Chemical reactions in analytical chemistry. General theoretical foundations of analytical chemistry

Introduction

Subject of analytical chemistry, its structure; place in the system of sciences, connection with practice. Main analytical problems: reduction of detection limit; increasing accuracy and selectivity; ensuring expressness; non-destructive analysis; local analysis; remote analysis. Types of analysis: isotope, elemental, structural-group (functional), molecular, material, phase. Chemical, physical and biological methods of analysis. Macro-, micro- and ultramicroanalysis.
Main stages in the development of analytical chemistry. Current state and trends in the development of analytical chemistry: instrumentalization, automation, mathematization, miniaturization, increasing the share of physical methods, transition to multicomponent analysis, creation of sensors and test methods. Scientific chemical and analytical literature.

Metrological foundations of chemical analysis

The main stages of chemical analysis. Selecting an analysis method and drawing up analysis schemes. Basic metrological concepts and concepts: measurement, methods and measuring instruments, errors. Analytical signal and interference. Methods for determining content based on analytical measurement data.
The main characteristics of the method and method of analysis: accuracy and reproducibility, sensitivity coefficient, detection limit, lower and upper limits of determined contents.
Classification of analysis errors. Systematic and random errors. Errors in individual stages of chemical analysis. Methods for assessing correctness: use of standard samples, method of additions, method of varying samples, comparison with other methods. Statistical processing of measurement results. The law of normal distribution of random errors, t- and F-distributions. Mean, variance, standard deviation. Testing the hypothesis of normality, the hypothesis of homogeneity of measurement results. Comparison of variances and means of two analysis methods. Regression analysis.
Requirements for metrological characteristics of methods and techniques depending on the object and purpose of analysis. Ways to improve reproducibility and accuracy of analysis

Types of chemical reactions and processes in analytical chemistry

The main types of chemical reactions in analytical chemistry: acid-base, complexation, oxidation-reduction. Equilibrium constants of reactions and processes. State of substances in ideal and real systems. Solvation, ionization, dissociation. Behavior of electrolytes and non-electrolytes in solutions. Debye-Hückel theory. Activity coefficients. Concentration constants. Total and equilibrium concentrations. Conditional constants.
Reaction rates in chemical analysis. Fast and slow reactions. Factors affecting speed. Catalysts, inhibitors. Autocatalytic reactions. Induced and coupled reactions. The concept of inductor, actor, acceptor.
Acid-base reactions. Modern ideas about acids and bases (Lewis theory). Bronsted-Lowry theory. Acidity and basicity constants. Acidic and basic properties of solvents. Autoprotolysis constant. The influence of the nature of the solvent on the strength of the acid and base; leveling and differentiating effect of the solvent.
Buffer solutions and their properties. Buffer capacity. Calculation of pH of solutions of acids and bases, polybasic acids and bases, mixtures of acids and bases. The concept of the isoelectric point of amino acids and proteins.
Complexation reactions . Types of complex compounds used in analytical chemistry. Classification of complex compounds according to the nature of the interaction between the central ion (complexing agent) and the ligand, according to the homogeneity of the ligand and the central ion: inner-sphere complexes and ionic associates (outer-sphere complexes and ion pairs); homogeneous and mixed ligand; polynuclear (heteropolynuclear and homopolynuclear). Properties of complex compounds of analytical significance: stability, solubility, color, volatility.
Stepwise complex formation. Stepwise and general stability constants of complex compounds. Factors influencing complex formation: structure of the central atom and ligand, concentration of components, pH, ionic strength of solution, temperature. Classification of complex compounds according to thermodynamic and kinetic stability.
The influence of complex formation on the solubility of compounds, acid-base balance, redox potential of systems, stabilization of various oxidation states of elements. Methods for increasing the sensitivity and selectivity of analysis using complex compounds.
Organic reagents in chemical analysis. The influence of the general structure of organic reagents on their properties. Functional Analytical Groups (FAG). The influence of the nature, location of the PAH, and stereochemistry of the reagent molecules on its interaction with inorganic ions. Use of theories of analogies and “soft” and “hard” acids and bases to explain the action of organic reagents. The main types of compounds formed with the participation of organic reagents. Chelates, intracomplex compounds. Factors determining the stability of chelates: the nature of the metal-ligand bond, ring size, number of cycles.
The most important organic reagents used for the detection and determination of metal ions, for masking and unmasking, and separation. Organic reagents most commonly used in biochemical analytical methods.
Possibility of using organic reagents in various methods of analysis.
Redox reactions . Electrode potential. Nernst equation. Standard and formal potentials. Relationship between the equilibrium constant and standard potentials. Direction of oxidation and reduction reactions. Factors influencing the direction of redox reactions. The main inorganic and organic oxidizing and reducing agents used in the analysis. Methods for preliminary oxidation and reduction of the component being determined.

Chromatographic methods of analysis

Definition of chromatography. The concept of mobile and stationary phases. Classification of methods according to the state of aggregation of the mobile and stationary phases, according to the separation mechanism, according to the technique of implementation. Methods for obtaining chromatograms (frontal, displacement, eluent). Basic parameters of the chromatogram. Basic equation of chromatography. Selectivity and efficiency of chromatographic separation. Theory of theoretical plates. Kinetic theory. Qualitative and quantitative chromatographic analysis.
Gas chromatography . Gas-adsorption (gas-solid-phase) and gas-liquid chromatography . Sorbents and carriers, requirements for them. Separation mechanism. Columns. Detectors, their sensitivity and selectivity. Applications of gas chromatography.
Liquid chromatography . Types of liquid chromatography: adsorption (normal-phase and reverse-phase options), ion exchange, size exclusion. Benefits of High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Features of stationary and mobile phases. Mechanisms of separation. Pumps, columns. Main types of detectors, their sensitivity and selectivity. Applications of liquid chromatography.
Plane chromatography . General principles of separation. Methods for obtaining planar chromatograms (ascending, descending, circular, two-dimensional). Reagents for developing chromatograms. Paper chromatography. Mechanisms of separation. Mobile phases. Advantages and disadvantages. Thin layer chromatography. Mechanisms of separation. Sorbents and mobile phases. Areas of use.

Titrimetric methods of analysis

Methods of titrimetric analysis. Classification. Requirements for the reaction in titrimetric analysis. Types of titrimetric determinations: direct, reverse, indirect titration. Methods of expressing the concentrations of solutions in titrimetry. Equivalent. Molar mass equivalent. Primary standards, requirements for them. Fixanaly. Secondary standards. Types of titration curves. Titration jump. Equivalence point and end point of titration. Automatic titrators.
Acid-base titration . Construction of titration curves. The influence of the magnitude of the acidity or basicity constants, the concentration of acids or bases, temperature, ionic strength on the magnitude of the jump in the titration curve. Acid-base titration in non-aqueous media. Acid-base indicators. Titration errors in the determination of strong and weak acids and bases, mixtures of acids and bases.
Redox titration. Construction of titration curves. Factors influencing the magnitude of the jump in the titration curve: concentration of hydrogen ions, formation of complexes and poorly soluble compounds, ionic strength, temperature. Methods for determining the titration end point; indicators. Titration errors.
Methods of redox titration. Permanganatometry. Iodometry and iodymetry. The iodine-iodide system as an oxidizing or reducing agent. Bichromatometry. Primary and secondary standard solutions, methods for fixing the titration end point. Indicators.
Complexometric titration. Use of aminopolycarboxylic acids. Construction of titration curves. Metallochromic indicators and requirements for them. The most important universal and specific metallochromic indicators. Complexometric titration methods: direct, reverse, indirect. Titration selectivity and methods for increasing it. Titration errors.
Examples of practical application.

