Making management decisions. Classification of the main types of management decisions The need to make a decision arises under the following conditions

Management decisions

A management decision is presented as a social act aimed at resolving a problem situation. Decision making is one of the main and most responsible activities of a manager, since the effectiveness of management, and, consequently, the efficiency of the hotel, depends on the correctness and timeliness of management decisions.

The need for decision-making arises at all stages of the management process and is associated with various aspects of managerial work. And although each of us makes dozens of decisions during the day (where to have lunch? what to buy? etc.), making management decisions is significantly different from decisions made in everyday private life.

For a manager, decision making is a constant and responsible job. The need to make decisions accompanies everything that a hotel manager at any level does. Since the decisions made affect not only the manager, but also other people and, in many cases, the entire hotel, understanding the nature and essence of this process is extremely important for anyone who wants to succeed in the field of management.

One of the indicators of a manager’s successful performance is his ability to make the right decisions. Since managers perform the four functions of management, they actually deal with a constant flow of decisions regarding each of them, that is, planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. Making and making decisions is a creative process in the activities of managers. It includes stages:

1. development and goal setting;
2. studying the problem;
3. selection and justification of efficiency criteria and possible consequences of decisions made;
4. consideration of solution options;
5. selection and final formulation of the decision;
6. decision making;
7. communicating decisions to executors;
8. control over the implementation of decisions.

As a result, the management decision is presented as the result of management activities. A management decision is considered as the main type of managerial work, a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent management actions that ensure the implementation of management tasks.

Solutions can be classified according to different criteria. However, the determining factor is the conditions in which the decision is made. Typically, decisions are made either in an environment of certainty or in an environment of risk (uncertainty).

In conditions of certainty, the manager is more or less confident in the results of each decision. In an environment of risk (uncertainty), the most a manager can do is determine the probability of success for each decision option.

There are other criteria for classifying management decisions:

According to the duration of the consequences of the decision: long-, medium- and short-term decisions;
by frequency of adoption: one-time (random) and recurring;
by breadth of coverage: general (affecting all employees) and highly specialized;
by form of training: individual, group and collective;
by complexity: simple and complex;
according to the rigidity of regulation: contour, structured and algorithmic.

Contour decisions only approximately indicate the scheme of action of subordinates and give them wide scope for choosing techniques and methods for implementing decisions. Structured decisions require strict regulation of the actions of subordinates. Initiative on their part can only manifest itself in resolving secondary issues. Algorithmic solutions extremely strictly regulate the activities of subordinates and practically exclude their initiative.

Of particular interest is the classification of management decisions given by M. Mescon, M. Albert and F. Khedouri, who distinguish organizational, intuitive and rational decisions. An organizational decision is a choice that a manager must make in order to fulfill the responsibilities of his or her position. The purpose of an organizational decision is to move toward the goals set for the organization.

Organizational decisions can be divided into two groups: programmed and unprogrammed. In a programmed decision, the number of alternatives is limited and choices must be made within the directions given by the organization. Unprogrammed decisions are made in new situations. They are not internally structured or are associated with unknown factors. Unprogrammed decisions include decisions on choosing the purpose of the organization, improving products, improving the structure, etc. In practice, few management decisions turn out to be programmed or unprogrammed in their pure form.

Essentially, the process of making organizational decisions is very closely related to the process of managing the organization as a whole.

Intuitive decisions are made by the manager based on intuition (“by eye”). As a rule, managers with extensive management experience are prone to them.

A rational decision is different in that it does not depend on the manager’s experience and length of service. It is based on a deep analysis and synthesis of all phenomena and processes occurring in the hotel industry.

In relation to the hotel complex, the following criteria for classifying management decisions can be distinguished:

1. degree of structure (unprogrammed and programmed);
2. content (legal, economic, technical, etc.);
3. number of persons involved in decision making (group and individual);
4. level of management (highest, middle, lowest);
5. number of targets (single-purpose and multi-purpose).

Management decision making

The content of the decision-making process depends, first of all, on the complexity of the problem situation that has arisen. For example, it will not cause a problem if an employee who has an equivalent replacement suddenly falls ill, but the problem will turn out to be difficult if the marketing situation in the hotel services market has changed. In any case, in the decision-making process, the manager needs to answer the following questions: What to do? How to do? Who should I entrust the work to? What are the deadlines for its implementation? For whom should it be done? Where to do it? What will it give?

Questions about how many and what stages the decision-making process should go through, and what the specific content of each of them are, are controversial and are resolved by managers in different ways. It depends on the qualifications of the leader, the situation, the leadership style and the culture of the organization. It is important that each manager understands the strengths and limitations of each approach and decision-making procedure and, taking into account the situation, as well as his own management style, is able to choose the best option.

When making any decision, even the simplest one, corresponding costs (material, social, etc.) are required. Therefore, the manager must, first of all, decide whether it is necessary to make a decision or can get by with advice, wishes, etc.

The classic approach to making a management decision consists of following a certain procedure and performing mandatory actions:

1. definition of the problem;
2. identifying limitations and identifying alternatives;
3. decision making;
4. implementation of the solution;
5. control over execution.

Definition of the problem. At the origin of any solution there is a problematic situation that requires its solution. The manager’s task at this stage is to analyze the problem situation, that is, to determine the symptom of the “disease,” study the state of affairs and goals, and preliminary formulation of decision criteria. Thus, the process of defining a problem is to identify and evaluate it.

Problem detection is the recognition that a deviation has occurred from the originally established plans. A manager can learn about the existence of a problem from a personal review and analysis of information, public opinion, and the opinions of other managers and subordinates.

Assessing the problem - establishing its scope and nature. Determining the scale of a problem is not finding its cause and source. We are talking only about assessing the means to solve it and the degree of its seriousness.

Identifying limitations and identifying alternatives. The cause of the problem may be forces outside the organization (external environment) that the manager cannot change. Limitations of this kind narrow the possibilities for making optimal decisions, so it is necessary to determine their source and essence and outline possible actions that eliminate the causes of this problem. The search for alternatives should be preceded by the stage of determining the criteria for a successful solution; this will eliminate future errors in decisions made.

Decision-making. At this stage, solution options are developed, evaluated, and an alternative with the most favorable overall consequences is selected. It's about comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each solution option. The manager must answer the questions: What is the effectiveness (economic and social) of the solution? Is there internal consent of the subordinate to carry out this decision? What are the consequences?

Implementation of the solution. The process does not end with the choice of a solution option, because in order to achieve the final goals, the decision made must be implemented. At the implementation stage, measures are taken to specify the solution and communicate it to the implementers. It is necessary to develop a plan for implementing a management decision, which stipulates who, when, where and by what means should solve the problem.

Monitoring the implementation of the decision. Even after the decision is put into effect, the process of its adoption cannot be considered completely completed, since it is necessary to obtain information about whether the management decision is being implemented according to plan. During the control process, deviations are identified and amendments are made to help implement the solution completely. With the help of control, feedback is established between the control and controlled systems.

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Decision conditions

In the process of making any management decision, a need arises for its implementation, which meets the following conditions:

• the existence of a gap between the desired and existing stage of development (inconsistency of the enterprise’s activities with its goals);
• the gap becomes large enough to be noticed and therefore requires attention;
• the person who makes the decision strives to reduce this gap;
• the person who makes the decision is confident that there is a possibility of reducing this gap.

In industrial enterprises, the problem is identified and determined in some cases:

• the efficiency of the company or its divisions decreases compared to the previous period;
• the final results are not consistent with the planned goals;
• comparative results with similar companies are unsatisfactory.

Once a problem has been identified and its causes have been established, the stage of searching for information and alternatives for a solution begins.

Note 1

The search for information carried out by a manager may indicate, for example, that the reason for the narrowing of the gap is the increasing cost of production.

There are possible alternative solutions:

• reduce the cost of raw materials by rationalizing methods of acquiring them;
• reduce the cost of raw materials by switching to our own production;
• reduce production costs by using more cost-effective equipment;
• hire cheaper labor.

Alternative selection process

Alternatives for selecting solutions can be implemented:

• In a satisfactory way (the solution is necessary to satisfy the need);
• maximization method (choosing a solution from a certain number of alternatives).

The selection process relies on rational evidence, intuition, or a combination of both.

After the decision-making act is implemented, it is followed by its implementation, support, allocation of necessary resources, and development of a feedback concept.

