The Soviet Union was formed in what year. USSR - union of Soviet socialist republics

History of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics- a state that existed from 1922 to 1991 in Europe and Asia. The USSR occupied 1/6 of the inhabited landmass and was the largest country in the world by area on the territory previously occupied by the Russian Empire without Finland, part of the Polish Kingdom and some other territories, but with Galicia, Transcarpathia, part of Prussia, Northern Bukovina, Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.

Background

February Revolution

“The decay of imperial Russia began a long time ago. By the time of the revolution, the old regime had completely disintegrated, was exhausted and exhausted. The war completed the process of decomposition. It cannot even be said that the February Revolution overthrew the monarchy in Russia, the monarchy itself fell, no one defended it... Bolshevism, long prepared by Lenin, turned out to be the only force that, on the one hand, could complete the decomposition of the old and, on the other hand, organize the new.” (Nikolai Berdyaev).

October Revolution

After the February Revolution of 1917, the new revolutionary Provisional Government was unable to restore order in the country, which led to increasing political chaos, as a result of which power in Russia was seized by the Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, in alliance with the left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists (October Revolution of 1917). The Councils of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies were proclaimed the supreme body of power. Executive power was exercised by the people's commissars. The reforms of the Soviet government consisted mainly of ending the war (Decree on Peace) and transferring landowners' lands to peasants (Decree on Land).

Civil War

The dissolution of the Constituent Assembly and the split in the revolutionary movement led to a civil war in which opponents of the Bolsheviks (the "Whites") fought against their supporters (the "Reds") during 1918-1922. Without receiving widespread support, the white movement lost the war. The political power of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was established in the country, gradually merging with the centralized state apparatus.

During the revolution and civil war, the territories of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were conquered by Poland, which had restored its independence. Bessarabia was annexed by Romania. The Kars region was conquered by Turkey. Independent states (Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) were formed on the territories of the principalities of Finland, Kovno, Vilna, Suwalki, Livonia, Estland and Courland provinces that were previously part of Russia.

USSR in 1922-1953

Education USSR

On December 30, 1922, the RSFSR, together with Ukraine (Ukrainian SSR), Belarus (BSSR) and the Transcaucasian republics (ZSFSR) formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

The struggle for power in the party

All government bodies in the USSR were controlled by the Communist Party (until 1925 it was called the RCP (b), in 1925-1952 - the CPSU (b), from 1952 - the CPSU). The highest body of the party was the Central Committee (Central Committee). The permanent bodies of the Central Committee were the Politburo (since 1952 - the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee), the Organizing Bureau (existed until 1952) and the Secretariat. The most important of these was the Politburo. His decisions were perceived as binding on all party and government bodies.

In this regard, the question of power in the country was reduced to the question of control over the Politburo. All members of the Politburo were formally equal, but until 1924 the most authoritative of them was V.I. Lenin, who chaired Politburo meetings. However, from 1922 until his death in 1924, Lenin was seriously ill and, as a rule, could not take part in the work of the Politburo.

At the end of 1922, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), if you do not take into account the sick V.I. Lenin, consisted of 6 people - I.V. Stalin, L.D. Trotsky, G.E. Zinoviev, L.B. Kamenev, A. I. Rykov and M. P. Tomsky. From 1922 to December 1925, meetings of the Politburo were usually chaired by L. B. Kamenev.

Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev organized a “troika” based on opposition to Trotsky, whom they had a negative attitude towards since the Civil War (frictions between Trotsky and Stalin began over the defense of Tsaritsyn and between Trotsky and Zinoviev over the defense of Petrograd, Kamenev supported almost everything Zinoviev). Tomsky, being a leader of trade unions, had a negative attitude towards Trotsky since the time of the so-called. "discussions about trade unions".

Trotsky began to resist. In October 1923, he sent a letter to the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission (Central Control Commission) demanding strengthening of democracy in the party. At the same time, his supporters sent the so-called Politburo. "Statement of the 46." The Troika then showed its power, mainly using the resource of the Central Committee apparatus, led by Stalin (the Central Committee apparatus could influence the selection of candidates for delegates to party congresses and conferences). At the XIII Conference of the RCP(b), Trotsky's supporters were condemned. Stalin's influence increased greatly.

On January 21, 1924, Lenin died. The Troika united with Bukharin, A.I. Rykov, Tomsky and V.V. Kuibyshev, forming the so-called Politburo (which included Rykov as a member and Kuibyshev as a candidate member). "seven". Later, at the August plenum of 1924, this “seven” even became an official body, albeit secret and extra-statutory.

The XIII Congress of the RCP (b) turned out to be difficult for Stalin. Before the start of the congress, Lenin's widow N.K. Krupskaya handed over a “Letter to the Congress.” It was announced at a meeting of the Council of Elders (a non-statutory body consisting of members of the Central Committee and leaders of local party organizations). Stalin announced his resignation for the first time at this meeting. Kamenev proposed to resolve the issue by voting. The majority was in favor of leaving Stalin as General Secretary; only Trotsky's supporters voted against. Then a proposal was voted on that the document should be read out at closed meetings of individual delegations, while no one had the right to take notes and the “Testament” could not be referenced at congress meetings. Thus, the “Letter to the Congress” was not even mentioned in the materials of the congress. It was first announced by N. S. Khrushchev at the 20th Congress of the CPSU in 1956. Later, this fact was used by the opposition to criticize Stalin and the party (it was argued that the Central Committee “hidden” Lenin’s “testament”). Stalin himself (in connection with this letter, who several times raised the question of his resignation before the plenum of the Central Committee) rejected these accusations. Just two weeks after the congress, where Stalin's future victims Zinoviev and Kamenev used all their influence to keep him in office, Stalin opened fire on his own allies. First, he took advantage of a typo (“NEPman” instead of “NEP” in Kamenev’s quotation from Lenin:

In the same report, Stalin accused Zinoviev, without naming him, of the principle of “dictatorship of the party,” put forward at the XII Congress, and this thesis was recorded in the resolution of the congress and Stalin himself voted for it. Stalin’s main allies in the “seven” were Bukharin and Rykov.

A new split emerged in the Politburo in October 1925, when Zinoviev, Kamenev, G. Ya. Sokolnikov and Krupskaya presented a document that criticized the party line from a “left” point of view. (Zinoviev led the Leningrad communists, Kamenev led the Moscow ones, and among the working class of large cities, which lived worse than before the First World War, there was strong dissatisfaction with low wages and rising prices for agricultural products, which led to the demand for pressure on the peasantry and especially on the kulaks ). The Seven broke up. At that moment, Stalin began to unite with the “right” Bukharin-Rykov-Tomsky, who expressed the interests primarily of the peasantry. In the internal party struggle that began between the “right” and “left,” he provided them with the forces of the party apparatus, and they (namely Bukharin) acted as theorists. The “new opposition” of Zinoviev and Kamenev was condemned at the XIV Congress.

By that time, the theory of the victory of socialism in one country had emerged. This view was developed by Stalin in the brochure “On Questions of Leninism” (1926) and Bukharin. They divided the question of the victory of socialism into two parts - the question of the complete victory of socialism, that is, the possibility of building socialism and the complete impossibility of restoring capitalism by internal forces, and the question of the final victory, that is, the impossibility of restoration due to the intervention of Western powers, which would only be excluded by establishing a revolution in the West.

Trotsky, who did not believe in socialism in one country, joined Zinoviev and Kamenev. The so-called "United Opposition". It was finally defeated after a demonstration organized by Trotsky’s supporters on November 7, 1927 in Leningrad.

From 1925 to 1929, control over the Politburo was gradually concentrated in the hands of I.V. Stalin, who from 1922 to 1934 was the General Secretary of the Party Central Committee. In 1929, Stalin also got rid of his new comrades: Bukharin, the chairman of the Comintern, Rykov, the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, and Tomsky, the leader of the trade unions. Thus, Stalin excluded from the political struggle all those who, in his opinion, could challenge his leadership in the country, so we can talk about the onset of Stalin’s dictatorship during this period.