Electrochemical methods of analysis

General characteristics of electrochemical methods. Classification. Electrochemical cells. Indicator and reference electrodes. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium electrochemical systems and their use in various electrochemical methods.

Potentiometry

Direct potentiometry . Potential measurement. Reversible and irreversible redox systems. Indicator electrodes. Ionometry. Classification of ion-selective electrodes. Characteristics of ion-selective electrodes: electrode function, selectivity coefficient, response time.
Examples of practical application of ionometry.
Potentiometric titration . Change in electrode potential during titration. Methods for detecting the titration end point. Use of acid-base, precipitation, complexation, oxidation-reduction reactions.
Examples of practical application.

Spectroscopic methods of analysis

Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (energy, ways of expressing it; terms, symbols and units of radiation energy; radiation ranges, types of energy transitions). The main types of interaction of matter with radiation: emission (thermal, luminescence), absorption, scattering. Classification of spectroscopic methods by energy. Classification of spectroscopic methods based on the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (atomic, molecular, absorption, emission spectroscopy).
Spectra of atoms. Ground and excited states of atoms, characteristics of states. Energy transitions. Selection rules. Laws of emission and absorption. Probabilities of electronic transitions and lifetimes of excited states. Characteristics of spectral lines: position in the spectrum, intensity, half-width.
Spectra of molecules; their features. Diagrams of electronic levels of a molecule. The idea of ​​the total energy of molecules as the sum of electronic, vibrational and rotational. Dependence of the types of spectrum on the state of aggregation of a substance.
Relationship between the analytical signal and the concentration of the compound being determined.

Equipment. Methods of monochromatization of radiant energy. Classification of spectral devices. Instrumental interference.

Methods of atomic optical spectroscopy

Atomic emission method . Sources of atomization and excitation: electrical discharges (arc, spark, low pressure), flames, inductively coupled plasma, lasers. Main characteristics of atomization sources: plasma temperature, flame composition, electron concentration. Physical and chemical processes in sources of atomization and excitation.
Qualitative and quantitative analysis. The Lomakin-Shaibe equation and the reasons for deviation from Boltzmann's law. Spectral, chemical and physico-chemical interference, methods for eliminating them.
Methods of atomic emission spectroscopy. Flame emission photometry, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, spark atomic emission spectroscopy and their comparison. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities.
Atomic fluorescence method. Principle of the method; features and application.
Atomic absorption method . Atomizers (flame and non-flame). The basic law of light absorption in atomic absorption spectroscopy. Radiation sources (hollow cathode lamps, continuous spectrum sources, lasers), their characteristics. Spectral and physico-chemical interference, methods for eliminating them. Capabilities, advantages and disadvantages of the method, its comparison with atomic emission methods (accuracy, selectivity, sensitivity, expressness).
Examples of practical application of atomic emission and atomic absorption methods in biochemical methods of analysis.

Molecular optical spectroscopy methods

Molecular absorption spectroscopy (spectrophotometry). Relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its absorption spectrum. Functional analysis using vibrational and electronic spectra.
Basic law of light absorption (Bouguer-Lambert-Beer). Deviations from the law, their causes (chemical, physico-chemical, instrumental). The concept of true and apparent molar absorption coefficient. Photometric reaction and photometric analytical reagents; requirements for them. Devices in spectrophotometry. Methods for determining the concentration of substances. Analysis of multicomponent systems. Analytical capabilities and limitations of the method. The role of sample preparation in spectrophotometry. Examples of practical application of the method.
Molecular luminescence spectroscopy. General classification of molecular luminescence. Yablonsky's scheme. Fluorescence and phosphorescence. Stokes-Lommel law. Levshin's rule of mirror symmetry. Energy and quantum yield. Vavilov's law. Quenching of luminescence. Luminescent qualitative and quantitative analysis. Advantages of luminescence spectroscopy in the identification and determination of organic compounds. Devices in luminescence. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities of the method.
Examples of practical application of the method in biochemical methods of analysis.
Sampling and sample preparation
Representativeness of the sample; sample and object of analysis; sample and method of analysis. Methods for obtaining a representative sample of solid, liquid and gaseous substances. Sampling of homogeneous and heterogeneous composition. Devices and techniques used in sampling; primary processing and storage of samples. The main methods of converting a sample into the form required for a specific type of analysis are: dissolution in various media; sintering, fusion, decomposition under the influence of high temperatures, pressure, high-frequency discharge; combining various techniques; features of the decomposition of organic compounds. Features of sampling and preparation when working with biological samples. Methods for eliminating and accounting for contamination and loss of components during sample preparation.

• Fundamentals of analytical chemistry (edited by Yu.A. Zolotov). In 2 books. General issues. Separation methods. Methods of chemical analysis. M.: Higher school. 2004. 361, 503 pp. Series “Classical University Textbook”.
• Fundamentals of analytical chemistry. Practical guide. Textbook for universities. Ed. Yu.A. Zolotova. M.: Higher school. 2001. 463 p.
• Fundamentals of analytical chemistry. Tasks and questions. Textbook for universities. Ed. Yu.A. Zolotova. M.: Higher school. 2004. 412 p.

Additional

• Zolotov Yu.A. Analytical chemistry: problems and achievements. M.: Nauka, 1992, 288 p.
• Vasiliev V.P. Analytical chemistry. In two books. M.: Bustard, Book. 1. 2004, Book. 2. 2005.
• Dorokhova E.N., Prokhorova G.V. Problems and exercises in analytical chemistry. M.: Publishing house Mosk. Univ., 1984. 215 p.
• Otto M. Modern methods of analytical chemistry (in 2 volumes). / Per. with him. and ed. A.V. Garmash. T.1. M.: Tekhnosphere, 2003. 412 p. T.2. M.: Tekhnosphere, 2004. 281 p.
• Analytical chemistry. Problems and approaches. In 2 volumes. (Translated from English, edited by Yu.A. Zolotov) M.: Mir. 2004.
• Lurie Yu.Yu. Handbook of Analytical Chemistry. M.: Chemistry, 1989.

The program has been compiled
Assoc. Veselova I.A.
Editor Prof. Shekhovtsova T.N.