In the process of identifying a problem and making a decision, various factors of the internal and external environment of the enterprise are influenced. Among them, it is necessary, first of all, to pay attention to the factors of the immediate situation that cause the decision to be made - these are the significance of the decision and the influence of time.

Each decision has varying degrees of importance (minor, medium, and greatest importance).

The relative importance of the decision is manifested in the presence of such criteria as:

• the number of employees who are affected by the decision;
• the amount of money spent and the impact of the decision on the survival or profitability of the company;
• time spent by managers to justify and implement a decision.

Another factor that has a direct impact on the process of making a quality decision is the amount of time a manager spends on making a decision.

Under significant time pressure, the manager may not be able to obtain the necessary information or consider a sufficient number of alternative options. The time factor can also influence the decision-making process itself. For example, if there is a lack of time, a manager will pay more attention to negative rather than positive circumstances and consider a small number of factors when making a decision.

Note 2

In order to describe the environmental conditions in which decisions are made, it is customary to use the terms certainty-uncertainty. In conditions of certainty, the manager makes decisions in the presence and knowledge of all alternatives and the consequences of each of them. The decision in this case is made as a result of choosing an alternative that maximizes the final result.

Making a management decision is the most important stage of management activity, the implementation of management relations and the leadership abilities of each manager. The result of managerial and organizational work is a management decision.

A decision is an act of management bodies or a manager in which not only a goal is set, but also a number of tasks are formulated, performers are provided, resources are allocated (labor, material, financial), and responsibility is assigned.

A decision is made in cases where a problematic situation is identified. The latter has been comprehensively studied, the causes and conditions of its occurrence have been determined, the necessary information has been collected, the key to the solution has been found, the possible consequences in changing the quality of people’s lives have been assessed, etc. When preparing a solution, those limitations within which the goal is realized are identified, and the assigned tasks begin to be solved. These restrictions can be internal (qualifications of people, availability of resources, quality of information) and external (relations with the outside world, connections with suppliers, presence of investors, etc.).

The diversity of problems corresponds to the diversity of solutions. Experts identify the following solutions: economic, social, political, ideological, state-legal, strategic and tactical, global and specific, conceptual and programmatic, scientifically based and empirical, intuitive, routine and innovative.

It is quite obvious that it is possible to distinguish a different number of stages in the preparation of a management decision (search for a problem, determination of solutions, selection of the optimal solution from available alternatives, declaration of a decision, etc.), but the main one is the process of collecting, analyzing and processing information about external and internal conditions.

When preparing and making decisions, modern scientific and technical means, operations research methods, system analysis, modeling, and electronic computer technology are used. For collective decisions, the total collective intelligence of the decision-making subject is of particular importance. However, it is necessary to emphasize the creative nature of the process of preparation and decision-making, the primary role of a person’s personality, his managerial intelligence, professionalism, will and other personal and professional qualities.

Any decision is connected with a person, his creative individuality, with the motivation for everyone’s activities. Without taking this into account, a decision, even the most reasonable one, cannot be made, much less implemented. The subject of management, making a decision and organizing its execution, is guided by the unshakable principle - the decision must be “projected” onto a person, team, organization, affect their fundamental interests, motivate them to act. Therefore, it is important to take all measures to ensure that the decision is accepted by people and they realize its necessity. Of course, the following situation may arise: the decision is correct, even innovative, but people’s consciousness is not ready to perceive it, adherence to old decisions prevails in it, stereotypes of the past operate, emotions prevail over common sense. But even in this case, the subject of management carries out work to innovate consciousness, gradually achieves an implementation effect by means of explanatory and educational technologies for studying and innovating public opinion.

Decision making can be defined as a process of non-random choice of actions. To make a choice means to give preference (in some respect) to one over another. The outcome of the decision-making process is the decision itself. In essence, a decision is a feeling of the subject that the decision process is completed and as a result of this he already knows how he should act, not only knows what he wants in a given situation, but also approximately understands how he intends to achieve this. From a psychological point of view, decision making is “a volitional act of forming consistent actions leading to achieving a goal based on the transformation of information in a situation of uncertainty.”

Each, even the narrowest, interval of any activity consists of a number of decisions made by a person in the process of choosing options, goals and methods of his own activities. Management decisions differ from others in that they are two-stage. In the process of leadership, a leader always makes decisions regarding how he should lead, but these decisions simultaneously contain a “second step” - they are a decision on how subordinates should act.

There are no management decisions that would have only economic consequences. Decisions are always social, always instilling either positive or negative qualities in subordinates. Therefore, when making this or that decision, the manager must keep in mind the dual effect: production-economic and social, moral-psychological. And the assessment of the optimality of the decision he makes is not only economic indicators, but also the behavior of workers when they achieve production goals, the measure of their activity and initiative.

Depending on the extent to which the management subject making the decision is familiar with the situation, decisions are distinguished:

• - confidence (deterministic decisions when the situation and the causal dependencies occurring in it are known);
• - risk (probabilistic decisions, when at least one of the moments is not known, but its or their probability is known and can be calculated, if such cases often occur);
• - uncertainty (strategic decisions when the decision maker does not know any of these points).

M. Woodcock and D. Francis distinguish management decisions depending on the relative difficulty of the problems that need to be solved. They identify and consider four levels of decision making, each of which requires specific management skills.

Level one is routine. When making routine decisions, a manager behaves according to a specific program, almost like a computer recognizing situations and acting in a predictable manner. Its main function is to “sense” and identify situations and then take responsibility for initiating certain actions.

The second level is selective. At this level, the manager evaluates the merits of a range of possible solutions and tries to select from a number of well-developed alternative sets of actions those that best suit the given problem.

The third level is adaptation. At this level, the manager is looking for a new solution to a known problem. Success depends on his personal initiative and ability to break into the unknown.

Level four is innovative. At this level, a leader must find ways to understand completely unexpected and unpredictable problems, the solution of which often requires developing the ability to think in new ways.

It is also useful to distinguish between individual decisions (made by the manager alone) and collegial decisions (made by the manager with the involvement of subordinates). Moreover, depending on the “specific weight” of unity of command and collegiality in decision-making, five types of decision-making are distinguished:

• -- sole decision-making without prior consultation with employees and subsequent informing them;
• -- sole decision-making with subsequent informing of subordinates;
• -- sole decision-making with preliminary consultations in the team;
• -- making joint decisions with employees;
• -- complete transfer of decision-making functions to subordinates.

According to these types of decision-making, we can talk about five possible leadership styles: 1) directive, 2) directive-collegial, 3) collegial, 4) collegial-liberal, 5) liberal.

L. Plunkett and G. Hale distinguish and describe binary and multi-choice solutions. Making a binary decision involves choosing from two possible options and, in particular, according to the “yes or no” scheme. Making a multiple-choice decision involves choosing from more than two possible options.

The scientific literature also describes solutions:

• -- alternative-conditional (“I will do M if there are conditions C, but if there are conditions D, I will do N”) and unambiguous (“I will only do M”);
• - compromise (“I will do K, since this will not cause such a violent reaction from X as my action M”) and uncompromising;
• - reinsurance and bold;
• -- promising (concerning the determination by a person or group of the direction of activity) and current (accepted regarding changes in conditions within the framework of the developed direction).

In order to make qualified decisions, a person must have certain personal and business qualities.

Research shows that there are leaders who, while possessing these qualities, do not master the art of decision-making. In this regard, those psychological conditions are of interest, the observance of which allows one to overcome this disadvantage:

• -- predictive reproduction of ways to solve existing problems, correlating them with real conditions of implementation;
• -- drawing up a detailed information description of the “components” necessary for making a decision and possible actions for its implementation;
• -- skillful handling of one's knowledge, constant use of professional experience and intuition;
• - active involvement of specialists in the development of specific proposals for developing a solution, choosing the most reasonable paths, mastering these ideas from the angle of their solution concept;
• -- thorough volitional preparation, internal overcoming of the “struggle of motives” in favor of making a decision that involves less risk, having a high sense of responsibility;
• -- critical assessment of the effectiveness of ways to implement the developed decision, “openness” to new information that helps to correct the decision made, as well as to critical comments, overcoming the desire to obtain data confirming the correctness of the decision, although it has been discovered that it has a number of shortcomings.

In the scientific literature, managers with internal and external strategies are distinguished when making decisions. The first group includes those who believe that the quality of a decision and its feasibility primarily depend on their own competence, intellectual abilities, and will. Individuals with an external strategy believe that their success or failure primarily depends on external circumstances that they cannot influence.