New Economic Policy

In 1922-1929, the state implemented the New Economic Policy (NEP), the economy became multi-structured. After Lenin's death, the internal political struggle intensified. Joseph Stalin comes to power, establishing his personal dictatorship and destroying all his political rivals.

With the transition to the NEP, impetus was given to the development of entrepreneurship. However, freedom of enterprise was allowed only to a certain extent. In industry, private entrepreneurs were mainly limited to the production of consumer goods, the extraction and processing of certain types of raw materials, and the manufacture of simple tools; in trade - mediation between small producers and the sale of private industry goods; in transport - organizing local transportation of small consignments.

In order to prevent the concentration of private capital, the state used such a tool as taxes. In the 1924/1925 business year, taxes absorbed from 35 to 52% of the total income of private owners. There were few medium and large private industrial enterprises in the early years of NEP. In 1923/1924, as part of the entire qualified industry (that is, industrial enterprises with the number of workers at least 16 with a mechanical engine and at least 30 without an engine), private enterprises provided only 4.3% of production.

The overwhelming majority of the country's population were peasants. They suffered from imbalances in the ratio of state-regulated prices for industrial and agricultural goods (“price scissors”). Peasants, despite the great need for industrial goods, could not purchase them because prices were too high. Thus, before the war, a peasant, in order to pay the cost of a plow, had to sell 6 pounds of wheat, and in 1923 - 24 pounds; the cost of a hay mower over the same period increased from 125 pounds of grain to 544. In 1923, due to a decrease in procurement prices for the most important grain crops and an excessive increase in selling prices for industrial goods, difficulties arose with the sale of industrial goods.

By February 1924, it became clear that the peasants refused to hand over grain to the state for sovznaks. On February 2, 1924, the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR decided to introduce into circulation a stable currency of the all-Union type. The decree of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated February 5, 1924 announced the release of state treasury notes of the USSR. On February 14, 1924, the printing of Sovznak ceased, and on March 25, their release into circulation.

Industrialization

The XIV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at the end of 1925 proclaimed a course towards industrialization of the country. Since 1926, versions of the first five-year plan began to be developed in the USSR. People's Commissar of Finance of the USSR G. Ya. Sokolnikov and other specialists from his department (with whom economists N. D. Kondratiev and N. P. Makarov agreed) believed that the main task was to develop agriculture to the highest level. In their opinion, only on the basis of a strengthened and “prosperous” agriculture capable of sufficiently feeding the population, conditions for the expansion of industry can appear.

One of the plans, developed by specialists of the USSR State Planning Committee, provided for the development of all industries producing consumer goods and those means of production, the need for which was massive. Economists of this direction argued that everywhere in the world intensive industrial development began precisely with these industries.

Industrialization, which, due to obvious necessity, began with the creation of basic branches of heavy industry, could not yet provide the market with the goods necessary for the village. The supply of the city through normal trade was disrupted; the tax in kind was replaced by a cash tax in 1924. A vicious circle arose: to restore the balance it was necessary to accelerate industrialization, for this it was necessary to increase the influx of food, export products and labor from the countryside, and for this it was necessary to increase the production of bread, increase its marketability, create in the countryside a need for heavy industry products (machines ). The situation was complicated by the destruction during the revolution of the basis of commercial grain production in pre-revolutionary Russia - large landowner farms, and a project was needed to create something to replace them.

The industrialization policy continued by Stalin required large amounts of funds and equipment obtained from the export of wheat and other goods abroad. Large plans were established for collective farms to deliver agricultural products to the state. The sharp drop in the standard of living of peasants and the famine of 1932-33, according to historians, were the result of these grain procurement campaigns. The average standard of living of the population in rural areas throughout the subsequent history of the USSR has never returned to its 1929 levels.

The cardinal issue is the choice of industrialization method. The discussion about this was difficult and long, and its outcome predetermined the character of the state and society. Not having, unlike Russia at the beginning of the century, foreign loans as an important source of funds, the USSR could industrialize only at the expense of internal resources. An influential group (Politburo member N.I. Bukharin, Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars A.I. Rykov and Chairman of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions M.P. Tomsky) defended the “sparing” option of gradual accumulation of funds through the continuation of the NEP. L. D. Trotsky - forced version. J.V. Stalin initially supported Bukharin’s point of view, but after Trotsky was expelled from the party’s Central Committee at the end of 1927, he changed his position to the diametrically opposite one. This led to a decisive victory for the supporters of forced industrialization.

For the years 1928-1940, according to CIA estimates, the average annual growth of the gross national product in the USSR was 6.1%, which was inferior to Japan, was comparable to the corresponding figure in Germany and was significantly higher than the growth in the most developed capitalist countries experiencing the “Great Depression” . As a result of industrialization, the USSR took first place in terms of industrial production in Europe and second in the world, overtaking England, Germany, France and second only to the United States. The USSR's share in world industrial production reached almost 10%. A particularly sharp leap was achieved in the development of metallurgy, energy, machine tool building, and the chemical industry. In fact, a whole series of new industries arose: aluminum, aviation, automobile industries, bearing production, tractor and tank construction. One of the most important results of industrialization was overcoming technical backwardness and establishing the economic independence of the USSR.

The question of how much these achievements contributed to victory in the Great Patriotic War remains a matter of debate. During Soviet times, the view was accepted that industrialization and pre-war rearmament played a decisive role. Critics point out that by the beginning of the winter of 1941, the territory on which 42% of the population of the USSR lived before the war was occupied, 63% of coal was mined, 68% of cast iron was smelted, etc. As V. Lelchuk writes, “the victory was cannot be forged with the help of the powerful potential that was created during the years of accelerated industrialization.” However, the numbers speak for themselves. Despite the fact that in 1943 the USSR produced only 8.5 million tons of steel (compared to 18.3 million tons in 1940), while the German industry that year smelted more than 35 million tons (including those captured in Europe metallurgical plants), despite the colossal damage from the German invasion, the USSR industry was able to produce much more weapons than the German industry. in 1942, the USSR surpassed Germany in the production of tanks by 3.9 times, combat aircraft by 1.9 times, guns of all types by 3.1 times. At the same time, the organization and technology of production quickly improved: in 1944, the cost of all types of military products was halved compared to 1940. Record military production was achieved due to the fact that all new industry had a dual purpose. The industrial raw material base was prudently located beyond the Urals and Siberia, while the occupied territories were predominantly pre-revolutionary industry. The evacuation of industry to the Urals, Volga region, Siberia and Central Asia played a significant role. During the first three months of the war alone, 1,360 large (mostly military) enterprises were relocated.

Despite rapid urbanization starting in 1928, by the end of Stalin's life the majority of the population still lived in rural areas, far from large industrial centers. On the other hand, one of the results of industrialization was the formation of a party and labor elite. Taking these circumstances into account, the change in living standards during 1928-1952. characterized by the following features (see below for more details):

• The average standard of living throughout the country underwent significant fluctuations (especially associated with the first Five-Year Plan and the war), but in 1938 and 1952 it was higher or almost the same as in 1928.
• The greatest increase in living standards was among the party and labor elite.
• According to various estimates, the standard of living of the vast majority of rural residents (and thus the majority of the country's population) has not improved or has deteriorated significantly.

Stalin's methods of industrialization, collectivization in the countryside, and the elimination of the private trading system led to a significant decrease in the consumption fund and, as a consequence, the standard of living throughout the country. The rapid growth of the urban population has led to a deterioration in the housing situation; a period of “densification” passed again; workers arriving from the villages were housed in barracks. By the end of 1929, the card system was extended to almost all food products, and then to industrial products. However, even with cards it was impossible to obtain the necessary rations, and in 1931 additional “warrants” were introduced. It was impossible to buy food without standing in huge lines.