Chemical balance. The law of mass action as applied to analytical chemistry. Kinetic and thermodynamic approach. Strong and weak electrolytes. Basic principles of the Debye-Hückel theory of strong electrolytes. Activity. Activity coefficient. Ionic strength in solution. Limit and extended Debye-Hückel equation. Determination of activity coefficients. Calculation of concentrations and activities of ions. Total and equilibrium ion concentration. Thermodynamic, concentration and conditional equilibrium constants and the relationship between them. Dependence of the constant on temperature. Reaction rate in chemical analysis. Factors influencing the rate of a chemical reaction. Examples of acceleration and deceleration of reactions and processes used in chemical analysis.

Main types of chemical reactions used in analytical chemistry. Acid-base balance. Modern ideas about acids and bases. Theory of acids and bases. Protolytic theory of Bronsted-Lowry. Equilibrium in acid–conjugate base systems. Acidity and basicity constant. Acidic and basic properties of solvents. Strength of acids and bases. Acid-base properties in multicomponent systems. Buffer solutions, their properties. Buffer capacity. Calculation of pH of solutions.

Complexation. Basic concepts. Types and properties of complex compounds, classification of complex compounds. Quantitative characteristics of complex compounds, stability constants. Thermodynamic and kinetic stability of complex compounds. Factors influencing the stability of complexes. Use of complex compounds and organic reagents in analysis.

Redox balance. Equation of redox reactions. Assessment of redox capacity. Nernst equation. Standard and formal potentials. Constants of redox reactions. The influence of various factors on the strength of the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent. The influence of ionic strength and temperature on the occurrence of oxidation and reduction reactions.

Equilibrium in the precipitate-solution system. Product of solubility. Solubility. Factors affecting solubility. Solubility constants (concentration, thermodynamic). Precipitation. Mechanism and kinetics of precipitation formation. Influence of the nature, amount of precipitant, pH and complexing ions on the completeness of precipitation.

Section 5 Quantitative methods of analysis. Gravimetry

Subject and methods of quantitative analysis. The importance of quantitative analysis in solving chemical and environmental problems. Main sections of quantitative analysis. Gravimetric, titrimetric, gas analyses. Modern physical and physicochemical methods of analysis.

Gravimetric analysis. The essence of the gravimetric method of analysis. Conditions for receiving precipitation. Sediment pollution. Types of pollution. Precipitable and gravimetric forms. Requirements for them. Error in gravimetry. Calculations using the gravimetry method.

Section 6 Titrimetric methods of analysis

Titrimetric methods. Classification of methods. Types of titrimetric determinations. Methods of expressing concentration in titrimetry. Standards. Fixanaly. Types of titration curves. Factors influencing their character in various methods. Methods for determining the titration end point in various methods. Indicators.

Titration methods: acid-base, redox, complexometric. Errors in titrimetric methods of determination. Measuring utensils and their testing.

Calculations using redox, acid-base and complexometric titration methods.

Laboratory work is carried out according to the textbook by Loginov N.Ya., Voskresensky A.P., Solodkin I.S. "Analytical chemistry".

Preparation for each laboratory work involves studying theoretical material on the relevant topic.

Before performing the experimental part of the work, you should, first of all, study the contents of the “Safety Instructions and Rules of Conduct for Students in the Chemistry Laboratory”, about which a corresponding entry is made in the “Logbook of students undergoing safety instructions.” Before performing an experiment, you must carefully read its description, and if necessary, seek clarification or clarification from the teacher or laboratory assistant on duty.

After completing the experimental part, it is necessary to issue a report. At the end of the lesson, the teacher checks the report and signs it.

Lab no. work	Name of laboratory work	Contents of the work (pages, number of works)
1.	Safety precautions. Familiarization with laboratory equipment. Analytical balances and weighing	pp. 32 – 38
2.	LR No. 1: Particular reactions to cations of I, II, III analytical groups	pp. 64 – 69; pp. 94 – 101; pp. 126 – 132
3.	LR No. 2: Experimental task: Analysis of a mixture of cations of I, II, III analytical groups	pp. 132 – 135
4.	LR No. 3: Particular reactions to cations of IV, V, VI analytical groups	pp. 166 – 178; pp. 192 – 205; pp. 221 – 229
5.	LR No. 4: Experimental task: Analysis of a mixture of cations of IV, V, VI analytical groups	pp. 231 – 235
6.	LR No. 5: Experimental task: Analysis of a mixture of cations of I, II, III, IV, V, VI analytical groups	pp. 235 – 237
7.	LR No. 6: Particular reactions to anions	pp. 252 – 257
8.	LR No. 7: Experimental task: Analysis of dry matter	pp. 269 – 272
	Protection of laboratory work
9.	LR No. 8: Gravimetric analysis. Determination of water of crystallization in barium chloride crystalline hydrate	pp. 306 – 317
10.	LR No. 9: Neutralization method. Preparation of a working titrated acid solution. Preparation of a working titrated alkali solution. Determination of acid concentration from alkali	pp. 358 – 362
11.	LR No. 10: Permanganatometry. Preparation of working solutions, establishing the titer of potassium permanganate solution. Determination of iron (+2) in Mohr's salt by permanganatometry	pp. 380 - 384
12.	LR No. 11: Iodometry. Preparation of a working solution of sodium thiosulfate. Establishment of its concentration and titer. Determination of the mass fraction of copper in copper sulfate using the iodometry method	pp. 385 - 388
13.	LR No. 13: Complexometry. Determination of total water hardness using complexometry	pp. 407 - 410

Educational technology

In the process of studying the discipline, along with traditional types of lecture classes, lecture-visualization is also used (using various forms of visualization: reagents, drawings, photos, diagrams and tables), l lecture-consultation ( carried out in a question-answer format ), problematic lecture and lecture with pre-planned errors.

Laboratory classes are conducted in the following forms: collective analysis of solutions to chemical problems based on the analysis of similar situations, analysis of the results of express testing or examination of a demonstration experiment, as well as carrying out laboratory research work of a partially search nature.

Defense of laboratory work is carried out in the form of work with questions and assignments or in the form of computer testing, where laboratory work is simulated using specific examples similar to those previously performed by the student.

The proportion of classes conducted in interactive forms is determined taking into account the goal of the work program, the characteristics of students and the content of the discipline and constitutes at least 50% of the total volume of classroom classes.

Classroom technologies

Traditional technologies

Practical lessons.

Non-game technologies, problem-based learning technologies

Problem lectures;

Project method;

Presentation of a report, report on an abstract;

Students reviewing each other's work;

Conducting classes using materials posted on the Internet.

Gaming and simulation technologies

Brainstorm;

Discussion.

Combined technologies

Expert assessments of projects by groups of students;

Analysis of specific situations.

I. Chemistry and medicine

1. Subject, goals and objectives of analytical chemistry. A brief historical sketch of the development of analytical chemistry. The place of analytical chemistry among the natural sciences and in the medical education system.

Analytical chemistry – the science of methods for determining the composition of substances. Item its - solving general problems of the theory of chemical analysis, improving existing and developing new, faster and more accurate methods of analysis (i.e. the theory and practice of chemical analysis). Task - development of the theory of chemical and physicochemical methods of analysis, processes and operations in scientific research, improvement of old methods of analysis, development of express and remote MA, development of methods of ultra- and microanalysis.