It will also be useful to distinguish types of decision-making depending on the combination of such psychological qualities as productivity of thinking and its criticality. The first quality (denoted by the letter P) is manifested in the ability to construct hypotheses, options, non-standard proposals, etc. The second quality (denoted by the letter K) reveals itself in the tendency to thoroughly test proposed projects and hypotheses. It is said about people with this quality that they do not take anything for granted and weigh everything carefully. “Measure twice, cut once,” this is said specifically about them. There are:

• -- an impulsive decision expressed by the formula P > K, -- i.e. the processes of constructing hypotheses significantly prevail over their testing;
• - risky decision (P i K) - the processes of constructing hypotheses dominate over their testing, but this dominance is not significant; managerial decision leader
• -- balanced solution (P = K) -- the processes of constructing hypotheses are balanced by testing them;
• - cautious decision (P Ј K) - testing of hypotheses mainly prevails over construction processes;
• -- inert solution (P

Of no small importance for decision-making is such a quality as decisiveness, that is, a person’s ability to independently make responsible decisions and steadily implement them in activities. It manifests itself especially noticeably in difficult situations, when an action is associated with a known risk and the need to choose from several alternatives. Decisiveness also means the ability to boldly take responsibility for a decision.

People obviously would like the decisions they make to be optimal and effective. But to realize such a desire, you need to at least know the factors that influence the decision-making process. They can be summarized into four groups:

• -- information factors, that is, the amount of information about the object of the action, the performers and the conditions in which the action will take place;
• - motivational factors, that is, the motives of the subject making the decision, his interests, attitudes and positions;
• - characterological factors, or character traits of the subject, and in the case of a collegial decision - the nature of the relationships in the group making the decision;
• -- technological factors determined by compliance with certain principles and rules, technological procedures, and the use of the available arsenal of decision-making methods.

What a person focuses on in this process has a significant impact on the decision-making process. Usually, four value orientations of a subject (individual, group) are identified and considered: vested, on others, on a superior leader, on oneself.

A person values ​​his own decision more than an imposed one, “brought down” from the outside. By the way, Japanese companies pay special attention to this pattern. Decision-making here is preceded by a long, thorough and comprehensive study of problems at all levels, departments and levels. If an employee has the impression that he is being ordered like an automaton, then this is considered a gross management mistake that undermines “social harmony” in the enterprise. It is customary to ensure that everyone is confident that they are involved in the decision. Although, in general, most often the company's management makes this decision long before its approval. However, the “captains” of the Japanese economy spend a lot of effort to make everything look like a process of “collectivist management.”

The manager makes decisions, first of all, about the activities of his direct subordinates. However, as a rule, each manager takes upon himself decision-making on certain issues, excluding them from the sphere where his immediate subordinates have the right to decide. The orders of the manager are binding on all his direct subordinates, as well as those subordinate to subordinate managers. In the latter case, subordinates, strictly speaking, in these matters become direct subordinates of the superior manager.

For each decision there is a suitable moment, or, in other words, a situation that is most favorable for this decision. By missing this point, we complicate our situation. In ancient times, such a “decisive” moment was depicted in the image of a running man with hair in front and a bald spot at the back of his head: when he approaches, you can grab him by the hair, but when he has run, how can you grab his bald spot?

For different decisions, the duration of the right moment is different - from fractions of seconds to several months or even years. For example, decision-making in an extreme (emergency, life-threatening) situation can take place in a split second, but a decision on choosing a doctrine of social development is possible within several years.

Taking into account the considered patterns, several principles for making effective decisions can be formulated.

Systematic principle. Many enterprises are running idle, experiencing stressful situations, financial losses, and demotivating employees. And all this because either the decisions made were not optimal, or the decisions were correct, but their implementation encountered difficulties due to the fact that something essential was “forgotten.” The principle of systematicity precisely focuses on a comprehensive consideration of significant factors.

The principle of standardization (standard management situations and decisions). Its essence is that most real management situations can be reduced to a set of so-called standard or basic ones. The procedures for developing and implementing management decisions for standard situations have been developed in detail, and the actions of the manager in these cases are well known from practice.

If the management situation does not fit entirely within the standard framework, the possibility of dividing it into standard and non-standard parts is studied. For the non-standard part of the situation, a special analysis is required in order to find a special, special solution for this case.

The principle of optimal information. Rational management decisions are achievable; only when there is a sufficient information base corresponding to them. Moreover, for each of the management levels there is an optimal size of the information base, determined by a number of factors.

The principle of automatic implementation of management decisions. The principle is that the “decision” made by the manager is automatically (that is, necessarily, in the shortest possible time and in an undistorted form) brought to the required level and becomes a practical guide to action.

To implement this principle, a system of well-functioning and interconnected management mechanisms is required. If such mechanisms are absent or their combination is insufficient, any decision, even the best one, may remain unrealized or its implementation may be unjustifiably delayed.

The principle of taking into account probable consequences. A rational management decision involves taking into account the likely consequences of its implementation.

The principle of freedom of choice. If the person (group) making the decision does not have or does not have enough conditions to choose from a variety of possible options, then one can only dream of an effective decision. A superior manager who ties a subordinate manager “hand and foot” does not allow him to take even a step on his own, and has no right to count on him making effective decisions.

The principle of responsibility. The decision maker is responsible for the results of the implementation of the decision made. This equally applies to a collective decision. Note that a person’s decision about himself is not associated with such a high sense of responsibility for the fate of persons dependent on the leader, as is typical when making decisions directly affecting these persons (although in individual activity the decisions of the acting subject have a certain impact on the fate of surrounding persons ).

It is with regret that we have to state that the degree of managerial responsibility in domestic management still remains low. The behavior of many managers is focused on current tasks, losing sight of the future. “After us there may be a flood” - this phrase accurately conveys the meaning of the traditional leadership style.

The principle of proportionality of rights and responsibilities. The worst decisions are made when those who have the right to make decisions are not responsible for them and when those who are entrusted with responsibility do not have the right to decide.

This principle presupposes the optimal distribution of duties and responsibilities between the manager and performer of different levels, namely: the level of responsibility and the degree of competence of the decision maker must correspond to the content and level of his functional responsibilities.

The principle of creativity. Creativity in management has not always been highly valued, but it is now an important value and is likely to grow in importance. Particularly creative approaches are required when existing solutions lack efficiency and power. It is necessary to clarify problems and seek ideas outside the usual framework in order to question basic assumptions.

This principle is quite fully presented in the book by M. Woodcock and D. Francis, “The Uninhibited Manager.” In the process of creative problem solving, they identify and describe five stages: 1) studying the problem; 2) development of ideas; 3) screening out applied ideas; 4) planning innovations; 5) feedback and analysis.

The principle of timeliness. It focuses on choosing the best moment to make a decision. A decision will not give the expected effect if it is premature and, even more so, if it is late. An analogy with shooting at a moving car comes to mind. A premature shot here is just as “effective” as a late shot.

The principle of unity of unity of command and collegiality. Unity of command and collegiality, at first glance, exclude each other. The first presupposes personal responsibility for decision-making and the corresponding right, the second - collective responsibility and right. However, in reality they can be successfully combined. Let's say, when preparing a decision, a manager actively consults with his subordinates (collegiality) and, taking into account their opinion, makes a decision, taking full responsibility (unity of command). Collegiality in this case is expressed in an implicit form, although it can manifest itself more explicitly (for example, during a collective discussion of alternative proposals).

The principle of participation. It means the active and direct participation of those affected by the decision. Violation of this principle leads to the fact that people get used to being only performers and believe that it is not their business to participate in solving production problems. This approach forms and reinforces a well-known stereotype of thinking: “Our business is small, let the management think for us.” There is a truly tragic side to this stereotype: workers may perform work knowing that it leads to erroneous results.

The decision-making process consists of several stages and steps. Let's consider these steps in relation to 1) general problem solving technology; 2) general decision-making procedure; 3) the procedure for making group decisions.

As paradoxical as it may seem, any procedure used in solving problems is less useful the more strictly it is followed. When solving problems, it is quite possible to work sequentially, and each step of this work can be clearly defined. If you can't solve problems effectively, you're probably doing one or more of the following stages wrong.

Step one is setup. The first step is to evaluate, understand, distribute the problems, identifying what specific difficulties they have.

Step two - goals. The goal must be defined clearly and specifically, understandable to everyone involved in the work even before it begins.

Step three is the criterion for success. It's useful to know how to measure the success of your actions. Sometimes the criterion for their evaluation may be included in the statement of objectives. If this is not the case, you need to find a way to objectively evaluate your actions.