According to data from the Smolensk party archive, in 1929 in Smolensk a worker received 600 g of bread per day, family members - 300, fat - from 200 g to a liter of vegetable oil per month, 1 kilogram of sugar per month; a worker received 30-36 meters of calico per year. Subsequently, the situation (until 1935) only worsened. The GPU noted acute discontent among the workers.

Collectivization

From the beginning of the 1930s, collectivization of agriculture was carried out - the unification of all peasant farms into centralized collective farms. To a large extent, the elimination of land ownership rights was a consequence of the solution to the “class issue”. In addition, according to the prevailing economic views of the time, large collective farms could operate more efficiently through the use of technology and the division of labor.

Collectivization was a disaster for agriculture: according to official data, gross grain harvests decreased from 733.3 million centners in 1928 to 696.7 million centners in 1931-32. Grain yield in 1932 was 5.7 c/ha compared to 8.2 c/ha in 1913. Gross agricultural production was 124% in 1928 compared to 1913, in 1929-121%, in 1930-117%, in 1931-114%, in 1932-107%, in 1933-101% Livestock production in 1933 was 65% of the 1913 level. But at the expense of the peasants, the collection of commercial grain, which the country so needed for industrialization, increased by 20%.

After the disruption of grain procurements in 1927, when it was necessary to take emergency measures (fixed prices, closing markets and even repression), and an even more catastrophic grain procurement campaign of 1928-1929. the issue had to be resolved urgently. Extraordinary measures during procurement in 1929, already perceived as something completely abnormal, caused about 1,300 riots. In 1929, bread cards were introduced in all cities (in 1928 - in some cities).

The path to creating farming through the stratification of the peasantry was incompatible with the Soviet project for ideological reasons. A course was set for collectivization. This also implied the liquidation of the kulaks “as a class.”

Cards for bread, cereals and pasta were abolished from January 1, 1935, and for other (including non-food) goods from January 1, 1936. This was accompanied by an increase in wages in the industrial sector and an even greater increase in state ration prices for all types of goods. Commenting on the abolition of cards, Stalin uttered what later became a catchphrase: “Life has become better, life has become more fun.”

Overall, per capita consumption increased by 22% between 1928 and 1938. However, this growth was greatest among the party and labor elite group and did not affect the vast majority of the rural population, or more than half of the country's population.

Terror and repression

In the 1920s, political repression continued against the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, who did not renounce their beliefs. Former nobles were also subjected to repression for real and false accusations.

After the start of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the establishment, according to some historians, of Stalin's dictatorship and the completion of the creation of an authoritarian regime in the USSR during this period, political repressions became widespread.

The repressions that continued until Stalin’s death reached particular severity during the period of the “Great Terror” of 1937-1938, also called the “Yezhovshchina.” During this period, hundreds of thousands of people were shot and sent to Gulag camps on false charges of committing political crimes.

Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1930s

After Hitler came to power, Stalin sharply changed traditional Soviet policy: if previously it was aimed at an alliance with Germany against the Versailles system, and through the Comintern - at fighting the Social Democrats as the main enemy (the theory of “social fascism” is Stalin’s personal attitude ), now it consisted of creating a system of “collective security” within the USSR and the former Entente countries against Germany and an alliance of communists with all left forces against fascism (the “popular front” tactics). France and England were afraid of the USSR and hoped to “appease” Hitler, which was manifested in the history of the “Munich Agreement” and subsequently in the failure of negotiations between the USSR and England and France on military cooperation against Germany. Immediately after Munich, in the fall of 1938, Stalin made hints towards Germany about the desirability of improving mutual relations in terms of trade. On October 1, 1938, Poland, in an ultimatum, demanded that the Czech Republic transfer to it the Cieszyn region, the subject of territorial disputes between it and Czechoslovakia in 1918-1920. And in March 1939, Germany occupied the remaining part of Czechoslovakia. On March 10, 1939, Stalin made a report at the XVIII Party Congress, in which he formulated the goals of Soviet policy as follows:

“1. Continue to pursue a policy of peace and strengthening business ties with all countries.

2. ...Do not allow war provocateurs, who are accustomed to raking in the heat with the hands of others, to drag our country into conflicts.”

This was noted by the German embassy as a hint of Moscow's reluctance to act as allies of England and France. In May, Litvinov, a Jew and an ardent supporter of the “collective security” course, was removed from his post as head of the NKID and replaced by Molotov. The German leadership also regarded this as a favorable sign.

By that time, the international situation was sharply aggravating due to German claims against Poland; England and France this time showed their readiness to go to war with Germany, trying to attract the USSR to the alliance. In the summer of 1939, Stalin, while supporting negotiations on an alliance with England and France, simultaneously began negotiations with Germany. As historians note, Stalin's hints towards Germany intensified as relations between Germany and Poland deteriorated and strengthened between Britain, Poland and Japan. Hence the conclusion is drawn that Stalin’s policy was not so much pro-German as anti-British and anti-Polish in nature; Stalin was categorically not satisfied with the old status quo; in his own words, he did not believe in the possibility of a complete victory for Germany and the establishment of its hegemony in Europe.

Foreign policy of the USSR in 1939-1940

On the night of September 17, 1939, the USSR began the Polish campaign in Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (including the Bialystok region), which were part of Poland, as well as the Vilna region, which, according to the secret additional protocol to the Non-Aggression Treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union, were classified as sphere of interests of the USSR. On September 28, 1939, the USSR concluded a Treaty of Friendship and Borders with Germany, which fixed, approximately along the “Curzon Line,” “the border between mutual state interests on the territory of the former Polish state.” In October 1939, Western Ukraine became part of the Ukrainian SSR, Western Belarus became part of the BSSR, and the Vilna region was transferred to Lithuania.

At the end of September - beginning of October 1939, agreements were concluded with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which, according to the secret additional protocol to the Non-Aggression Treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union, were included in the sphere of interests of the USSR, according to which Soviet military bases.

On October 5, 1939, the USSR also proposed to Finland, which also, according to the secret additional protocol to the Non-Aggression Treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union, was classified in the sphere of interests of the USSR, to consider the possibility of concluding a mutual assistance pact with the USSR. Negotiations began on October 11, but Finland rejected Soviet proposals both for a pact and for the lease and exchange of territories. On November 30, 1939, the USSR began a war with Finland. This war ended on March 12, 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty, which recorded a number of territorial concessions on the part of Finland. However, the initially intended goal - the complete defeat of Finland - was not achieved, and the losses of the Soviet troops were too great in comparison with the plans, which envisaged an easy and quick victory with small forces. The prestige of the Red Army as a strong enemy was undermined. This made a strong impression on Germany in particular and pushed Hitler to the idea of ​​attacking the USSR.

In most states, as well as in the USSR before the war, they underestimated the Finnish army, and most importantly, the power of the fortifications of the “Mannerheim Line”, and believed that it could not provide serious resistance. Therefore, the “long fuss” with Finland was perceived as an indicator of the weakness and unpreparedness of the Red Army for war.

On June 14, 1940, the Soviet government presented an ultimatum to Lithuania, and on June 16 - to Latvia and Estonia. In basic terms, the meaning of the ultimatums was the same - these states were required to bring governments friendly to the USSR to power and allow additional contingents of troops into the territory of these countries. The terms were accepted. On June 15, Soviet troops entered Lithuania, and on June 17 - into Estonia and Latvia. The new governments lifted the ban on the activities of communist parties and called early parliamentary elections. The elections in all three states were won by the pro-communist Blocs (Unions) of the working people - the only electoral lists admitted to the elections. The newly elected parliaments already on July 21-22 proclaimed the creation of the Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR and Lithuanian SSR and adopted the Declaration of Entry into the USSR. On August 3-6, 1940, in accordance with the decisions, these republics were accepted into the Soviet Union. (for more details, see Annexation of the Baltic states to the USSR (1939-1940)).