Depending on the object of study, analytical chemistry divided into inorganic and organic analysis. Analytical chemistry refers to applied sciences. Its practical significance is very diverse. Using methods of chemical analysis, some laws were discovered - the law of constancy of composition, the law of multiple ratios, the atomic masses of elements were determined,

chemical equivalents, chemical formulas of many compounds have been established, etc.

Analytical chemistry greatly contributes to the development of natural sciences: geochemistry, geology, mineralogy, physics, biology, agricultural chemistry, metallurgy, chemical technology, medicine, etc.

Subject of qualitative analysis- development of theoretical foundations, improvement of existing ones and development of new, more advanced methods for determining the elemental composition of substances. The challenge of qualitative analysis- determination of the “quality” of substances or detection of individual elements or ions that make up the compound under study.

Qualitative analytical reactions according to the method of their implementation are divided into reactions “wet” and “dry” way. Reactions by the “wet” route are of greatest importance. To carry them out, the test substance must first be dissolved.

In qualitative analysis, only those reactions are used that are accompanied by any external effects clearly visible to the observer: a change in the color of the solution; precipitation or dissolution of sediment; release of gases with a characteristic odor or color.

Reactions accompanied by the formation of precipitation and a change in the color of the solution are especially often used. Such reactions are called reactions "discoveries”, since with their help the ions present in the solution are detected.

Reactions are also widely used identification, with the help of which the correctness of the “discovery” of a particular ion is verified. Finally, precipitation reactions are used, which usually separate one group of ions from another or one ion from other ions.

Depending on the amount of the substance being analyzed, the volume of the solution and the technique for performing individual operations, chemical methods of qualitative analysis are divided for macro-, micro-, semi-micro and ultra-microanalysis and etc.

II. Qualitative analysis

2. Basic concepts of analytical chemistry. Types of analytical reactions and reagents. Requirements for analysis, sensitivity, selectivity in determining the composition of substances.

Analytical reaction - chem. a reaction used to separate, detect and quantify elements, ions, molecules. It must be accompanied by an analytical effect (precipitation, gas release, color change, odor change).

By type of chemical reactions:

Are common– analytical signals are the same for many ions. The reagent is general. Example: precipitation of hydroxides, carbonates, sulfides, etc.

Group– analytical signals are characteristic of a certain group of ions with similar properties. The reagent is a group one. Example: precipitation of Ag +, Pb 2+ ions with the reagent - hydrochloric acid with the formation of white precipitates AgCl, PbCl 2

General and group reactions are used to isolate and separate ions of a complex mixture.

Selective– analytical signals are the same for a limited number of ions. The reagent is selective. Example: when the NH 4 SCN reagent acts on a mixture of cations, only two cations form colored complex compounds: blood red 3-

and blue 2-

Specific– the analytical signal is characteristic of only one ion. The reagent is specific. There are very few such reactions.

By type of analytical signal:

Colored

Precipitative

Gas-emitting

Microcrystalline

By function:

Detection (identification) reactions

Separation (separation) reactions to remove interfering ions by precipitation, extraction, or sublimation.

By technique:

Test tube– will be performed in test tubes.

Drip are executed:

On filter paper

On a watch glass or slide.

In this case, 1-2 drops of the analyzed solution and 1-2 drops of a reagent that gives a characteristic color or the formation of crystals are applied to a plate or paper. When performing reactions on filter paper, the adsorption properties of the paper are used. A drop of liquid applied to paper quickly dissolves through capillaries, and the colored compound is adsorbed on a small area of ​​the sheet. If there are several substances in a solution, their speed of movement can be different, which gives the distribution of ions in the form of concentric zones. Depending on the solubility product of the precipitate - or depending on the stability constant of complex compounds: the greater their values, the closer to the center or in the center a certain zone is.

The drop method was developed by the Soviet chemist N.A. Tananaev.

Microcrystalline reactions are based on the formation of chemical compounds that have a characteristic shape, color and light refractive ability of crystals. They are performed on glass slides. To do this, apply 1-2 drops of the test solution and 1-2 drops of the reagent next to a clean glass with a capillary pipette, carefully combine them with a glass rod without stirring. Then the glass is placed on a microscope stage and the sediment formed on the spot is examined.

contact of drops.

For proper use in reaction analytics, one should take into account reaction sensitivity . It is determined by the smallest amount of the desired substance that can be detected by a given reagent in a drop of solution (0.01-0.03 ml). Sensitivity is expressed by a number of quantities:

Opening minimum- the smallest amount of substance contained in the test solution and opened by a given reagent under certain reaction conditions.

Minimum (limit) concentration shows at what lowest concentration of solution this reaction allows one to unambiguously discover the detected substance in a small portion of the solution.

Limit dilution- the maximum amount of diluent at which the substance can still be determined.

Conclusion: The analytical reaction is more sensitive, the lower the opening minimum, the lower the minimum concentration, but the greater the maximum dilution.

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ModuleII. Types of reactions and processes in analytical chemistry

Topic 4. “Main types of chemical reactions in analytical chemistry”

The main types of chemical reactions in analytical chemistry: acid-base, complexation, oxidation-reduction. Processes used: precipitation-dissolution, extraction, sorption. Equilibrium constants of reactions and processes. State of substances in ideal and real systems. Structure of solvents and solution. Solvation, ionization, dissociation. Behavior of electrolytes and non-electrolytes in solutions. Debye-Hückel theory. Activity coefficients. Concentration constants. Description of complex equilibria. Total and equilibrium concentrations. Conditional constants.