Step four - information. Before a solution can be found to a problem, it must be deeply understood. For this purpose, the necessary information is collected. Once it is collected, you can begin to perform different methods of action. Possible alternatives must be clearly defined to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.

Step five is planning. The planning stage begins with deciding what needs to be done. Employees must be clear about the overall plan and the specific practical steps to be taken.

Step six - action. At this stage, practical work begins to implement the plan.

Step seven is analyzing actions to improve them. People learn from the results of their actions by evaluating the characteristics of successful performance and trying to determine the causes of failure. Without such feedback, there is little chance of change and development - you will simply go in circles.

The seven-step approach to problem solving is a tool designed for flexible use. At any stage, you can go back a few steps and modify the sample so that it better suits your personal working methods and the specific problem you are solving.

Now let's turn to the solution process itself, which is also carried out in several steps.

There are several approaches to operationalizing management decision making. We think the most successful is the approach presented by researchers M.Kh. Meskon, M. Albert, F. Khedouri in the book “Management - the science of management” (M., 1991. P. 61). They identify and describe the following steps in the management decision-making process:

• 1) setting the goal of the decision;
• 2) establishing decision criteria;
• 3) separation of criteria;
• 4) development of alternatives;
• 5) comparison of alternatives;
• 6) determination of risk;
• 7) risk assessment;
• 8) decision making.

Various solutions are possible. There are trivial decisions that a person makes without thinking, they are not associated with any risk or the risk is too small to rack your brains about. There are also impulsive decisions, characterized by a high degree of risk; there are also non-trivial decisions that are made by a person as a result of developing and comparing various alternatives, determining and assessing risk, and choosing the optimal option.

Management decisions. Concept. The essence of the need to make decisions. Basic elements of SD.

Management decision- 1) the most important type of managerial work, as well as a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent management actions that ensure the implementation of management tasks; 2) creative, volitional action of the subject of management, which is based on knowledge of objective laws in the sphere of functioning of the managed system and analysis of information about its functioning. This action consists in choosing a goal, program and methods of action of the team in the area of ​​solving a problem or in the area of ​​changing the goal.

The need to make one or another management decision arises under the following certain conditions:

There is a gap between the desired and existing levels of development (a certain discrepancy between the organization’s activities and its goals);

The gap is large enough to be noticed and therefore worthy of attention;

The decision maker seeks to close the gap;

The decision maker is confident that the gap can be closed.

There are three main elements of the management process:
- problem
- solution
- people involved in the process at all its stages.

The difference between managerial decision-making and private choice.

1. Goals. The subject of management (whether it is an individual or a group) makes a decision not based on his own needs, but in order to solve the problems of a specific organization.

2. Consequences. An individual's private choices affect his own life and may affect the few people close to him.

A manager, especially a high-ranking one, chooses the course of action not only for himself, but also for the organization as a whole and its employees, and his decisions can significantly affect the lives of many people. If an organization is large and influential, the decisions of its leaders can seriously affect the socio-economic situation of entire regions. For example, a decision to close an unprofitable company operation can significantly increase the unemployment rate.

3. Division of labor. If in private life a person, when making a decision, as a rule, carries it out himself, then in an organization there is a certain division of labor: some workers (managers) are busy solving emerging problems and making decisions, while others (performers) are busy implementing decisions already made.

4. Professionalism. In private life, each person makes his own decisions based on his intelligence and experience. In managing an organization, decision making is a much more complex, responsible and formalized process that requires professional training. Not every employee of the organization, but only those with certain professional knowledge and skills, is given the authority to independently make certain decisions.

Decision making is preceded by several stages:

1. the emergence of problems on which a decision must be made;

2. development and formulation of alternatives;

3. selection of the optimal alternative from their sets;

4. approval (making) of a decision;

5. organization of work to implement the solution - feedback

Classification of the main types of management decisions.

Depending on the basis underlying the decision-making, there are:

Intuitive solutions;

Decisions based on judgment;

Rational decisions.

Intuitive solutions. A purely intuitive decision is a choice made only on the basis of a feeling that it is correct. The decision maker does not consciously weigh the pros and cons of each alternative and does not even need to understand the situation. It's just a person making a choice.

Decisions based on judgment. Such decisions sometimes seem intuitive because their logic is not obvious. A judgment-based decision is a choice driven by knowledge or experience.

Rational solutions based on methods of economic analysis, justification and optimization.

Depending on the personal characteristics of the manager making the decision, it is customary to distinguish:

Balanced decisions;

Impulsive decisions;

Inert solutions;

Risky decisions;

Careful decisions.

Balanced Solutions accepted by managers who are attentive and critical to their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. They usually have an initial idea formulated before making a decision.

Impulsive decisions, the authors of which easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly test, clarify, and evaluate them. Therefore, decisions turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable; they are made “at once”, “in jerks”.

Inert solutions become the result of a careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, so it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions.

Risky decisions They differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need to carefully substantiate their hypotheses and, if they are confident in themselves, may not be afraid of any dangers.

Careful decisions are characterized by the manager’s thorough assessment of all options and a hypercritical approach to business. They are even less distinguished by novelty and originality than inert ones.

Depending on the degree of preliminary formalization, there are:

Programmed solutions;

Non-programmed solutions.

Programmed solution is the result of implementing a certain sequence of steps or actions. Typically, the number of possible alternatives is limited and choices must be made within the directions given by the organization.

Non-programmed solutions. Decisions of this type are required in situations that are somewhat new, internally unstructured, or involve unknown factors. The following types of solutions can be classified as unprogrammed:

What should be the goals of the organization;

How to improve products;

How to improve the structure of the management unit;

How to increase the motivation of subordinates.

5) Characteristics of possible conditions in which a manager has to make decisions: certainty, risk, uncertainty. Formalized solutions and their advantages.

Certainty

Certainty. A situation in which a manager can find the right solution because he knows the results of choosing each option.

The ideal condition for decision making is the condition of certainty, when the manager can make the right decision due to the fact that he knows exactly the consequences of choosing each of the available options.

Risk

Risk. Conditions under which a decision maker can assess the likelihood of certain outcomes.

Much more often we are faced with a risk condition.

By risk we mean conditions under which the decision maker can assess the likelihood of a particular option or the consequences of his choice. The ability to assess the likelihood of certain consequences depends on the manager’s personal experience and the availability of secondary information. Under risk conditions, the manager has relevant historical data that allows him to assess the likelihood of different options.

Uncertainty

Uncertainty. A situation in which the person who makes the decision can neither accurately nor with a certain degree of probability assess the possible results of a particular decision.

Formalization of decision-making increases management efficiency by reducing the likelihood of error and saving time: there is no need to re-develop a solution every time a corresponding situation arises. Therefore, the management of organizations often formalizes solutions for certain, regularly recurring situations, developing appropriate rules, instructions and standards.
At the same time, in the process of managing organizations, new, atypical situations and non-standard problems are often encountered that cannot be resolved formally. In such cases, intellectual abilities, talent and personal initiative of managers play a big role.

6) Quality" and "efficiency" of the solution

A solution is considered effective if:

1. It comes from realistic goals.

2. There is the necessary time and the necessary resources to implement it.

3. It can be implemented in the specific conditions of the organization.

4. Emergency situations are provided for.

5. It does not provoke conflict situations and stress.

6. Changes in the business and background environment are anticipated.

7. It makes it possible to monitor execution.

One of the important factors influencing the quality of management decisions is the number of management levels in the organization, the increase of which leads to distortion of information when preparing a decision, distortion of orders coming from the subject of management, and increases the sluggishness of the organization. The same factor contributes to the delay in information received by the subject of the decision. This determines the constant desire to reduce the number of management levels in the organization.

A serious problem associated with the effectiveness of management decisions is also the problem of implementing these decisions. Up to a third of all management decisions do not achieve their goals due to low performance culture. In our and foreign countries, sociologists belonging to a variety of schools pay close attention to improving performance discipline, including ordinary employees in the development of solutions, motivating such activities, cultivating “trademark patriotism,” and stimulating self-government.

Validity decisions are determined, first of all, by the degree of consideration of both the patterns of functioning and development of the management object, and the trends in the development of the economy and society as a whole.

Consistency. The unity of management of modern complex organizations, carried out by a deeply specialized apparatus, cannot be achieved otherwise than by a sequence of complementary, consistent private decisions that are goal-setting, organizing, motivating, controlling and regulating in nature.