After the start of German aggression against the USSR in the summer of 1941, the dissatisfaction of the Baltic residents with the Soviet regime became the reason for their armed attacks on Soviet troops, which contributed to the German advance towards Leningrad.

On June 26, 1940, the USSR demanded that Romania transfer Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to it. Romania agreed to this ultimatum and on June 28, 1940, Soviet troops were introduced into the territory of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina (for more details, see Annexation of Bessarabia to the USSR). On August 2, 1940, at the VII session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Law on the formation of the union Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted. The Moldavian SSR included: the city of Chisinau, 6 of 9 districts of Bessarabia (Balti, Bendery, Kagul, Chisinau, Orhei, Soroca), as well as the city of Tiraspol and 6 of 14 districts of the former Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Grigoriopol, Dubossary, Kamensky, Rybnitsa, Slobodzeisky, Tiraspolsky). The remaining regions of the MASSR, as well as Akkerman, Izmail and Khotyn districts of Bessarabia, were transferred to the Ukrainian SSR. Northern Bukovina also became part of the Ukrainian SSR.

The Great Patriotic War

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the USSR, violating the provisions of the non-aggression treaty. The Great Patriotic War began. Initially, Germany and its allies were able to achieve great successes and capture vast territories, but were never able to capture Moscow, as a result of which the war became protracted. During the turning-point battles of Stalingrad and Kursk, Soviet troops went on the offensive and defeated the German army, victoriously ending the war in May 1945 with the capture of Berlin. In 1944, Tuva became part of the USSR, and in 1945, as a result of the war with Japan, South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands were annexed. During the hostilities and as a result of the occupation, the total demographic losses in the USSR amounted to 26.6 million people.

Post-war time

After the war, communist parties friendly to the USSR came to power in the countries of Eastern Europe (Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany). The US role in the world has strengthened. Relations between the USSR and the West sharply worsened (see Cold War). The NATO military bloc emerged, in opposition to which the Warsaw Pact organization was formed.

After the war and famine of 1946, the card system was abolished in 1947, although many goods remained in short supply, in particular, there was a famine again in 1947. In addition, on the eve of the abolition of cards, prices for ration goods were raised. This allowed in 1948-1953. repeatedly and demonstratively reduce prices. Price reductions somewhat improved the standard of living of Soviet people. In 1952, the cost of bread was 39% of the price at the end of 1947, milk - 72%, meat - 42%, sugar - 49%, butter - 37%. As noted at the 19th Congress of the CPSU, at the same time the price of bread increased by 28% in the USA, by 90% in England, and more than doubled in France; the cost of meat in the USA increased by 26%, in England - by 35%, in France - by 88%. If in 1948 real wages were on average 20% lower than the pre-war level, then in 1952 they already exceeded the pre-war level by 25% and almost reached the level of 1928. However, among the peasantry, real incomes even in 1952 remained at 40% below the level of 1928. 30 years after the end of the war, the USSR was among the FIRST 10 most developed countries in the world in terms of LIVING STANDARD (hdr.undp.org), in contrast to the 20-year post-Soviet history of the countries of the former USSR, the standard of living in which are now at the level of third world countries.

USSR in 1953-1991

In 1953, the leader of the USSR I.V. Stalin died. After three years of struggle for power among the leadership of the CPSU, there followed some liberalization of the country's policies and the rehabilitation of a number of victims of Stalin's terror. The Khrushchev Thaw has arrived.

Khrushchev's thaw

The starting point of the Thaw was the death of Stalin in 1953. At the 20th Congress of the CPSU in 1956, Nikita Khrushchev made a speech in which Stalin’s cult of personality and Stalin’s repressions were criticized. In general, Khrushchev’s course was supported at the top of the party and corresponded to its interests, since previously even the most prominent party functionaries, if they fell into disgrace, could fear for their lives. The foreign policy of the USSR proclaimed a course towards “peaceful coexistence” with the capitalist world. Khrushchev also began a rapprochement with Yugoslavia.

The era of stagnation

In 1965, N. S. Khrushchev was removed from power. Attempts at economic reform followed, but the so-called Age of Stagnation soon began. There were no more mass repressions in the USSR; thousands of those dissatisfied with the policies of the CPSU or the Soviet way of life were repressed (without applying the death penalty to them), see Human rights movement in the USSR.

• According to World Bank estimates, funding for education in the USSR in 1970 amounted to 7% of GDP.

Perestroika

In 1985, Gorbachev announced the beginning of perestroika. In 1989, elections took place to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, in 1990 - to the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR.

Collapse of the USSR

Attempts to reform the Soviet system led to a deepening crisis in the country. In the political arena, this crisis was expressed as a confrontation between USSR President Gorbachev and RSFSR President Yeltsin. Yeltsin actively promoted the slogan of the need for the sovereignty of the RSFSR.

The collapse of the USSR took place against the backdrop of the onset of a general economic, foreign policy and demographic crisis. In 1989, the beginning of the economic crisis in the USSR was officially announced for the first time (economic growth was replaced by decline).

A number of interethnic conflicts flare up on the territory of the USSR, the most acute of which is the Karabakh conflict; since 1988, mass pogroms of both Armenians and Azerbaijanis have occurred. In 1989, the Supreme Council of the Armenian SSR announced the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh, and the Azerbaijan SSR began a blockade. In April 1991, a war actually began between the two Soviet republics.

The years of existence of the USSR are 1922-1991. However, the history of the world's largest state began with the February Revolution, or more precisely, with the crisis of Tsarist Russia. Since the beginning of the 20th century, opposition sentiments have been fermenting in the country, which every now and then resulted in bloodshed.

The words spoken by Pushkin in the thirties of the 19th century were applicable in the past and do not lose their relevance today. The Russian revolt is always merciless. Especially when it leads to the overthrow of the old regime. Let's remember the most important and tragic events that took place during the years of the existence of the USSR.

Background

In 1916, the royal family was discredited by scandals surrounding an odious personality, the mystery of which has not yet been fully solved. We are talking about Grigory Rasputin. Nicholas II made several mistakes, the first in the year of his coronation. But we won’t talk about this today, but let’s remember the events that preceded the creation of the Soviet state.

So, the First World War is in full swing. There are rumors in St. Petersburg. Rumor has it that the empress divorces her husband, enters a monastery, and occasionally engages in espionage. Opposition to the Russian Tsar is being formed. Its participants, among whom were the tsar’s closest relatives, demanded Rasputin’s removal from government.

While the princes were arguing with the tsar, a revolution was being prepared that was supposed to change the course of world history. Armed rallies continued for several days in February. Ended with a coup d'état. A Provisional Government was formed, which did not last long.

Then there was the October Revolution, the Civil War. Historians divide the years of the existence of the USSR into several periods. During the first, which lasted until 1953, a former revolutionary, known in narrow circles under the nickname Koba, was in power.

Stalin years (1922-1941)

By the end of 1922, six political figures were in power: Stalin, Trotsky, Zinoviev, Rykov, Kamenev, Tomsky. But one person must rule the state. A struggle began between the former revolutionaries.

Neither Kamenev, nor Zinoviev, nor Tomsky had any sympathy for Trotsky. Stalin especially did not like the People's Commissar for Military Affairs. Dzhugashvili had a negative attitude towards him since the Civil War. They say that he did not like education, erudition, who used to read French classics in the original at political meetings. But that’s not the point, of course. In political struggle there is no place for simple human likes and dislikes. The fight between the revolutionaries ended in Stalin's victory. In subsequent years, he methodically eliminated his other associates.

The Stalin years were marked by repressions. First there was forced collectivization, then arrests. How many people turned into camp dust during this terrible time, how many were shot? Hundreds of thousands of people. The peak of Stalin's repressions occurred in 1937-1938.