4.1. Acid-base reactions. Modern ideas about acids and bases. Bronsted-Lowry theory. Equilibrium in the system acid - conjugate base and solvent. Acidity and basicity constants. Acidic and basic properties of solvents. Autoprotolysis constant. The influence of the nature of the solvent on the strength of the acid and base. Leveling and differentiating effect of the solvent. Acid-base balance in multicomponent systems. Buffer solutions and their properties. Buffer capacity. Calculation of pH of solutions of uncharged and charged acids and bases, polybasic acids and bases, mixtures of acids and bases. 4.2. Complexation reactions. Types of complex compounds used in analytical chemistry. Classification of complex compounds according to the nature of the metal-ligand interaction, the homogeneity of the ligand and the central ion (complexing agent). Properties of complex compounds of analytical significance: stability, solubility, color, volatility. Stepped complex formation. Quantitative characteristics of complex compounds: stability constants (stepwise and general), formation function (average ligand number), complexation function, degree of complex formation. Factors influencing complex formation: structure of the central atom and ligand, concentration of components, pH, ionic strength of solution, temperature. Thermodynamic and kinetic stability of complex compounds. The influence of complex formation on the solubility of compounds, acid-base equilibrium, redox potential of systems, stabilization of various oxidation states of elements. Methods for increasing the sensitivity and selectivity of analysis using complex compounds. Theoretical foundations of the interaction of organic reagents with inorganic ions. The influence of their nature, the location of functional analytical groups, the stereochemistry of the reagent molecules on its interaction with inorganic ions. The theory of analogies of the interaction of metal ions with inorganic reagents such as H 2 O, NH 3 and H 2 S and oxygen-, nitrogen-, sulfur-containing organic reagents. The main types of compounds formed with the participation of organic reagents. Chelates, intracomplex compounds. Factors determining the stability of chelates The most important organic reagents used in analysis for the separation, detection, determination of metal ions, for masking and unmasking. Organic reagents for organic analysis. Possibility of using complex compounds and organic reagents in various methods of analysis. 4.3. Redox reactions. Electrode potential. Nernst equation. Standard and formal potentials. Relationship between the equilibrium constant and standard potentials. Direction of oxidation and reduction reactions. Factors influencing the direction of redox reactions. The concept of mixed potentials. Mechanisms of redox reactions. Main inorganic and organic oxidizing agents and reducing agents used in the analysis. Methods of preliminary oxidation and reduction of the element being determined. 4.4. Precipitation and co-precipitation processes. Equilibrium in the solution-precipitate system. Sediments and their properties. Scheme of sediment formation. Crystalline and amorphous sediments. Dependence of the sediment structure on its individual properties and sedimentation conditions. Dependence of sediment shape on the rate of formation and growth of primary particles. Factors affecting the solubility of sediments: temperature, ionic strength, action of the same ion, protonation reactions, complex formation, oxidation-reduction, structure and particle size. Conditions for obtaining crystalline deposits. Homogeneous precipitation. Sediment aging. Causes of sediment contamination. Classification of various types of coprecipitation. Positive and negative significance of the coprecipitation phenomenon in the analysis. Features of the formation of colloidal disperse systems. Use of colloidal systems in chemical analysis. Module III. Detection and identification methods Topic 5. “Methods of detection and identification” 0.2 (8 hours) Tasks and choice of method for detection and identification of atoms, ions and chemical compounds. Fractional and systematic analysis. Physical methods for the detection and identification of inorganic and organic substances. Microcrystalscopic analysis, pyrochemical analysis (flame coloring, sublimation, pearl formation). Drip analysis. Analysis by trituration of powders. Chromatographic methods of qualitative analysis. Express qualitative analysis in factory and field conditions. Examples of practical application of detection methods. ModuleIV. Isolation, separation and concentration methods Topic 6. “Methods of isolation, separation and concentration” 0.1 (4 hours) Basic methods of separation and concentration, their role in chemical analysis, selection and evaluation. Combination of separation and concentration methods with determination methods; hybrid methods. Single and multi-stage separation processes. Distribution constants. Distribution coefficient. Extraction rate. Separation factor. Concentration factor. 6.1. Extraction methods. Theoretical foundations of methods. Law of distribution. Classification of extraction processes. Extraction speed. Types of extraction systems. Conditions for extraction of inorganic and organic compounds. Reextraction. Nature and characteristics of extractants. Separation and concentration of elements by extraction. Basic organic reagents used to separate elements by extraction. Selective separation of elements by selecting organic solvents, changing the pH of the aqueous phase, masking and unmasking. 6.2. Precipitation and co-precipitation methods. Application of inorganic and organic reagents for precipitation. Methods of separation by precipitation or dissolution at different pH values, due to the formation of complex compounds and the use of redox reactions. Group reagents and requirements for them. Characteristics of poorly soluble compounds most often used in analysis. Concentration of trace elements by coprecipitation on inorganic and organic carriers (collectors). 6.3. Other methods. Electrochemical methods. Distillation (distillation, sublimation). Zone melting. Topic 7. Chromatographic methods of analysis 0.2 (6 hours) 7.1. Definition of chromatography. The concept of mobile and stationary phases. Classification of methods according to the state of aggregation of the mobile and stationary phases, according to the separation mechanism, according to the technique of implementation. Methods for obtaining chromatograms (frontal, displacement, eluent). Basic parameters of the chromatogram. Basic equation of chromatography. Selectivity and efficiency of chromatographic separation. Theory of theoretical plates. Kinetic theory. Resolution as a factor in chromatographic process optimization. Qualitative and quantitative chromatographic analysis. 7.2. Gas chromatography. Gas-adsorption (gas-solid-phase) and gas-liquid chromatography. Sorbents and carriers, requirements for them. Separation mechanism. Gas chromatograph diagram. Columns. Detectors, their sensitivity and selectivity. Applications of gas chromatography. 7.3. Liquid chromatography. Types of liquid chromatography. Benefits of High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Liquid chromatograph diagram. Pumps, columns. Main types of detectors, their sensitivity and selectivity. 7.3.1. Adsorption liquid chromatography. Normal-phase and reverse-phase options. Polar and non-polar stationary phases and principles of their selection. Modified silica gels as sorbents. Mobile phases and principles of their selection. Areas of application of adsorption liquid chromatography. 7.4. Ion exchange chromatography. Structure and physicochemical properties of ion exchangers. Ion exchange equilibrium. Selectivity of ion exchange and its determining factors. Areas of application of ion exchange chromatography. Ion chromatography as a variant of high performance ion exchange chromatography. Features of the structure and properties of sorbents for ion chromatography. Single-column and double-column ion chromatography, their advantages and disadvantages. Ion chromatographic determination of cations and anions. Ion-pair and ligand exchange chromatography. General principles. Mobile and stationary phases. Areas of use. 7.5. Size exclusion chromatography. General principles of the method. Mobile and stationary phases. Features of the separation mechanism. Determined substances and areas of application of the method.7.6. Plane chromatography. General principles of separation. Methods for obtaining planar chromatograms. Reagents for their manifestation. Paper chromatography. Mechanisms of separation. Mobile phases. Advantages and disadvantages. Thin layer chromatography. Mechanisms of separation. Sorbents and mobile phases. Areas of use.