Timeliness. The quality of solving many problems is very often determined by its timeliness. Even the best decision, designed to produce the greatest economic benefit, may be useless if it is made late. Moreover, it can even cause some damage. Thus, the time factor has a significant impact on the content of management decisions.

Adaptability. The time factor, which significantly influences the decision-making process, dictates the need to fulfill another condition that determines the quality of a management decision - adaptability. We should not forget that the solution is always temporary. The period of its effective action can be taken equal to the period of relative stability of the problem situation, the resolution of which it is aimed at, and beyond this period, the solution can turn into its opposite - not contribute to the resolution of the problem, but aggravate it.

Reality. The decision must be developed and made taking into account the objective capabilities of the organization and its potential. In other words, the material capabilities and resources of the organization must be sufficient for the effective implementation of the chosen alternative.

8) Factors that ensure the validity of a management decision.

Validity decisions are determined, first of all, by the degree of consideration of both the patterns of functioning and development of the management object, and the trends in the development of the economy and society as a whole. Another important factor determining the scientific validity of a management decision is the competence of the decision maker (DM). A manager can only be competent and able to make a high-quality decision and implement it effectively if he has special knowledge in the area of ​​activity that he manages. The decision will be competent if it sufficiently fully reflects the goals and objectives of managing a specific object in combination with knowledge of the nature and specifics of this object, as well as trends in its development in interaction with the environment. In addition, knowledge of the case, the specific object and the problem being solved must be complemented by knowledge of management and, in particular, the theory of decision making.

Only a decision that is made on the basis of reliable, systematized and scientifically processed information, which is achieved using scientific methods for developing and optimizing solutions, can be justified.

Thus, the scientific validity of the decision is ensured by the following main factors:

Taking into account the requirements of objective economic laws and patterns;

Knowledge and use of development trends of the management object;

Availability of complete, reliable and scientifically processed information;

Availability of special knowledge, education and qualifications of the decision maker;

Knowledge and application of decision-makers to the basic recommendations of management and decision-making theory.

As we see, the scientific validity of a management decision requires the universality of knowledge of the decision-maker, which is associated with the increasing complexity and increasingly complex nature of the problems being solved and the consequences of the decisions made. Obviously, the satisfaction of this requirement leads to an ever wider spread of collegial forms of decision-making.

9) The decision-making process and its main stages.

A problematic situation is the discrepancy between the actual or predicted values ​​of the parameters of the managed system and the management goals.

Three reasons can lead to the emergence of a problematic situation: deviation of actual parameters from target parameters, the possibility of such deviation in the future and changes in management goals.

According to the degree of certainty, problem situations are classified into three groups:

A programmable solution is a reaction to a structured problem, the result of each alternative is known, all the information is available.

A non-programmable decision is a reaction to an unstructured problem, the consequences of the decision are difficult to predict, there is no information.

Management decisions are rarely programmable or non-programmable in their pure form; they are rather extreme reflections of a certain spectrum.

Decision-making criteria are requirements that reflect the system of preferences when making a decision. In other words, criteria are the standards by which alternatives will be evaluated.

Constraints limit the possibilities for decision-making, but they must be identified in order for the chosen alternative to be realistic for execution. Restrictions may be:

· external (legislation, tax system, strong competitors, etc.);

· internal (lack of resources, low qualifications of employees, etc.)

2. Development of alternatives.

It consists of formulating a set of alternative solutions to a problem.

Many of the alternatives are known from past experience, standards and fit within the decision criteria. But often a creative approach is required to solve unique problems. Therefore, developing alternatives is the most creative stage in the decision-making process.

One of the methods for creatively searching for alternatives is the brainstorming method.

5. Implementation of the decision.

Implementing a solution means eliminating the problem that gave rise to it.

11)Optimal solution, concept and content.

Optimal solution- a solution that, for one reason or another, is preferable to others.

In technology optimal(option, decision, choice, etc.) - the best (option, decision, choice, ...) among those acceptable if there is a rule of preference for one over the other. This rule is called an optimality criterion, and quality indicators will serve as a measure of preference. We can talk about the optimal option only if two conditions are met:

1. the presence of at least one criterion,

2. the presence of at least two compared options (the need to make a choice).

Each choice of the best option is specific, since it is made according to certain criteria. Therefore, when talking about the optimal option, you always need to indicate these criteria (that is, “optimal according to ...”). And what may be optimal under one criterion will not necessarily be so under another. For example, a stage that is “optimal in area” will not necessarily be “optimal in acoustics.”

The optimal solution is the result of one of the types of choice (criteria choice). Operations research theory and decision theory study the problems associated with choosing optimal decisions.

12) Conditions necessary for consistency of decisions

It is necessary to ensure agreement with the intended decision as heads of those departments whose activities may be affected solution, and those performers who will carry it out. If the manager disagrees with an individual decision or if he believes that this solution will negatively affect its activities, it is necessary to prepare a convincing justification for your objection with quantitative and qualitative calculations. “Discord comes from arrogance, but wisdom comes from those who consult.” When performing this work, it is recommended to inform each performer of the expected responsibilities, indicate the validity, feasibility, those benefits and advantages that follow in connection with the adoption of this solutions. After oral approvals, for greater confidence in its effective implementation, it is necessary to obtain approval from the employee as a member of the primary labor collective.

As practice shows, the time spent here is insignificant. However, if we accept solution without prior consent and informing the subordinate about the proposed new area or its individual elements that cause a change in activity, after its final approval, it can cause additional difficulties in finding a commonality of interests with the direct performers, cause on their part an obvious or, most often, hidden, indirect objection, which will be reflected to some extent on the effectiveness of this solutions. Coordination of proposed solutions it is necessary to carry out both vertically and horizontally of the management hierarchy, depending on the issue being resolved. Sometimes a manager makes a mistake in his actions, pursuing a line of suboptimization that occurs when ignoring the opinions of managers and specialists of other departments, his employees, whose work results and scope of activity are influenced (and negatively) by decisions taken without coordination with them solution or any other actions taken.

“Drive out the blasphemer, and discord will be removed, and quarreling and fighting will cease.” When performing this work, one must take into account that sooner or later the performer will still find out about decision, affecting his interests, but its implementation will be significantly more complicated.