The Great Patriotic War

During the years of the existence of the USSR there were many tragic events. In 1941, the war began, which claimed about 25 million lives. These losses are incomparable. Before Yuri Levitan announced on the radio the attack of the German armed forces on no one believed that there was a ruler in the world who would not be afraid to direct his aggression towards the USSR.

Historians divide the Second World War into three periods. The first begins on June 22, 1941 and ends with the Battle of Moscow, in which the Germans were defeated. The second ends with the Battle of Stalingrad. The third period is the expulsion of enemy troops from the USSR, liberation from the occupation of European countries and the surrender of Germany.

Stalinism (1945-1953)

I was not ready for war. When it began, it turned out that many military leaders had been shot, and those who were alive were far away, in camps. They were immediately released, restored to normal condition and sent to the front. The war is over. Several years passed, and a new wave of repression began, now among the senior command staff.

Major military leaders close to Marshal Zhukov were arrested. Among them are Lieutenant General Telegin and Air Marshal Novikov. Zhukov himself was a little oppressed, but not particularly touched. His authority was too great. For the victims of the last wave of repressions, for those who survived in the camps, this was the happiest day of the year. The “leader” died, and with him the camps for political prisoners went down in history.

Thaw

In 1956, Khrushchev debunked Stalin's personality cult. At the top of the party he was supported. After all, for many years, even the most prominent political figure could at any moment find himself in disgrace, which means he could be shot or sent to a camp. During the existence of the USSR, the Thaw years were marked by a softening of the totalitarian regime. People went to bed and were not afraid that state security officers would wake them up in the middle of the night and take them to the Lubyanka, where they would have to confess to espionage, attempting to assassinate Stalin and other fictitious crimes. But denunciations and provocations still took place.

During the Thaw years, the word “chekist” had a pronounced negative connotation. In fact, distrust of the intelligence services arose much earlier, back in the thirties. But the term “chekist” lost official approval after a report made by Khrushchev in 1956.

The era of stagnation

This is not a historical term, but a propaganda and literary cliche. It appeared after Gorbachev’s speech, in which he noted the emergence of stagnation in the economy and social life. The era of stagnation conventionally begins with Brezhnev coming to power and ends with the beginning of perestroika. One of the main problems of this period was the increasing commodity shortage. In the world of culture, censorship rules. During the years of stagnation in the USSR, the first terrorist attacks occurred. During this period there were several high-profile cases of hijacking passenger aircraft.

Afghan war

In 1979, a war began that lasted ten years. Over these years, more than thirteen thousand Soviet soldiers died. But these data were made public only in 1989. The biggest losses occurred in 1984. Soviet dissidents actively opposed the Afghan war. Andrei Sakharov was sent into exile for his pacifist speeches. Burials of zinc coffins were a secret matter. At least until 1987. It was impossible to indicate on a soldier’s grave that he died in Afghanistan. The official end date of the war is February 15, 1989.

The last years of the USSR (1985-1991)

This period in the history of the Soviet Union is called perestroika. The last years of the existence of the USSR (1985-1991) can be briefly characterized as follows: a sharp change in ideology, political and economic life.

In May 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev, who by that time had held the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee for just over two months, uttered a significant phrase: “It’s time for all of us, comrades, to rebuild.” Hence the term. The media actively started talking about perestroika, and a dangerous desire for change arose in the minds of ordinary citizens. Historians divide the last years of the existence of the USSR into four stages:

1. 1985-1987. The beginning of reform of the economic system.
2. 1987-1989. An attempt to rebuild the system in the spirit of socialism.
3. 1989-1991. Destabilization of the situation in the country.
4. September-December 1991. The end of perestroika, the collapse of the USSR.

The listing of events that took place from 1989 to 1991 will be a chronicle of the collapse of the USSR.

Accelerating socio-economic development

Gorbachev announced the need to reform the system at the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee in April 1985. This meant the active use of scientific and technological progress and a change in the planning procedure. There has not yet been any talk about democratization, openness and the socialist market. Although today the term “perestroika” is associated with freedom of speech, which was first discussed several years before the collapse of the USSR.

The years of Gorbachev's rule, especially at the first stage, were marked by the hopes of Soviet citizens for change, for long-awaited changes for the better. However, gradually the inhabitants of the huge country began to become disillusioned with the politician who was destined to become the last secretary general. The anti-alcohol campaign drew particular criticism.

No alcohol law

History shows that attempts to wean the citizens of our country from drinking alcohol do not bear any fruit. The first anti-alcohol campaign was carried out by the Bolsheviks back in 1917. A second attempt was made eight years later. They tried to fight drunkenness and alcoholism in the early seventies, and in a very unique way: they banned the production of alcoholic beverages, but expanded the production of wine.

The alcohol campaign of the eighties was called "Gorbachev's", although the initiators were Ligachev and Solomentsev. This time the authorities resolved the issue of drunkenness more radically. The production of alcoholic beverages was significantly reduced, a huge number of stores were closed, and vodka prices were raised more than once. But Soviet citizens did not give up so easily. Some purchased alcohol at an inflated price. Others were preparing drinks according to dubious recipes (V. Erofeev spoke about this method of fighting Prohibition in his book “Moscow - Petushki”), and still others used the simplest method, i.e. they drank cologne, which could be purchased at any department store

Meanwhile, Gorbachev's popularity was falling. Not only due to the ban on alcoholic beverages. He was verbose, but his speeches had little substance. He came to every official meeting with his wife, who caused particular irritation among the Soviet people. Finally, perestroika did not bring long-awaited changes to the lives of Soviet citizens.

Democratic socialism

By the end of 1986, Gorbachev and his assistants realized that the situation in the country could not be changed so easily. And they decided to reform the system in a different direction, namely in the spirit of democratic socialism. This decision was facilitated by a blow to the economy caused by many factors, including the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Meanwhile, in certain regions of the Soviet Union, separatist sentiments began to appear, and interethnic clashes broke out.

Destabilization in the country

In what year did the USSR end its existence? In 1991. At the final stage of “perestroika” there was a sharp destabilization of the situation. Economic difficulties have developed into a large-scale crisis. There was a catastrophic collapse in the living standards of Soviet citizens. They learned about what unemployment is. The shelves in the stores were empty, and if something suddenly appeared on them, endless queues immediately formed. Irritation and dissatisfaction with the authorities grew among the masses.

Collapse of the USSR

In what year the Soviet Union ceased to exist, we figured it out. The official date is December 26, 1991. On this day, Mikhail Gorbachev announced that he would cease his activities as president. With the collapse of the huge state, 15 former republics of the USSR gained independence. There are many reasons that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. This is an economic crisis, and the degradation of power elites, and national conflicts, and even an anti-alcohol campaign.

Let's summarize. Above are the main events that took place during the existence of the USSR. From what year to what year was this state present on the world map? From 1922 to 1991. The collapse of the USSR was perceived differently by the population. Some rejoiced at the abolition of censorship and the opportunity to engage in entrepreneurial activity. Some people were shocked by the events that happened in 1991. After all, it was a tragic collapse of the ideals on which more than one generation grew up.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is a state that existed in the period 1922-1991. in Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, parts of Central and Eastern Asia.

The history of the USSR is an amazing series of incredible, sometimes simply mystical events.

This story has it all: incredible victories and humiliating defeats, the delight of unique achievements and the fear of sudden reprisals.

Having gone through many upheavals, from 1913 to 1986. Russia has increased its national wealth by more than 50 times, its national income by 94 times.

The number of students in higher educational institutions increased 40 times, doctors - 48 times. In 1986, the national income of the USSR was 66% of that in , production - 80%, agriculture - 85%.

However, from 1985 to 1991, a series of economic and political transformations were carried out in the USSR, which undermined the economy and destabilized life in the country. Internal political confrontation has intensified.

All this led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Russian Federation was recognized as the successor state of the USSR in international legal relations and took its place in the UN Security Council.

Of course, it is simply impossible to describe all this in detail in one article, so we decided to write a brief history of the USSR, highlighting its most important periods.