ModuleV. Chemical methods of analysis

Topic 8. “Chemical methods of analysis” 8.1. Gravimetric method of analysis. The essence of gravimetric analysis, advantages and disadvantages of the method. Direct and indirect methods of determination. The most important organic and inorganic precipitants. Errors in gravimetric analysis. General scheme of definitions. Requirements for sedimentation and gravimetric forms. Changes in the composition of the sediment during drying and calcination. Thermogravimetric analysis. Analytical balances. Sensitivity of scales and its mathematical expression. Factors affecting weighing accuracy. Weighing technique. Examples of practical application of the gravimetric method of analysis. 8.2. Titrimetric methods of analysis. Methods of titrimetric analysis. Classification. Requirements for the reaction in titrimetric analysis. Types of titrimetric determinations. Methods of expressing the concentrations of solutions in titrimetry. Equivalent, molar mass equivalent, molar concentration. Primary and secondary standards. Fixanaly. Types of titration curves. Factors. influencing the nature of titration curves and the magnitude of the titration jump in various methods. Equivalence point. Methods for determining the titration end point in various methods.8.3. Acid-base titration. Construction of titration curves. The influence of the value of acidity or basicity constants, the concentration of acids or bases, and temperature on the nature of titration curves. Acid-base titration in non-aqueous media. Acid-base indicators. Titration errors in the determination of strong and weak acids and bases, polybasic acids and bases.8.4. Redox titration . Construction of titration curves. The influence of the concentration of hydrogen ions, complexation, and ionic strength of the solution on the nature of the titration curves. Methods for determining the titration end point. Titration errors. Methods of redox titration. Permanganatometry. Determination of iron(II), manganese(II), oxalates, hydrogen peroxide, nitrites. Iodometry and iodimetry. The iodine-iodide system as an oxidizing or reducing agent. Bromatometry, cerimetry, vanadatometry, titanometry, chromometry. Primary and secondary standards. Indicators used. Determination of inorganic and organic compounds. 8.5. ABOUTadditive titration. Construction of titration curves. Methods for determining the titration end point; indicators. Titration errors. Practical Application Examples . 8.6. Complexometric titration. Inorganic and organic titrants in complexometry. Use of aminopolycarboxylic acids in complexometry. Construction of titration curves. Metallochromic indicators and requirements for them. The most important universal and specific metallochromic indicators. Complexometric titration methods: direct, reverse, indirect. Titration selectivity and methods for increasing it. Titration errors. Examples of practical application. Determination of calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, copper, zinc in solutions of pure salts and in their joint presence. 8.7.Other titrimetric methods of analysis. Thermometric, radiometric titration. The essence of methods. 8.8. Kinetic methods of analysis. The essence of methods. Catalytic and non-catalytic variants of kinetic methods; their sensitivity and selectivity. Types of catalytic and non-catalytic reactions used: oxidation-reduction, exchange of ligands in complexes, transformations of organic compounds, photochemical and enzymatic reactions. Methods for determining concentration from kinetic measurement data. ModuleVI. Electrochemical methods of analysis Topic 9. Physico-chemical and physical methods of analysis. Electrochemical methods of analysis 9.1. Electrochemical methods of analysis. General characteristics of the methods. Classification. Electrochemical cells. Indicator and reference electrodes. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium electrochemical systems. Phenomena occurring during the flow of current (ohmic voltage drop, concentration and kinetic polarization). Polarization curves and their use in various electrochemical methods. 9.1.1. Potentiometry. Direct potentiometry. Potential measurement. Reversible and irreversible redox systems. Indicator electrodes. Ionometry. Classification of ion-selective electrodes. Characteristics of ion-selective electrodes: electrode function, selectivity coefficient, response time. Potentiometric titration. Change in electrode potential during titration. Methods for detecting the end point of titration in reactions: acid-base, complexation, oxidation-reduction; deposition processes. 9.2. Coulometry. Theoretical foundations of the method. Faraday's law. Methods for determining the amount of electricity. Direct coulometry and coulometric titration. Coulometry at constant current and constant potential. External and internal generation of coulometric titrant. Titration of electroactive and electroinactive components. Determination of the titration end point. Advantages and limitations of the coulometric titration method compared to other titrimetric methods. 9.3. Voltammetry. Indicator electrodes. Classification of voltammetric methods. Obtaining and characterizing the current-voltage curve. Limiting diffusion current. Polarography. Ilkovich equation. Ilkovich-Heyrovsky polarographic wave equation. Half-wave potential. Identification and determination of inorganic and organic compounds. Modern types of voltammetry: direct and inversion, alternating current; chronoamperometry with linear sweep (oscillography). Advantages and limitations compared to classical polarography. Amperometric titration . The essence of the method. Indicator electrodes. Selecting the potential of the indicator electrode. Types of titration curves. 9.4. Other electrochemical methods of analysis. General characteristics of electrogravimetric methods. Electrical conductivity of solutions and principles of conductometry. Chronopotentiometry - voltammetry at constant current. Practical application of methods. Comparative characteristics of sensitivity and selectivity, areas of application of electrochemical methods.

ModuleVII. Spectroscopic methods of analysis

Topic 9. Physico-chemical and physical methods of analysis. Spectroscopic methods of analysis 9.15. Spectroscopic methods of analysis. Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. The main types of interaction of matter with radiation: emission (thermal, luminescence), absorption, scattering. Classification of spectroscopic methods by energy. Classification of spectroscopic methods based on the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation: atomic, molecular, absorption, emission spectroscopy. Spectra of atoms. Ground and excited states of atoms, characteristics of states. Energy transitions. Selection rules. Laws of emission and absorption. Probabilities of electronic transitions and lifetimes of excited states. Characteristics of spectral lines: position in the spectrum, intensity, half-width. Spectra of molecules; their features. Diagrams of electronic levels of a molecule. The idea of ​​the total energy of molecules as the sum of electronic, vibrational and rotational. Basic laws of absorption of electromagnetic radiation (Bouguer) and the law of radiation (Lomakin-Scheibe). Relationship between the analytical signal and the concentration of the compound being determined. Equipment. Methods of monochromatization of radiant energy. Classification of spectral devices and their characteristics. Radiation receivers. Instrumental interference. Noise and signal-to-noise ratio; assessment of the minimum analytical signal. 9.16. Methods of atomic optical spectroscopy. Atomic emission method. Sources of atomization and excitation: electrical discharges (arc, spark, low pressure), flames, plasmatrons, inductively coupled plasma, lasers; their main characteristics. Physical and chemical processes in atomization and excitation sources. Spectrographic and spectrometric methods of analysis, their features, areas of application. Qualitative and quantitative analysis by flame emission spectrometry. Main equipment: spectrographs, quantum meters. Flame photometers and spectrophotometers. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities. Atomic fluorescence method. Principle of the method; features and application. Atomic absorption method. Atomizers (flame and non-flame). Radiation sources (hollow cathode lamps, continuous spectrum sources, lasers), their characteristics. Spectral and physico-chemical interference, methods for eliminating them. Metrological characteristics, capabilities, advantages and disadvantages of the method, its comparison with the atomic emission method. Examples of practical application of atomic emission and atomic absorption methods. 9.17. Atomic X-ray spectroscopy methods X-ray spectra, their features. Methods for generating, monochromatizing and recording X-ray radiation. Types of X-ray spectroscopy: X-ray emission, X-ray absorption, X-ray fluorescence. Principle of X-ray emission spectroscopy; X-ray microanalysis (electronic probe). Fundamentals of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy; features and significance of the method (fast non-destructive multi-element analysis); examples of using. 9.18. Molecular optical spectroscopy methods9.18.1. Molecular absorption spectroscopy (spectrophotometry). Relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its absorption spectrum. Functional analysis using vibrational and electronic spectra. Relationship between optical density and concentration. Basic law of light absorption. The main reasons for deviation from the law (instrumental and physical-chemical). The concept of true and apparent molar absorption coefficient. Methods for obtaining colored compounds. Photometric analytical reagents; requirements for them. Methods for determining the concentration of substances. Measurement of high and low optical densities (differential method). Analysis of multicomponent systems. Application of the method to study reactions in solutions (complex formation, protolytic, aggregation processes), accompanied by changes in absorption spectra. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities. Examples of practical application of the method. 9.18.2. Molecular luminescence spectroscopy. Classification of types of luminescence according to excitation sources (chemiluminescence, bioluminescence, electroluminescence, photoluminescence, etc.), mechanism and duration of luminescence. Fluorescence and phosphorescence. Yablonsky's scheme. Stokes-Lommel law. Levshin's rule of mirror symmetry. Factors influencing luminescence intensity. Quenching of luminescence. Spectral and physico-chemical interference. Quantitative analysis using the luminescent method. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities of the method. Comparison of the capabilities of molecular absorption and luminescence spectroscopy in the determination of inorganic compounds. Advantages of luminescence spectroscopy in the identification and determination of organic compounds.