13) Decision-making procedure in the Japanese management model

The basis of the traditional Japanese decision-making procedure is the so-called “ringi” system. The literal translation of this concept is: obtaining consent to a decision through a survey. The essence of this system is as follows.
Middle and lower level managers, as a rule, formally cannot make most decisions on their own. For all more or less important issues, even those within their competence, they must contact a senior manager. In this case, a certain formal procedure is followed. The manager - the initiator of the decision - draws up a special document - “ringisyo”, which comprehensively describes the problem and offers recommendations for resolving it, and then submits it for consideration to those divisions of the organization whose activities are at least to some extent affected by the problem raised. In this case, the informal structure of the organization is of great importance, because There are no formal distribution channels for “ringisho” and its author chooses the recipients himself. Its goal at this stage of decision-making is to achieve the consent of all or the majority of interested employees and structural units. Preliminary discussion leads to a deeper understanding of the problem, identification of new factors, elimination of unrealistic alternatives and, ultimately, to the development of the most rational solution.
Each of the leaders who familiarized themselves with the “ringisho” and took part in its discussion sets out their comments, suggestions and records their agreement or disagreement with the proposed decision with their signature (seal).
After this document has circulated among managers at the level at which it was drawn up, it is passed on to the next higher level of management. The same procedure is repeated here. Thus, rising up the hierarchical ladder, “ringisho” ends up with a top-ranking manager - the president or vice-president of the company. After he approves this document, the decision is considered made and returns to the originator for execution as a directive.
Analyzing the specifics of the “ringi” system, we can highlight the following characteristic features of the Japanese style of decision-making.
The initiative to make a decision most often comes from below, from where the “ringisho” is compiled. In practice, senior managers most often agree with the proposed solution because:
a) trust lower-level managers;
b) the decision was discussed within the organization and agreed upon with the main divisions and their managers, which is confirmed by numerous signatures;
c) “ringisho” does not contain information sufficient to re-analyze the problem and form one’s own opinion about it.
Thus, the “ringi” system only at first glance seems to be an overly centralized form of decision-making; in fact, real power belongs to middle and lower level managers.
Group method of making decisions and using indirect methods of leadership. The system for preparing and making decisions is of a group nature; the initiative for their development is transferred to a group of specialists. A manager in such a collegial decision-making system, instead of methods and means of direct leadership (orders, directives, instructions), uses indirect leadership methods: stimulates the required type of behavior of subordinates and creates the necessary psychological atmosphere. However, the final decision remains with the manager. In addition, the authority of management is so high that a draft decision practically cannot contradict its intentions.
The form of decision-making indicates a diffusion of responsibility. The manager who initiated the decision does not bear personal responsibility for its results; it is shared by the entire team of employees who signed it. However, success is also shared by everyone.
The difference is in the approach to solving the problem. If for American managers making a decision means giving an answer to the question posed, solving a problem, then for their Japanese colleagues the main thing in making a decision is to study the problem itself, to find out its essence. The answer to the question is a consequence, it is secondary (if you carefully examine the problem and understand its causes, the answer will definitely be found). Thus, the Western decision-making system is focused on generating alternatives and selecting the optimal one, while the Japanese one is focused on a thorough analysis of the problem being solved and the correct choice of the solution goal. Obtaining the views of a large number of employees increases understanding of the issue as a whole and allows you to better assess its significance to the organization. This is a very significant advantage of the “ringi” system, because It is much more important (and more difficult) to choose the right goals and explore the problem than to find alternative ways to solve it and choose one of them.
It takes a lot of time to develop a solution. However, these losses are compensated later, when the decision has already been made. We are accustomed to the fact that management decisions are developed and accepted, as a rule, at the highest levels of the hierarchy, after which a lot of time is spent convincing lower levels of their correctness and usefulness, motivating workers and monitoring implementation. The Japanese decision-making model, which presupposes the broad participation of organization employees in the development and discussion of a decision, leads to the fact that by the time it is officially approved, no one needs to be convinced of its usefulness, and there is no need to waste time explaining it. In addition, in the process of discussing a decision, it becomes clear in which departments it will be approved and where it will meet with resistance. Most of the time is spent convincing opponents of the decision and resolving controversial issues. An exchange of views and refinement of the solution occurs until the entire group comes to an agreement. Therefore, the decision is an expression of the collective opinion formed within the group, which has a very positive effect on the stage of its implementation.
Eliminating contradictions at the stage of discussing a problem greatly facilitates the implementation of solutions. In management practice, the attitude of performers to the decision made is extremely important. If the implementers have a negative attitude towards any directive, then its implementation becomes very difficult and sometimes becomes impossible. The famous American authority in the field of management, P. Drucker, argued that due to the resistance (explicit or hidden) of organization members, so much time is spent on implementing many necessary and effective decisions that they become obsolete. Therefore, conditions conducive to the rapid and effective implementation of decisions deserve special attention. Sociologists argue that the greater the participation of a group in changes, the less its resistance to these changes (and every decision means certain changes). And this statement is clearly confirmed by the practice of Japanese management: the group members who took part in the development and discussion consider the decision made as their own, voluntary, and work with much more enthusiasm on its implementation. This to a certain extent contributes to the elimination of conflicts in the organization.
From a consideration of the features of the Japanese decision-making model, we can conclude that the “ringi” system has the following main advantages:
the decisions made are more justified and thoughtful, because All aspects of the problem being solved were thoroughly discussed and the group method of developing solutions was used. The very form of organization of the process promotes the use of collegial methods for analyzing decisions, which improve their quality and stimulate the emergence of new, non-trivial alternatives;
all the necessary work on coordinating and organizing the implementation of the solution has been done at the preliminary stage, so the implementation of solutions is very fast and efficient.
It is impossible not to notice, of course, that the “ringi” procedure also has certain disadvantages. Thus, this system makes planning, especially strategic, difficult. Another drawback is the excessively compromising nature of the decisions made, which can hinder the development of the organization. And, which is very important in an unstable environment, prompt decision-making is not ensured. Therefore, at present, the “ringi” procedure is being modernized, the form of “ringisho” is being simplified, computer networks are used for its transmission, and meetings are used to discuss decisions, which significantly increases their efficiency. However, this does not affect the fundamental foundations of the system: preliminary agreement and the group form of decision-making.
It should also be emphasized that although the ringi system is ancient, its approach to decision making has proven to be very consonant with some of the latest trends in decision theory. For example, in the methodology of systems analysis, the correct choice of goal, careful formulation of the problem and determination of its boundaries are given paramount importance. Another modern trend in management, which corresponds to the Japanese model, is the development of collegial forms of decision-making. This, apparently, explains its high viability and effectiveness in modern organizations.

aspects of management decisions that are highlighted by its researchers

When making management decisions, it is necessary to take into account the multidimensionality of their content. The main aspects of management decisions include: economic, social, organizational, legal, psychological and pedagogical.

The economic aspect means that every management decision should be aimed at increasing the efficiency of the organization through the rational use of resources, maximizing the economic effect and material interest of personnel. Since management decisions are largely limited by the availability of appropriate resources, such as finance, materials, people, etc., the effectiveness of decisions depends on the successful use of these resources. It is influenced to a large extent by the motivation of the personnel involved in the implementation of decisions.

The social aspect of management decisions is determined by the influence on their effectiveness of interpersonal relationships, norms established in the team, the need to manage conflict situations, improve the quality of work, and the degree of personnel participation in the management of the organization.

The organizational aspect of management decisions lies in

implementation by management of measures aimed at ensuring the interconnection of the activities of the organization’s divisions to achieve its effective operation. It also ensures the distribution of responsibilities in the management apparatus, maintaining discipline and organization in work, coordination of economic activities, and an effective system of control and responsibility.

The legal aspect of management decisions provides for comprehensive legal support for the development and implementation of these decisions. The legal aspect is based on various legislative acts.

The psychological aspect of management decisions takes into account the readiness of personnel in innovative activities, the moral and psychological climate in the team, the professional and psychological qualities of the manager and subordinates. The moral and psychological climate in the team is manifested in the relationships between people connected by work activities and solving problems of the organization. It significantly affects labor productivity and, ultimately, the effectiveness of management decisions.

The first law of management communication states: it is not enough that the employee knows what they want from him, what he needs to do. He must also accept instructions, recommendations and advice regarding his activities. And this is possible only when the manager’s position does not contradict the views and positions of the subordinate on this issue. Therefore, the manager must show the subordinate that the actions expected of him not only do not contradict his interests, but also contribute to their satisfaction.

The second law of managerial communication states: other things being equal, people more easily accept the position of the leader towards whom they have an emotionally positive attitude, and, conversely, it is more difficult to accept, and often reject, the position of the leader towards whom they have an emotionally negative attitude (dislike, antipathy). etc.). Therefore, the leader is interested in winning people over, creating attraction for himself (which in psychological terms means arousing sympathy, a feeling of affection).

The pedagogical aspect of management decisions takes into account the educational role of decisions. Involves the formation of positive moral attitudes.

What is the essence of the cost-profit method?

Often in decision-making practice the so-called “cost-profit” method is used, in which various types of “profit” are considered.

Here, different types of “profit” are understood as different criteria characterizing the project, and not necessarily of an economic nature.

One of the main requirements of this method, embedded in the decision-making algorithm, is the ability to add different types of “profit” with fixed numerical coefficients, obtaining a single composite value - “profit”, which characterizes the project.

Once the component “profits” for the projects are determined, we obtain a two-criteria selection problem.

The cost-benefit method is more characterized by the desire to obtain numerical characteristics that allow the proposed projects to be compared according to preference.

the cost-profit method, in which efficiency is quantitatively characterized by the profit received per unit of cost. In this case, “profit” is understood as a certain set of criteria that characterize a particular decision. As such criteria, both objective indicators are used, for example, payment flows, payback period, profitability, production volume, etc., and subjective assessments, for example, the company’s image, the social significance of the project, etc. In other words, “profit” is a composite value that is formed by adding different types of effects, the value of which is unequal. Therefore, the main conditions for the practical applicability of this method are:

The ability to summarize the various components of “profit”;

Finding numerical coefficients characterizing the degree of contribution of each of the elements that make up the “profit”.

why the stage of monitoring and evaluating the results of the decision is necessary.

Control is a management function that establishes the degree of compliance of decisions made with the actual state of the system, identifying deviations and their causes. The need for control is obvious; practice shows that even well-developed solutions are not implemented due to the lack of a well-functioning control system.

The control process is the activity of the subjects of control aimed at implementing decisions made by implementing certain tasks and methods. It is characterized by three components:

Organizational, i.e. by whom and in what order is it carried out?

control,

Technological, i.e. how control is carried out.

The purpose of control is to ensure unity of decision and execution, to prevent errors, shortcomings, and deviations.