As a result of the First World War, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and German.

February Revolution

Alexander Vasilievich Kolchak

In contrast, the “Reds” were supporters of Bolshevism. Their goal was to establish communism in Russia and the complete destruction of any form of monarchy.

The “Reds” became the winners in this confrontation, as a result of which the power was headed by the RCP (b) - the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). She was soon reunited with the central government apparatus.

During the Civil War, many territories of Western Ukraine and Belarus were conquered by the Poles, who managed to restore their independence.

As a result of the military conflict, Bessarabia became part of, and the Kars region went to. The principalities that were previously part of the Russian Empire turned into independent republics (, and).

Education USSR

The Treaty on the Formation of the USSR was signed on December 29, 1922, and already on December 30, 1922, the First All-Union Congress of Soviets approved it.

The first states to become part of it were the Ukrainian SSR (Ukrainian SSR), the Byelorussian SSR (BSSR) and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR).

An interesting fact is that formally they were all considered sovereign states.

The struggle for party power

All power of the USSR was concentrated in the hands of the Communist Party, which changed its name several times throughout history. Ultimately, in 1952 it began to be called the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union).

The highest authorities were the Central Committee, the Organizing Bureau, the Secretariat and the Politburo. The last of them was the most important authority.

Politburo decisions were not subject to criticism or discussion, and had to be carried out unquestioningly.

De jure, all members of the Politburo were equal, but de facto this was not entirely true. The most significant representative of the Politburo was Vladimir Lenin, from whose pen various laws were issued and all the most important decisions were made.

However, after Lenin began to become seriously ill, he was unable to participate in the discussion of certain issues, which gave rise to a struggle for power.

In addition to him, the Politburo included Rykov, Tomsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev. It was these six in the period 1922-1925. participated in the meetings.

Soon there was a split in the Politburo. Stalin, along with Zinoviev and Kamenev, opposed Trotsky (see). It is worth noting that friction arose between politicians even during the Civil War.

At the end of 1923, Trotsky began to demand greater equality in the party, openly criticizing the “troika” of his fellow party members. However, as it turns out later, he will lose this confrontation.

As a result, both Trotsky and all his comrades will be declared enemies of the people.

After Lenin's death in 1924, other key politicians joined Kamenev and Zinoviev. Among them were Kuibyshev, Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky.

Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky

At the 13th Congress of the RCP (b), Lenin’s widow published a “Letter to the Congress,” written by her late husband shortly before her death. However, the letter was not read in the hall, since those present considered it appropriate to read it only in a closed meeting.

By the way, in this letter Lenin spoke about his comrades-in-arms, giving each a brief but meaningful description.

In particular, Vladimir Ilyich accused Stalin of having concentrated too much power in his hands and was unlikely to be able to use it wisely.

At the same time, he praised Trotsky and even called him the best candidate to govern the newly formed state.

An interesting fact is that at that congress Stalin asked for his resignation, but Kamenev insisted that this issue be put to a vote.

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin

According to a number of historians, Stalin decided to take such a step not because he wanted to leave politics, but in order to win over people.

Thus, he showed that he allegedly did not cling to power and thereby won the sympathy of the congress participants. As a result, only Trotsky's supporters voted against him.

It is worth noting that in a couple of weeks Joseph Stalin will forget how Kamenev and Zinoviev supported him.

He will accuse them of distorting Lenin's ideas and will do everything possible to make them out to be enemies of the people. As a result, they will be forced to side with Trotsky.

At this time, Stalin became close to Bukharin. Together with him, he preached the ideas of socialism and criticized capitalism. Every day there were more and more supporters of Stalin in society who believed in his program for the development of the USSR.

In the fall of 1927, the “United Opposition” represented by Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev was completely destroyed. By 1929, all power was virtually in the hands of Joseph Stalin.

Soon he began to get rid of his comrades-in-arms, including Bukharin. His goal was to kick out of the political race all those who could potentially prevent him from becoming the head of the USSR.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

During the history of the USSR 1922-1929. The new economic policy (NEP) is actively developing in the country. All power finally passes into the hands of Joseph Stalin, who by that time had already destroyed all his opponents and began to establish an authoritarian regime in the USSR.

The NEP provided for the development of entrepreneurial activity, but on a small scale. The government did everything possible to prevent the increase in private capital.

In this regard, private owners had to pay huge taxes to the treasury, which could amount to more than half of their income.

Life for the peasants was also difficult. To develop their economy, they were in dire need of various agricultural products and tools, but could not afford them due to extremely high prices.

Industrialization in the USSR

After Lenin's death, a course towards industrialization of the USSR was announced. Soviet citizens needed goods necessary to perform one or another job. At that time in history, the government replaced the food tax with a cash tax.

The situation was further complicated by the fact that during the coup d'etat all large landowners' farms were destroyed, and no organizations were created to replace them.

To successfully carry out industrialization, Stalin needed large funds. Then he decided to get them by exporting wheat and other goods abroad.

As a result, collective farmers had to fulfill huge plans for delivering production to the state. This led to poverty among the peasants, and soon to the terrible famine of 1932-1933.

After this, a more gentle option for gradually replenishing the state budget through the continuation of the NEP came into force.

According to statistics, during the history of the USSR 1928-1940, GDP growth exceeded 6%. Even the world's leading economies could not boast of such high indicators.

Soon the pace of development reached such a level that the USSR was in first place in Europe in terms of industrial production. Metallurgical, chemical and energy plants were built one after another in the state.

An important aspect was that the USSR turned out to be an economically independent state. Otherwise, his story could have taken a completely different path.

However, despite this, the standard of living of the majority of rural citizens has hardly improved, and in some places has even worsened.

Collectivization

At the beginning of the 30s, collectivization of agriculture was introduced, which represented the unification of peasant farms into centralized collective farms.

It led to a significant decrease in agricultural and livestock production. Peasant uprisings began in various places, which were often suppressed with weapons.

A card system was introduced in the USSR, according to which people could receive certain shares of certain products. The abolition of cards (for certain products) occurred only in 1935.

An interesting fact is that it was after this that Stalin uttered his historical phrase: “Life has become better, life has become more fun.”

Terror and repression

Immediately after the Civil War, the Bolsheviks began to destroy the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks who preached their beliefs. In addition, former landowners also became victims of repression.

The repressions reached their greatest scale during the period of the so-called Great Terror (1937-1938).

According to historians, during this time hundreds of thousands of people were killed, and millions of Soviet citizens ended up in labor camps. Mostly, the convicts were accused of treason and counter-revolutionary activities.

Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1930s

In connection with the signed agreement, Germany turned a blind eye to these actions on the part of the USSR. The Soviets then annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, establishing military bases in these republics.

Then the USSR invited Finland to sign a mutual assistance treaty. However, when the Finns rejected any proposals, war broke out between the countries.

It lasted for 4 months. As a result, the USSR and Finland signed the Moscow Peace Treaty. In this conflict, the Soviet side suffered great human and technical losses.

When Hitler saw that the USSR, superior to Finland in population and technology, could not win the war, he decided that the Red Army did not pose a serious threat to him.

The Great Patriotic War

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the USSR, thereby violating the non-aggression pact. This was the beginning of a terrible thing.

At the beginning, the Germans managed to occupy most European countries in a short period of time, but when they reached, they encountered problems.

Georgy Zhukov - Marshal of Victory

The Red Army, under its leadership, launched an active counter-offensive against the Wehrmacht. The turning point in the war came during the Battle of Kursk, in which Soviet soldiers won great victories, continuing the pursuit of the Germans.

As a result, on May 8, 1945, Germany unconditionally surrendered, and the next day was proclaimed Victory Day.

After this, the USSR declared war on Japan, since it was an ally of Nazi Germany. An interesting fact is that it was during this period of history that the United States implemented.