ModuleVIII. Analysis of specific objects

Topic 10. Analysis of objects10.1. Main objects of analysisEnvironmental objects: air, natural and waste water, precipitation, soil, bottom sediments, . Characteristic features and tasks of their analysis. Biological and medical objects. Analytical tasks in this area. Sanitary and hygienic control. Geological objects. Analysis of silicates, carbonates, iron, nickel-cobalt ores, polymetallic ores. Metals, alloys and other products of the metallurgical industry. Determination of ferrous, non-ferrous, rare, noble metals and analysis of their alloys. Analysis of non-metallic inclusions and determination of gas-forming impurities in metals. Control of metallurgical production. Inorganic compounds. Substances of special purity (including semiconductor materials, high-temperature superconductivity materials); determination of impurity and alloying trace elements in them. Layer-by-layer and local analysis of crystals and film materials. Natural and synthetic organic substances, polymers. Types of analysis of such objects and corresponding methods. Examples of solving problems of control of organic production. As a result of studying the discipline, the student must: know: metrological foundations of chemical analysis, principles of sampling, types of chemical reactions and processes in analytical chemistry, basic methods of qualitative analysis, isolation, separation and concentration, selection of the appropriate method depending on subsequent analysis, basic methods of quantitative analysis. be able to: abstract a scientific text, calculate metrological characteristics, compare analysis methods in terms of accuracy, selectivity, sensitivity and minimum detectable substance content; take a minimal and representative sample, select the optimal process for analysis, carry out qualitative chemical analysis of the sample, mask interfering ions, concentrate the component being determined and separate mixtures, determine the quantitative composition using classical methods of analysis, analyze the sample using modern electrochemical methods, including ion-selective sensors , determine the qualitative and quantitative composition using modern optical methods, analyze specific objects using the most optimal methods.own: methods of classical chemical analysis and modern physical and chemical analysis, skills in working with electrochemical, spectroscopic instruments, sample preparation for various methods of analysis. Types of educational work: lectures, practical and laboratory classes, abstract, calculation problems

The study of the discipline ends test and exam.

Discipline abstract

Analytical chemistry

The total labor intensity of studying the discipline is 18 credit units (648 hours)

1. Objectives of studying the discipline: development of communicative and sociocultural abilities and qualities; mastering the skills and abilities of self-improvement. Discipline structure (2)

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   The purpose of studying the discipline “Foreign Language” is the formation and development of communicative competencies (speaking, writing, reading, listening), necessary and sufficient for solving communicative and practical problems in situations

2. Objectives of studying the discipline: to acquire practical knowledge of the most important factors, events and phenomena from the history of Russia

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   The goals of the discipline: achieving a high level of knowledge in Russian history, developing independent work skills, revealing the creative abilities of students, nurturing a multidimensional personality that combines in their professional

3. Objectives of studying the discipline: To show what problems of Russian history are being debated and debated in Russian and foreign historiography today. Show the place of history in society; formation and evolution of historical concepts and categories

   Independent work

   The purpose of studying the discipline: to give an idea of ​​the main stages and content of the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day; show, using examples from different eras, the organic relationship between Russian and world history; analyze

4. Objectives, principles, directions for the development of gymnasium education at the present stage Kolesnikova V.I. Director of Secondary Educational Institution Gymnasium No. 2

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   A gymnasium is an institution that strives to implement holistic educational programs, ideally having a comprehensive impact on changing the philosophical foundations of the school, fundamentally changing the nature of pedagogical relations,

5. Vogo, scientific, business communication, as well as the development of abilities and qualities necessary for the communicative and sociocultural self-development of the student’s personality (1)

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   The purpose of studying the discipline “Foreign Language” is: the formation and development of communicative foreign language competence, necessary and sufficient for students to solve communicative and practical problems in the studied everyday situations,

Discipline program for students of the Faculty of Fundamental Medicine of Moscow State University

(specialty "Pharmacy")

Introduction
The subject of analytical chemistry, its place in the system of sciences, connection with practice. Analytical chemistry and chemical analysis. Method, technique and means of chemical analysis. Types of analysis: qualitative and quantitative; isotopic, elemental, structural-group (functional), molecular, material, phase analysis; gross (local), destructive (non-destructive), discrete (continuous), contact (remote); macro-, semi-micro-, micro- and ultra-microanalysis. Chemical, physical and biological methods of analysis. Classical, instrumental methods of analysis. Main stages of chemical analysis. Selecting an analysis method and drawing up analysis schemes. Objects of analysis.
Current state and development trends of analytical chemistry: instrumentalization, automation, mathematization, miniaturization, increasing the share and role of physical methods, transition to multicomponent analysis, creation of sensors and test methods.
The importance of analytical chemistry for pharmacy. A brief outline of the development of analytical chemistry and pharmaceutical sciences in historical parallels. Pharmaceutical analysis. Pharmacopoeial methods.

Metrological foundations of chemical analysis
Analytical signal and interference. Control experiment. Absolute (standard-free) and relative methods of analysis. Single and parallel definitions. Methods for determining the content of a substance based on analytical measurement data (calibration curve method, standard method, additive method). The main characteristics of the analytical method: accuracy (correctness and reproducibility), sensitivity (sensitivity coefficient, detection limit, lower and upper limits of determined contents) and selectivity.
Errors of chemical analysis: absolute and relative; systematic and random; blunders. Errors in individual stages of chemical analysis. Methods for assessing correctness: the use of standard samples, the method of additions, the method of varying samples, comparison with other methods. Standard samples, their production, certification and use.
Statistical processing of measurement results. Law of normal distribution of random errors, t- And F-distributions. Some concepts of mathematical statistics: sample size (general and sample population); mean, variance, standard deviation, relative standard deviation, confidence probability, confidence interval. Convergence and repeatability. Estimation of the acceptable discrepancy between the results of parallel determinations. Comparison of variances and means of two analysis methods.
Regression analysis. Using the least squares method to construct calibration functions. Examples of metrological processing and presentation of results of quantitative pharmaceutical analysis. Requirements for metrological assessment depending on the object and purpose of the analysis. Ways to improve the reproducibility and accuracy of analysis.