The content of control is manifested in the functions it performs. The diagnostic function of control is to identify the actual state of the implementation of decision making. The orienting control function is aimed at indicating landmarks, i.e. those issues that currently deserve attention. The stimulating function is manifested in identifying and involving “into work” all unused resources, primarily the human factor. The corrective function of control is to clarify the essence of the decision itself if the situation has changed. And finally, one of the control functions is designer supervision, which allows you to check the implementation of the plan.

Management decisions mean the internal mental activity of the subject of management (manager, collegial or collective body) in resolving a problem situation. Managerial actions are externally observable processes of activity of management workers to ensure the implementation of management decisions. Decision making can be characterized as an intermediate phase between decision and action, including the impact on the social environment of the developers and executors of the decision.

Taking into account the above, the concept of “decision efficiency” can be considered as the efficiency of developing a solution and the efficiency of implementing management decisions, which corresponds to two stages (stages) of the management decision-making process. Each of them can use its own assessment approaches and performance indicators.

intelligent systems and their purpose. Expert systems. Artificial intelligence technology, formed in the mid-seventies of the last century and called expert systems (ES), has received important practical real-life application. The advantage of ES is that they are focused on solving a wide range of informal problems that were previously considered inaccessible to computer technology. When solving practical problems, ES in a number of cases made it possible to obtain results that are “comparable and sometimes superior” to the results of the activities of a human expert who justifies or prepares proposals for the decision maker.

When creating an ES, it is necessary to develop programs (devices) that, when solving problems that are difficult for a human expert, obtain results that are not inferior in risk or efficiency to the results generated by specialist experts.

The main task facing ASEA (automated expert assessment systems) is to solve complex management problems on the basis of reliable, professionally obtained and correctly processed expert information.

Information.

Communication is the exchange of information, on the basis of which management receives the data necessary to make effective decisions, and

“Information” means information, messages that contain

elements of novelty for its recipient and are used in the decision-making process.

Conventionally, all types of information that are used when making a decision can be divided into: – by object – indicators of the quality of the product, its resource intensity, parameters of the market infrastructure, organizational and technical level of production,

social development of the team, environmental protection, etc.;

– by belonging to the subsystem of the management system – information

tion on the target subsystem, scientific justification of the system, economics of the me-

management, functional and supporting subsystems, external environment

system, control subsystem;

– according to the form of transmission – verbal (verbal) information and non-verbal

– according to time variability – conditionally constant and conditionally variable

(short-lived);

– by transmission method – satellite, electronic, telephone, written

Naya and others;

- according to the transmission mode - within regulated periods, upon request and forcibly within certain periods;

– by purpose – economic, technical, social, organizational, etc.;

– by stage of the product life cycle – strategic marketing, research

R&D, organizational and technological preparation of production and other stages before writing off the goods;

– in relation to the management object to the subject – between the company and the external environment, between divisions within the company vertically and horizontally, between managers and executives, informal communications.

information2.

Communication is the exchange of information on the basis of which management

households receive the data they need to make effective decisions and

communicates decisions made to company employees.

Among the main types of communications are:

1. between the organization and the external environment;

2. horizontal communications;

3. vertical communications;

4. informal communications.

There are 4 basic elements in the communication process:

 sender;

 message;

 recipient.

The following interrelated stages of communication are distinguished:

 the birth of an idea;

 coding and channel selection;

 transfer;

 Decoding.

When carrying out communications, it is important to consider two main points:

1. feedback;

information and its role in decision making

need to be remade for management decisions from strategic management The advantages of a strategic approach to management (as opposed to free improvisation, intuition or inactivity) based on the intensive use of information systems are:

1. ensuring that the organization’s ideas are focused on the key strategy question “what are we going to do and what are we achieving?”

2. the need for managers to respond more clearly to emerging changes, new opportunities and threatening trends;

3. the opportunity for managers to evaluate alternative options for capital investment and staff expansion, i.e. wisely transfer resources to strategically sound and highly effective projects;

3. the ability to combine decisions of managers at all levels of management related to strategy. Summarizing all of the above, we can draw the following conclusion: strategic management is a systematic approach to enterprise management, which is the most effective.

how administrative responsibility is implemented in the organization.

Positive administrative responsibility is a requirement for future active, proactive activities of subjects of administrative law.

Traditional (retrospective) administrative liability is a type of legal liability expressed in the application by authorized bodies and officials of an administrative penalty to the person who committed the offense.

Features of administrative responsibility:

is a type of measures of both legal liability and administrative coercion;

is regulated by the norms of administrative law, which together form the institution of administrative law;

regulatory grounds for administrative liability are enshrined exclusively in laws;

the actual basis of administrative liability is an administrative offense;

subjects of administrative responsibility can be both individuals and legal entities (collective entities); Administrative responsibility can be imposed in court and in administrative (extrajudicial) order, by judicial or executive bodies.

Depending on the consequences, material, psychological or organizational deprivations may be applied.

The principles of administrative responsibility are as follows:

principle of legality (a person brought to administrative responsibility cannot be subjected to administrative punishment and measures to ensure proceedings in a case of an administrative offense other than on the grounds and in the manner established by law. Application by an authorized body or official of administrative punishment and measures to ensure proceedings in a case of an administrative offense in connection with an administrative offense is carried out within the competence of the specified body or official in accordance with the law);

individualization of responsibility (in the process of bringing to administrative responsibility it is necessary to examine the entire complex of factors defined by law, avoiding templates and stereotypes);

responsibility of the subject of law only for his own misconduct (the subject who has committed an administrative offense is brought to administrative responsibility);

Objectives of administrative responsibility:

protection of law and order;

educating citizens in the spirit of respect for the law;

restoration of social justice;

prevention of new offenses.

Functions of administrative responsibility:

punitive (punitive) - consists in the fact that administrative liability, on the one hand, is a means of punishing the offender, and on the other, a means of preventing the commission of new offenses both by the offender himself (private prevention) and by other subjects of law (general prevention);

educational – consists of a targeted influence on the consciousness of subjects of law to form a positive attitude towards the law;

compensatory – consists of restoring the property status of subjects of law violated as a result of the offense committed.

The normative basis of administrative responsibility is a system of legal norms that determine the grounds and procedure for the implementation of administrative responsibility.

The actual basis of administrative liability is the commission by a person of an act containing elements of an administrative offense.

The procedural basis of administrative liability is the issuance, in the prescribed manner, by an authorized subject of a resolution (decision) on bringing to administrative liability.

How do the concepts of management efficiency and the effectiveness of management decisions relate?

Thus, the main goal of effective management is

ensuring the formation and functioning of such a state

managed system (organization), which to the maximum extent, on

as far as possible, meets the requirements of the external environment

organization and most efficient use of resources and

capabilities of the organization's internal environment.

Effective management is the cooperation of people in

consistent movement towards a common goal, the value of which exceeds

expenditure of resources, energy or effort. The goals were previously defined as

a state of affairs that the organization would like to achieve in the future.

EFFECTIVENESS OF A MANAGEMENT DECISION - The degree to which the planned result is achieved per unit of cost by implementing the decision

what factors determine the effectiveness of a management decision.

what are the limitations in using the hierarchical control mechanism.

The most common type of managerial responsibility is corporate responsibility, the means of which is the mechanism of hierarchical control. Responsibility and accountability in an organization are impossible without authority, expressed in the right to lead. This right is exercised using a scalar chain - a channel for issuing commands coming from top to bottom, and a reverse channel of responsibility and accountability going from bottom to top (the so-called “power vertical”). If the top manager of an organization can appoint and remove his deputies, and those of his subordinates, then each manager in the organization is responsible and accountable to each higher level of the hierarchy and the mechanism of hierarchical control becomes comprehensive. Those “at the bottom” will always have to implement decisions made at a higher level under the threat of sanctions or resignation and be held accountable to management for their decisions. Disadvantages of communication processes. In addition to the formal types of responsibility discussed above, the manager also bears informal - moral responsibility - for his decisions - the need to follow the norms of human relations, the mechanism for the implementation of which is organizational culture

quality and effectiveness of the solution.

The quality of a management decision is a set of decision parameters,

satisfying a specific consumer (specific consumers) and providing

demonstrating the reality of its implementation.

