s poem “Shagane, you are mine, Shagane”).

2) Synonymous replacement

those. replacing a word in one sentence with a word or phrase in another sentence. Synonymous substitution is used where colorful speech and its imagery are needed (in journalism, in fiction, etc.)

“Autumn is unusually good in September. The sun still warms the earth at this time.”

Relationships “genus-species”, i.e. in one sentence a word is used with a broader meaning, in the next sentence a word is used whose meaning is included in the meaning of the first word.

“There are many dear Russian trees in this forest. But first of all you notice the white trunks of the birches.”

3) Words from one thematic group

“There are many Karamazovs in Russian life, but still they do not determine the course of the ship. Sailors are important, but even more important for the captain of a sailing ship is the tiller and the star to which the ideal is oriented.”

Antonyms, polysemantic words, homonyms and other lexical phenomena can be used as lexical means of coherence.

Grammatical means of text coherence

These include:

1)unity of aspectual and tense forms of the verb

those. in one text, as a rule, verbs are used in the form of one type and one tense.

If you start a story in the past tense, then you will continue it the same way. When describing something, for example, imperfective verbs are used.

“This new (Poltava) camp was closed from the rear by a steep descent to Vorskla. On his right flank there was a ravine in which the former camp was located. The left flank rested on the forest, which stretched to the Poltava Monastery.”

All verbs in this fragment are imperfect past tense.

2) Pronominal substitution

it is used very widely as a means of coherence.

It is well known that a word in one sentence can be replaced in another sentence by a pronoun.

“Once upon a time the city of Brest was located here. It was moved to the side and a fortress was erected in this very advantageous place for defense.

3) Conjunctions, particles, introductory words, modal words.

Conjunctions, particles, modal words quite often act as means of coherence. These tools allow you to maintain the logic of the text (for example, introductory words on the one hand, on the other hand, so, etc.), to enhance one or another semantic load of the text

“The picture shows the Brest Fortress. Or rather, only its small, central part.”

4)adverbs and words with spatial and temporal meaning(today, tomorrow, in front, behind, nearby and under.

Today the ring is broken in many places. Until the year 1941 it was continuous, with three gates.”

It must be said that in the same text, connections are used comprehensively, i.e. Several types of communication can be used. So, in the previous example, in addition to the pronominal replacement (ring - it), words with a temporary meaning are used (today - until the forty-first year) and antonyms (broken - was solid).

5)sentences-clips

which do not carry any semantic load, they are intended specifically to connect sentences

(for example, often such a sentence is the sentence - “This will be discussed below” - and similar ones).

Stylistic means of coherence text

Stylistic means of text coherence

These include words and word forms that emphasize either the emotional coloring of the entire text or the homogeneity of words for a given text (for example, in a scientific text, terms carry such a load).

For example,

The relationship between classes of speech makers is called the ethos of speech communications. Without successful regulation of speech communications, society falls into a state of turmoil. As history shows, it is not always possible to successfully regulate relations between speakers. The progress, stagnation or degradation of society depends on the regulation of the ethos of speech communications.

(among other means, in this passage the coherence of the text is supported by underlined words, which create a unified stylistic coloring of the text)

How are stylistic devices used?

Intonation means - these are pauses, speech rhythm, intonation

By graphic means are:

• punctuation marks,
• Red line,
• fonts,
• discharge

(If you work on a computer, you are very familiar with these tools.)

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Anyone who read the translation of W. Faulkner’s novel “Sartoris” in the collection of the writer’s works, published in the “Masters of Modern Prose” series (M., 1973), could not help but experience difficulty in trying to mentally see the furnishings of the room in one description of the novel:

A transparent blue haze, saturated with the pungent aromas of cooking, floated in the warm air of the room; a kerosene lamp burned with an even light on the short table. At one end of the table there was a single chair; on the other three sides there were wooden benches without backs (p. 270).

How did the owner of the room manage to place wooden benches on three sides of the chair? The meaning of such an action is difficult to grasp. What's the matter? Reading the text again, the reader will eventually understand: to him should mean to the table, not to the chair. But according to the rule, the pronoun replaces the nearest noun, and therefore the text may be misunderstood at first. The error will likely cost the reader time to investigate. Meanwhile, the author and editor should not allow the reader to have to figure out where the text could be understood without any effort.

Why didn't the editor notice such an elementary mistake?

Because he did not have the technique and skill of indispensably replacing a pronoun with the word that this pronoun replaces, and according to the pattern of perception, this word is the closest noun of the previous text, in this case the noun chair. Replacing a pronoun with this word, as the editor can’t help but be convinced, creates ambiguity, and, therefore, so that the reader does not waste time analyzing how this text should be understood, it is necessary not to use the pronoun he here, putting instead the word that it should was to replace, i.e. on the other three sides of the table there were wooden benches without backs.

This technique or skill will protect you from accidental mistakes: you need it, but it’s delivered by her, it’s needed by them, but it’s worth it by them. In addition, it will help avoid the ambiguity that a poorly used pronoun creates, as in the following examples:

Trade unions are placed under the control of the armed forces. Their representatives have already been appointed to 18 important trade unions.