A few weeks later, under pressure from Soviet soldiers, Japan capitulated. After this, Southern Sakhalin (see) and the Kuril Islands began to belong to the Soviet Union.

On April 30, 1945, at 10 p.m., the Victory Banner was hoisted over the Reichstag by Soviet soldiers.

The Second World War became the bloodiest in human history. According to historians, more than 26 million Soviet citizens died in it, although some experts cite even higher numbers.

Post-war time

After the war, communist regimes were established in many European countries. At the same time, the United States was gaining more and more serious influence throughout the world.

Soon a conflict began between the United States of America and the USSR cold war, which manifested itself in the military, industrial and space race.

In the post-war period, the Soviet Union, which suffered the greatest losses, suffered from hunger and devastation. It took years for the standard of living of ordinary people to improve.

History of the USSR in 1953-1991.

In 1953 Joseph Stalin died. His death was a real tragedy for the majority of Soviet citizens who lived during the cult of personality.

He was elected the new head of the USSR. Under his rule, a huge number of victims of Stalin's repressions were rehabilitated, and important reforms were carried out.

Khrushchev's thaw

At the 20th Congress of the CPSU, Nikita Khrushchev criticized Stalin's cult of personality by publishing various documents that spoke about his crimes.

Khrushchev's words were supported by party members just as they had previously supported Stalin himself. In general, this was not surprising, since everyone was afraid of losing their place.

Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev

The history of the USSR during the reign of Khrushchev was called the “thaw”. The government paid great attention to the agrarian issue, while declaring a policy of “peaceful coexistence” with capitalist countries.

Good relations began to develop between the USSR and Yugoslavia.

At the time of its collapse, the USSR occupied almost 1/6 of the Earth's inhabited landmass with a population of 294 million people, as well as 7th place in the world in terms of national income (3.4%).

Thus ended the history of a great country - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

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Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR

Before the young state, torn apart by the consequences of the civil war, the problem of creating a unified administrative-territorial system became acute. At that time, the RSFSR accounted for 92% of the country's area, whose population later accounted for 70% of the newly formed USSR. The remaining 8% was shared among the Soviet republics: Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation, which united Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in 1922. Also in the east of the country, the Far Eastern Republic was created, which was administered from Chita. Central Asia at that time consisted of two people's republics - Khorezm and Bukhara.

In order to strengthen the centralization of control and concentration of resources on the fronts of the civil war, the RSFSR, Belarus and Ukraine united into an alliance in June 1919. This made it possible to unite the armed forces, with the introduction of a centralized command (the Revolutionary Military Council of the RSFSR and the Commander-in-Chief of the Red Army). Representatives from each republic were delegated to government bodies. The agreement also provided for the reassignment of some republican branches of industry, transport and finance to the corresponding People's Commissariats of the RSFSR. This new state formation went down in history under the name “contractual federation.” Its peculiarity was that Russian governing bodies were given the opportunity to function as the only representatives of the supreme power of the state. At the same time, the communist parties of the republics became part of the RCP (b) only as regional party organizations.
The emergence and escalation of confrontation.
All this soon led to disagreements between the republics and the control center in Moscow. After all, having delegated their main powers, the republics lost the opportunity to make decisions independently. At the same time, the independence of the republics in the sphere of governance was officially declared.
Uncertainty in defining the boundaries of the powers of the center and the republics contributed to the emergence of conflicts and confusion. Sometimes state authorities looked ridiculous, trying to bring to a common denominator nationalities whose traditions and culture they knew nothing about. For example, the need for the existence of a subject on the study of the Koran in the schools of Turkestan gave rise in October 1922 to an acute confrontation between the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the People's Commissariat for Nationalities Affairs.
Creation of a commission on relations between the RSFSR and independent republics.
The decisions of the central bodies in the economic sphere did not find proper understanding among the republican authorities and often led to sabotage. In August 1922, in order to radically change the current situation, the Politburo and the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) considered the issue “On the relationship between the RSFSR and the independent republics”, creating a commission that included republican representatives. V.V. Kuibyshev was appointed chairman of the commission.
The commission instructed I.V. Stalin to develop a project for the “autonomization” of the republics. The presented decision proposed to include Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in the RSFSR, with the rights of republican autonomy. The draft was sent to the Republican Central Committee of the party for consideration. However, this was done only to obtain formal approval of the decision. Considering the significant infringements on the rights of the republics provided for by this decision, J.V. Stalin insisted on not using the usual practice of publishing the decision of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) if it was adopted. But he demanded that the Republican Central Committees of parties be obliged to strictly implement it.
Creation by V.I. Lenin of the concept of a state based on the Federation.
Ignoring the independence and self-government of the country's constituent entities, while simultaneously tightening the role of the central authorities, was perceived by Lenin as a violation of the principle of proletarian internationalism. In September 1922, he proposed the idea of ​​​​creating a state on the principles of a federation. Initially, the name was proposed - the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia, but was later changed to the USSR. Joining the union was supposed to be a conscious choice of each sovereign republic, based on the principle of equality and independence, with the general authorities of the federation. V.I. Lenin believed that a multinational state must be built based on the principles of good neighborliness, parity, openness, respect and mutual assistance.

"Georgian conflict". Strengthening separatism.
At the same time, in some republics there is a shift towards the isolation of autonomies, and separatist sentiments intensify. For example, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia flatly refused to remain part of the Transcaucasian Federation, demanding that the republic be accepted into the union as an independent entity. Fierce polemics on this issue between representatives of the Central Committee of the Georgian Party and the Chairman of the Transcaucasian Regional Committee G.K. Ordzhonikidze ended in mutual insults and even assault on the part of Ordzhonikidze. The result of the policy of strict centralization on the part of the central authorities was the voluntary resignation of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia in its entirety.
To investigate this conflict, a commission was created in Moscow, the chairman of which was F. E. Dzerzhinsky. The commission took the side of G.K. Ordzhonikidze and severely criticized the Central Committee of Georgia. This fact outraged V.I. Lenin. He repeatedly tried to condemn the perpetrators of the clash in order to exclude the possibility of infringement on the independence of the republics. However, progressive illness and civil strife in the Central Committee of the country's party did not allow him to complete the job.

Year of formation of the USSR

Officially date of formation of the USSR– this is December 30, 1922. On this day, at the first Congress of Soviets, the Declaration on the Creation of the USSR and the Union Treaty were signed. The Union included the RSFSR, the Ukrainian and Belarusian socialist republics, as well as the Transcaucasian Federation. The Declaration formulated the reasons and defined the principles for the unification of the republics. The agreement delimited the functions of republican and central government bodies. The state bodies of the Union were entrusted with foreign policy and trade, routes of communication, communications, as well as issues of organizing and controlling finance and defense.
Everything else belonged to the sphere of government of the republics.
The All-Union Congress of Soviets was proclaimed the highest body of the state. In the period between congresses, the leading role was assigned to the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, organized on the principle of bicameralism - the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. M.I. Kalinin was elected chairman of the Central Election Commission, co-chairmen were G.I. Petrovsky, N.N. Narimanov, A.G. Chervyakov. The Government of the Union (Council of People's Commissars of the USSR) was headed by V.I. Lenin.

Financial and economic development
The unification of the republics into the Union made it possible to accumulate and direct all resources to eliminate the consequences of the civil war. This contributed to the development of the economy, cultural relations and made it possible to begin to get rid of distortions in the development of individual republics. A characteristic feature of the formation of a nationally oriented state was the government’s efforts in matters of the harmonious development of the republics. It was for this purpose that some industries were moved from the territory of the RSFSR to the republics of Central Asia and Transcaucasia, providing them with highly qualified labor resources. Funding was provided for work to provide the regions with communications, electricity, and water resources for irrigation in agriculture. The budgets of the remaining republics received subsidies from the state.
Social and cultural significance
The principle of building a multinational state based on uniform standards had a positive impact on the development of such spheres of life in the republics as culture, education and healthcare. In the 20-30s, schools were built throughout the republics, theaters were opened, and the media and literature were developed. Scientists have developed writing for some peoples. In healthcare, the emphasis is on developing a system of medical institutions. For example, if in 1917 there were 12 clinics and only 32 doctors in the entire North Caucasus, then in 1939 there were 335 doctors in Dagestan alone. Moreover, 14% of them were from the original nationality.