The quality parameters of a management decision include:

---------------- entropy indicator, i.e. quantitative uncertainty of the problem. If

the problem is formulated only qualitatively, without quantitative indicators, then

the entropy value approaches zero. If all indicators of the problem are expressed quantitatively

Actually, the entropy index approaches unity:

---------------- degree of investment risk;

​probability of implementing the solution in terms of quality, costs and timing;

---------------- degree of adequacy (or degree of forecast accuracy) of the theoretical model

the actual data on which it was developed.

After preliminary regulation of the quality parameters of management re-

solution and its effectiveness (a limit is set, the minimum permissible efficiency

ity for the sake of which it is worth taking on the solution of the problem) factors are analyzed

external environment that influences the quality and efficiency of the solution. Then ana-

The parameters of the problem (“system input”) are analyzed and measures are taken to improve them.

nizing and improving the quality of incoming information.

classification of the main types of management decisions. Decisions based on judgment. Such decisions sometimes seem intuitive because their logic is not obvious. A judgment-based decision is a choice driven by knowledge or experience. A person uses knowledge of what has happened in similar situations before to predict the outcome of alternative choices in an existing situation. Using common sense, he chooses an alternative that has brought success in the past. However, common sense is rare among people, so this method of decision-making is also not very reliable, although it is captivating with its speed and cheapness.

Rational decisions are based on methods of economic analysis, justification and optimization.

Depending on the personal characteristics of the manager making the decision, it is customary to distinguish:

balanced decisions;

impulsive decisions;

inert solutions;

risky decisions;

careful decisions.

Balanced decisions are made by managers who are attentive and critical to their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. They usually have an initial idea formulated before making a decision.

Impulsive decisions, the authors of which easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly test, clarify, or evaluate them. Therefore, decisions turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable; they are made “at once”, “in jerks”.

Inert solutions become the result of careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, so it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions.

Risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need to carefully substantiate their hypotheses and, if they are confident in themselves, may not be afraid of any dangers.

Cautious decisions are characterized by the manager's thorough assessment of all options and a hypercritical approach to business. They are even less distinguished by novelty and originality than inert ones.

Depending on the degree of preliminary formalization, there are:

programmed decisions;

unprogrammed decisions.

A programmed decision is the result of implementing a certain sequence of steps or actions. Typically, the number of possible alternatives is limited and choices must be made within the directions given by the organization.

Non-programmed solutions. Decisions of this type are required in situations that are somewhat new, internally unstructured, or involve unknown factors. Since it is impossible to draw up a specific sequence of necessary steps in advance, the manager must develop a decision-making procedure. The following types of solutions can be classified as unprogrammed:

quantitative assessment of the level of risk.

Quantitative risk assessment involves measuring the degree of risk using methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory.

For risky decisions, first of all, the parameter of the most expected result (re) is estimated, determined by the mathematical expectation formula:

where ri is the i-th possible result of the decision, pi is the probability of the i-th result, n is the number of possible results.

A quantitative assessment of the risk of a particular alternative is considered to be variation (var) - the spread of possible decision results relative to the most expected value (mathematical expectation). This indicator is calculated as the standard deviation from the expected result

communication networks and their impact on quality information

A communication network is a system of physical communication channels and switching equipment that implements one or another low-level data transfer protocol. There are wired, wireless (using radio waves) and fiber-optic communication channels. Based on the type of signal transmitted, digital and analog networks are distinguished. The purpose of communication networks is to transmit data with a minimum number of errors and distortions. An information network can be built on the basis of a communication network; for example, TCP/IP networks are usually built on the basis of Ethernet networks, which in turn form the global Internet. Examples of communication networks are:

computer networks,

telephone networks,

cellular networks,

cable television networks.

Communication (from Latin communication - message, connection) is the exchange of information, ideas, opinions between the subjects of interaction. Information exchange is necessary when implementing any of the management functions (planning, organization, motivation, control). It is the most important condition for making informed decisions, plays a huge role in interpersonal relationships and shaping the image of the organization. That is, information exchange is the most important component of almost all types of management activities. Therefore, it is not surprising that managers at all levels spend most of their working time (50-90%) on communications.

The effectiveness of a manager’s work largely depends on the effectiveness of his communications and business communication skills: the ability to conduct a conversation and talk on the phone, conduct meetings, meetings, negotiations, work with documentation, etc.

Communication in an organization is a complex, multi-level system, covering both the organization itself and its elements, and its external environment.

risk management methods

Risk management is characterized as a set of techniques and measures that allow, to a certain extent, to predict the occurrence of risk events and take measures to eliminate or reduce negative consequences.

Risk management as a system consists of 2 subsystems: control (subject) and managed (object).

The object of risk management is risks, risky capital investments, economic relations between business entities in the process of risk realization.

The subject of management in the risk management system is financial managers or risk managers, who must influence the management object using various techniques and methods. The main task of the manager is to find a course of action that would provide the optimal combination of risk and income, based on the fact that the more profitable the project, the higher the degree of risk of its implementation.

The main objectives are:

Find an area of ​​increased risk;

Assess the degree of risk;

Analyze the acceptability of this level of risk for the organization;

Develop, if necessary, measures to prevent or reduce risk;

In the event that a risk event occurs, take measures to ensure maximum possible compensation for the damage caused.

Specific methods and techniques depend on the specifics of business activity, as well as on the professional preparedness of the subject - the risk manager.

The main principles of risk management are:

you cannot take more risks than your own capital can allow;

it is necessary to think about the consequences of risk, that is, to anticipate this situation and minimize it.

You can't risk a lot for a little.

methods of recording information

During educational processes and work activities, the need to memorize certain information periodically arises for the purpose of its further use. In most cases, you need to use a method that allows you to store information as accurately and quickly as possible. The traditional way of recording information is to keep written records in journals or diaries. This method has a fairly high fixation speed, but in most cases it is only suitable for personal use, since handwritten text, in addition to the content of what was written, also carries a lot of information.

The writing style, like a person’s fingerprints, is unique. No two people have the same handwriting. In criminology, there is a separate direction - handwriting examination: by just a few letters you can find out a person’s character, his gender, age, level of education and much more.

Along with simple notes in a notebook, other methods can be used based on other methods of memory - visual, tactile and sound. Sound means of recording information include various voice recorders and other sound recording equipment. The advantage of this method is based on the high speed of recording information and transmitting emotions. This method is very often used in the work of journalists who have to memorize a large amount of information in a short time.

Methods of recording through photo and video recording are as fast and effective as possible, but they have one drawback - due to the maximum recording of data, a person can only use the received information in full. The use of written and audio methods forces one to make efforts during information processing. This, in turn, leads to the development of skills and abilities, and forces a person to engage in self-education. The advantage of these methods is that a person can compress information - cut out individual parts of the audio track, shorten words, use symbols. When working with video or photos, in order to perceive all the information, it is necessary to use the full amount of information

name the types of legal liability

Legal responsibility is the application of state coercive measures to the guilty person for an offense committed. Legal responsibility is a legal relationship entered into by the state, represented by its competent authorities, and the offender, who is obliged to suffer appropriate deprivations for the offense he has committed.

Depending on the industry sector, the legal norms establishing such responsibility vary:

Disciplinary liability - Consists of imposing a disciplinary sanction on the guilty person by the authority of the manager. The main legal acts in the Russian Federation are the Labor Code, the Disciplinary Charter of the Armed Forces, the Disciplinary Charter of the Internal Affairs Bodies.

Administrative responsibility - Application by executive authorities of measures of influence to guilty persons. The main regulatory legal act is the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses. Within the framework of administrative responsibility, administrative responsibility itself is distinguished, as well as financial, tax responsibility and others.

Civil liability - Resulting from the violation of property and personal non-property rights of citizens and organizations. The main regulatory act is the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

Criminal liability - Applied in court to a person guilty of committing a crime. The only normative act establishing criminal liability is the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.

Constitutional and legal responsibility - Applied in the manner determined by constitutional and electoral legislation; has political and legal specifics and differs from the classical understanding of the institution of legal responsibility.

Financial liability - consists of compensation for property damage caused as a result of unlawful actions in the performance of labor duties. Employees bear financial responsibility for damage caused to an enterprise, organization, institution, as well as enterprises, institutions, organizations for damage caused to employees by injury or other damage to health.

optimal solution concept and content.

An optimal solution is a solution that, for one reason or another, is preferable to others.

In technology, optimal (option, solution, choice, etc.) is the best (option, solution, choice, ...) among those acceptable in the presence of a rule of preference for one over another. This rule is called an optimality criterion, and quality indicators will serve as a measure of preference. We can talk about the optimal option only if two conditions are met:

Related information.