The question arises: whom? Formally authorized trade unions, but then what is the control over them of the armed forces? So theirs is the armed forces. In order not to confuse the reader and so that he would immediately understand what we were talking about, it was necessary to combine two phrases into one, rearranging the first and turning the second into a subordinate attribute:

Trade unions are placed under the control of the armed forces, whose representatives are appointed to 18 important trade union associations.

Everything is clear, and the reader will not experience any difficulties.

Portraying Peter as an outstanding historical figure, the author does not forget, however, that he is a defender of the interests of the landowner class.

Here he is, of course, Peter, but it is possible that the reader will initially understand: he is the author. And it is better, excluding any double reading, even if it can amuse the reader, but reduces the effectiveness of normal reading, instead put this or the king

Ambiguity is often caused by the possibility of a double understanding of a pronoun: both as a personal and as a possessive.

Of course, everyone will understand the phrase correctly:

The actress [Ermolova] was sometimes compared in terms of the strength of her temperament with Mochalov, calling him a daughter (Deitch Al. We love the theater. M., 1960. P. 73).

And yet, the comical effect when understanding the pronoun as personal: he - Mochalov - was called a daughter (and there are some formal grounds for this - first of all, the closeness of the word Mochalov to the pronoun) can for some time distance the reader from the correct reading of the text. Since it can be perceived in different ways: both as personal (who was called the daughter?) and as possessive (whose daughter was called?), it is necessary to correct the phrase. The editor will notice this need only if, during the reading, he substitutes all possible words as substitutes for the pronoun. The following example is no less comical:

However, despite all the similarities with their feline relatives, scientists classify the cheetah as an independent genus for its uniqueness.

Here the scientists are turned into relatives of the cheetah due to the distance of the cheetah's word from its feline relatives. Once you combine the cheetah with them, the erroneous meaning of the phrase will disappear:

However, despite all the similarities between the cheetah and its feline relatives, scientists classify it as an independent genus for its uniqueness.

It was possible to get away from the comical treatment of scientists as relatives of the cheetah by replacing the pronoun with their own pronouns. When a pronoun comes after two nouns, one of which controls the other, it is not always easy to determine which one it replaces. For example:

The geography of fair participants has expanded significantly over the past 10 years. At present, the organizers have decided to limit its size to two, albeit huge, halls, so that it maintains reasonable proportions.

In the phrase geography of fair participants, the leading word is geography. Its pronoun is separated by a number of words from the word fair it replaces, and since the word geography (as the leading one) is fixed and preserved in the reader’s memory first of all, and besides, he expects an explanation of how exactly geography has expanded, then at the moment of reading its meaning can be misunderstood by the reader. But the absurdity of the combination (the dimensions of geography) and the end of the phrase will convince the reader that it means fairs. Nevertheless, it is better to save the reader from temporary difficulties in understanding the text. The means for this here are varied: 1) replace the word geography with the word number of countries, which is more consistent with the subsequent content; 2) replace the pronoun she in the last subordinate clause with the word fair.

Word-sensitive people react sharply to an ambiguous pronoun used. This, for example, is evidenced by one of A.P. Chekhov’s letters to his brother:

Having drunk a glass of tea, strong as tar, at I. Grek’s, I went for a walk with him on the Neva, i.e. not with tea, not with tar, but with Bilibin.

So, the obligatory replacement of a pronoun with the closest antecedent word, which it can formally replace, should also become a skill of editorial analysis.

We assign a huge role in our Russian speech to pronouns, the function of which is quite large. If we exclude this important part of speech, then we will have to repeat the same words in sentences, be they nouns, adjectives or another part of speech, and speech will lose its variety and richness.

Signs of pronouns

We call pronouns an independent part of speech that indicates objects, their characteristics, quantities, but does not name them. In the very concept of “pronouns” the name is hidden - they are used “instead of a name”. Now let's move on to their characteristics:

• answer the questions “who?”, “what?”, “which?”, “where?”, “whose?” and others depending on the category;
• divided into categories by meaning (personal, reflexive, possessive, etc.);
• change according to cases, genders, numbers;
• do not have their own specific lexical meaning, only the meaning of those words that replace them.

In sentences, pronouns can play the role of any member of the sentence, again depending on which part of speech they replace. For example: “When I returned to that house, it really surprised me with its new interior.” Here the pronouns are expressed by different members of the sentence: “I”, “he” are the subjects, “that”, “his” are the definitions, “me” is the complement.

What parts of speech can a pronoun replace?

Depending on what part of speech the pronouns replace, their morphological and syntactic features will change. Most often, pronouns are used to replace nouns. In this case, in sentences they most often play the role of subjects and objects, change by case and answer the same questions as nouns (“who?”, “what?”). For example: “When they left, I finally felt relieved.” Here both pronouns (“they”, “I”) replace nouns and are expressed by subjects.

Pronouns also replace adjectives: “Your hair is impeccable.” In this case, the pronoun “your” is expressed by a definition and answers the question of the adjective “what?”, “whose?” and has the same morphological characteristics.

Pronouns can replace numerals: “I have several ways to solve it.” The pronoun “several” answers the question “how many?”, indicating the quantity, but not naming it.