Reasons for the formation of the USSR

It happened not only thanks to the initiative of the leadership of the Communist Party. Over the course of many centuries, the prerequisites for the unification of peoples into a single state were formed. The harmony of the unification has deep historical, economic, military-political and cultural roots. The former Russian Empire united 185 nationalities and nationalities. They all went through a common historical path. During this time, a system of economic and economic ties was formed. They defended their freedom and absorbed the best of each other's cultural heritage. And, naturally, they did not feel hostility towards each other.
It is worth considering that at that time the entire territory of the country was surrounded by hostile states. This also had no less influence on the unification of peoples.

Brought complete destruction to Bolshevik Russia. For her continued existence, she needed to rely on someone. First of all, these were the closest neighbors: Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. The Bolsheviks completed their task. As a result, on December 30, 1922, at the First Congress of Soviets, the USSR was formed. An agreement on the relationship between the central government and allied bodies was signed there.

The prerequisites for the formation of the USSR were as follows:

In the RSFSR, power belonged to the Bolsheviks. In their desire to extend it to the Union republics, they achieved great success.

The Russian language was widespread on the territory of all nationalities.

The entire vast territory was connected by a single railway network.

Reasons for the formation of the USSR

The reasons for the formation of the USSR were as follows:

Foreign policy. The Bolshevik Party sought to extend its power over as large a territory as it could cover.

Economic. The economy, undermined by the Civil War, led Russia to famine. She needed the support of the union republics.

Territorial. During food supplies it was necessary to move freely. The unified state created optimal conditions for this.

Cultural. Despite their different roots, the peoples lived together for a long time, and this led to the formation of some common traditions.

Political. The government apparatus of the union republics, consisting of Bolsheviks, was strictly subordinate to the central government.

Merging stages

The main stages of unification in the initial years of the formation of the USSR are presented in the table.

Union name		Description
Political		The military-political alliance between Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus was signed in the form of a decree. On its basis, general military command was carried out from Moscow. The joint finances were also managed from there.
Economic	1920-1921	Economic agreements were concluded between the union republics. The formed body of the Supreme Economic Council was located in Moscow and led the entire industry. For this purpose, the State Planning Committee was developed, which was supervised by Krzhizhanovsky. At the same time, the Federal Committee for the Development of Agricultural Production and Land Use was created.
Diplomatic	February 1922	In 1922, an international conference on post-war reconstruction of European countries was held in Genoa. A delegation consisting of representatives of the Union republics was sent there.

Stalin's and Lenin's principles of building a new country

There were two points of view on the formation of a single state. There was one development, and another.

Stalin's formulation was as follows::

1. All union republics were part of the RSFSR as autonomies.
2. The authorities of the RSFSR became the highest in the new state.

Lenin's point of view was as follows:

1. All union republics should not be included, but should unite together with the RSFSR into a single state on an equal basis.
2. The new formation requires the creation of supreme authorities of the Union.

Stalin's plans were to create a centralized state. Lenin looked further. In the future, he wanted other European countries to join the Union.

As time has shown, Lenin’s point of view led to the collapse of the association 70 years later.

Difficulties of unification

Already the first steps towards unification showed how difficult this process was. Based on an agreement between the union republics, most industries were subordinated to the People's Commissariats of the RSFSR.

This state of affairs caused dissatisfaction on the part of the other republics. In fact, by delegating power, they were deprived of the opportunity to make independent decisions. At the same time, there was a declaration of independence of the republics in the sphere of governance. Stalin began to have difficulties promoting the idea of ​​the republic joining the RSFSR on the basis of autonomous rights.

At this time, Lenin put forward his concept of uniting all republics on an equal basis. The name of such an entity was first proposed as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia, but then changed to the USSR. Lenin motivated his proposal by the fact that the republics should enter the union in such a way that the principles of good neighborliness and respect are implemented. At the same time, a unified administration should be created from representatives of the union republics.

Education USSR

Map: Education of the USSR. Development of the Union State (1922-1940). 15 republics gradually united into one powerful country, which had a very strong military and economic potential. On December 30, 1922, at the Congress of Soviets, union treaties and a declaration on the formation of the USSR were signed.

The official date of formation of the USSR is December 30, 1922. At this time, the First Congress of Soviets took place. It included the republics:

• RSFSR;
• Ukraine;
• Belarus:
• republics of Transcaucasia.

At the congress, a declaration on the formation of the USSR and the Union Treaty were adopted.

In subsequent years, the USSR already included 15 republics. Added to the previous ones:

• Kazakhstan;
• Kyrgyzstan;
• Turkmenistan;
• Tajikistan;
• Uzbekistan;
• Azerbaijan;
• Turkmenistan;
• Georgia;
• Latvia;
• Lithuania;
• Estonia;
• Moldova.

For some time the Finnish Republic was part of it.

The declaration reflected the policy of the Soviet state. His goals for future years were declared.

Some quotes read as follows:

1. At the present time, the whole world is divided into 2 camps: and.
2. The main aspiration of the USSR is world revolution.
3. Any republic that has taken the socialist path of development has access to the USSR.
4. There was a call for the unification of the world proletariat against the capitalist system.

First constitution

The document was adopted at the Second Congress of Soviets. On its basis, the jurisdiction of the USSR included the following issues:

1. Foreign and domestic trade.
2. Questions of war and peace.
3. Leadership of the armed forces.
4. Economic issues and formation of the country's budget.
5. Legislative initiative.
6. All republics were part of the USSR on a voluntary basis. Territorial changes could be carried out only after agreement with them.

Authorities

The Constitution established the following authorities:

The supreme authority in the USSR was the Congress of Soviets. Only he had the right to consolidate the Constitution or make changes to it. He was elected from the city councils.

The Central Executive Committee governed the state during the break between congresses. It consisted of the Council of Nationalities and the Union Council.

The Presidium of the USSR Central Executive Committee resolved issues of the state between sessions of the Central Executive Committee.

The executive body of the USSR Central Executive Committee was the Council of People's Commissars. It consisted of a chairman, a deputy and ten people's commissars.

The republics had the opportunity to express their interests through government bodies, such as the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the Council of Nationalities. According to the Constitution, the main power was concentrated in the center. Thus, all the Union republics could be governed from there.

The main posts of all central and union bodies were occupied by the Bolsheviks. As a result, the party exercised total control over the activities of the newly created state.

Leaders of the country

The entire list of leaders of the USSR from its formation to its collapse is presented in the table.

	Leadership period	Position held
	1917–1921 and 1924	In the first period he held the post Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, and then 1 year Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.
		During his reign, he held 4 highest posts in the state: General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks); General Secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks); General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party; Soviet Union; Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.
Malenkov		Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR.
		First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Andropov		General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Chernenko		General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Gorbachev	1985–1991 and 1991	General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and later President of the USSR.

The significance and consequences of the formation of the USSR

As a result of the political activities of the Bolsheviks, a huge multinational state was created. Centralized management made it possible to implement a number of large-scale projects on its territory. Industry and agriculture were carried out in the shortest possible time. The country began to develop at a rapid pace. Many industrial enterprises were built and the entire country was electrified.

However, all these achievements were based on the unprecedented enthusiasm of the population, and this could not continue forever. During the years of Soviet power, the standard of living of working people increased much less than in the capitalist world. This was carefully hidden by the government, so many barriers were created to travel abroad, especially to capitalist countries. However, this situation could not last long. , which began under Gorbachev, revealed to the population all the shortcomings of the socialist system and after a few years the USSR ceased to exist.