Types of chemical reactions and processes in analytical chemistry
The main types of chemical reactions in analytical chemistry: acid-base, complexation, oxidation-reduction. Processes used: precipitation-dissolution, extraction, sorption. Equilibrium constants of reactions and processes. State of substances in ideal and real systems. Behavior of electrolytes and non-electrolytes in solutions. Activity coefficients. Debye-Hückel theory and its limitations. Concentration constants. Description of complex equilibria. Total and equilibrium concentrations. Conditional constants.
Reaction rates in chemical analysis. Factors affecting speed. Catalysts, inhibitors. Autocatalytic reactions. Induced and coupled reactions. Examples of acceleration and deceleration of reactions and processes used in chemical analysis.
Acid-base reactions. Modern ideas about acids and bases. Bronsted-Lowry theory. Equilibrium in the system acid - conjugate base and solvent. Hydrolysis as a special case of acid-base equilibrium. Constant and degree of hydrolysis. Acidity and basicity constants. Acidic and basic properties of solvents. Autoprotolysis constant. The influence of the nature of the solvent on the strength of the acid and base. Leveling and differentiating effect of the solvent.
Acid-base equilibrium in multicomponent systems. Buffer solutions and their properties. Buffer capacity. Use of buffer systems in analysis. Calculation of pH of solutions of uncharged and charged acids and bases, polybasic acids and bases, mixtures of acids and bases.
Complexation reactions. Lewis-Pearson theory. Types of complex compounds used in analytical chemistry. Classification of complex compounds according to the nature of the metal-ligand interaction, the homogeneity of the ligand and the central ion (complexing agent). Properties of complex compounds of analytical significance: stability, solubility, volatility, spectral characteristics.
Stepwise complex formation. Quantitative characteristics of complex compounds: stability constants (stepwise and general), degree of complex formation. Factors influencing complex formation: structure of the central atom and ligand, concentration of components, pH, ionic strength of solution, temperature. Thermodynamic and kinetic stability of complex compounds.
The influence of complex formation on the solubility of compounds, acid-base balance, redox potential of systems, stabilization of various oxidation states of elements. Methods for increasing the sensitivity and selectivity of analysis using complex compounds.
Theoretical foundations of the interaction of organic reagents with inorganic ions. The influence of their nature, the location of functional analytical groups, the stereochemistry of the reagent molecules on its interaction with inorganic ions. The theory of analogies of the interaction of metal ions with inorganic reagents such as H 2 O, NH 3 and H 2 S and oxygen-, nitrogen-, sulfur-containing organic reagents. The main types of compounds formed with the participation of organic reagents. Chelates, intracomplex compounds. Factors determining the stability of chelates. The most important organic reagents used in analysis for the separation, detection, determination of metal ions, for masking and unmasking. Organic reagents for pharmaceutical analysis. Possibility of using complex compounds and organic reagents in various methods of analysis.
Redox reactions. Electrode potential. The Nernst equation and its connection with the laws of chemical thermodynamics. Standard and formal potentials. Relationship between the equilibrium constant and standard potentials. Direction of oxidation-reduction reactions. Factors influencing the direction of redox reactions. The concept of mixed potentials. Mechanisms of redox reactions and their significance for analytical chemistry.
The main inorganic and organic oxidizing and reducing agents used in the analysis. Methods of preliminary oxidation and reduction of the element being determined.
Processes of precipitation and coprecipitation. Equilibrium in the system is solution ¾ sediment. Sediments and their properties. Scheme of sediment formation. Crystalline and amorphous sediments. Dependence of the sediment structure on its individual properties and sedimentation conditions. Dependence of sediment shape on the rate of formation and growth of primary particles. Solubility constants of a slightly soluble strong electrolyte (thermodynamic, real and conditional). Methods of expressing the solubility of poorly soluble electrolytes. Factors affecting the solubility of sediments: temperature, ionic strength, action of the same ion, protonation reactions, complex formation, oxidation-reduction, structure and particle size. Conditions for obtaining crystalline deposits. Homogeneous precipitation. Complete and fractional precipitation, fractional dissolution. Sediment aging. Causes of sediment contamination. Classification of various types of coprecipitation. Positive and negative significance of the coprecipitation phenomenon in the analysis. Features of the formation of colloidal disperse systems. Use of colloidal systems in chemical analysis.

Detection and identification methods
Objectives and choice of method for detecting and identifying atoms, ions and chemical compounds. Qualitative chemical analysis. Analytical characteristics of substances and analytical reactions. Types of analytical reactions and reagents (specific, selective, group). Sensitivity characteristics of qualitative analytical reactions (dilution limit, concentration limit, minimum volume of extremely diluted solution, detection limit, sensitivity index).
Fractional and systematic analysis. Qualitative analysis of cations. Classification of cations into analytical groups in accordance with hydrogen sulfide (sulfide), ammonia-phosphate, acid-base analysis schemes. Systematic analysis of cations according to the acid-base scheme. Analytical reactions of cations of various analytical groups. Qualitative analysis of anions. Classification of anions by analytical groups (according to the ability to form poorly soluble compounds, according to redox properties). Systematic analysis of anions according to the acid-base scheme. Analytical reactions of anions of various analytical groups. Qualitative analysis of mixtures of cations and anions, drugs.
Microcrystalloscopic analysis, pyrochemical analysis (flame coloring, sublimation, pearl formation). Drip analysis. Analysis by trituration of powders. Chromatographic methods of qualitative analysis. Physical methods for the detection and identification of inorganic and organic substances. Express qualitative analysis in factory and field conditions. Test methods and test tools. Examples of practical application of detection methods. Using qualitative analysis in pharmacy.

Isolation, separation and concentration methods
Basic methods of separation and concentration, their role in chemical analysis. Combination of separation and concentration methods with determination methods; hybrid methods. Single and multi-stage separation processes. Distribution constants. Distribution coefficient. Extraction rate. Separation factor. Concentration factor.
Extraction methods. Theoretical foundations of methods. Nernst-Shilov distribution law. Classification of extraction processes. Extraction speed. Types of extraction systems: non-ionized compounds (molecular substances, chelate compounds, metal complexes with a mixed coordination sphere, including an inorganic ligand and a neutral extraction reagent) and ionic associates (metal-containing acids and their salts, mineral acids, coordination-unsolvated ionic associates, heteropolycompounds, extractable oxygen-containing solvents, other ionic associates). Conditions for extraction of inorganic and organic compounds. Reextraction. Nature and characteristics of extractants. Separation and concentration of elements by extraction. Basic organic reagents used to separate elements by extraction. Selective separation of elements by selecting organic solvents, changing the pH of the aqueous phase, masking and unmasking. Use of extraction processes in pharmaceutical analysis.
Precipitation and co-precipitation methods. Application of inorganic and organic reagents for precipitation. Methods of separation by precipitation or dissolution at different pH values, due to the formation of complex compounds and the use of redox reactions. Group reagents and requirements for them. Characteristics of poorly soluble compounds most often used in analysis. Concentration of trace elements by coprecipitation on inorganic and organic carriers (collectors).
Other methods. Distillation (distillation, sublimation). Ion exchange. The concept of electrophoresis.

Chromatographic methods of analysis
Definition of chromatography. The concept of mobile and stationary phases. Classification of methods according to the state of aggregation of the mobile and stationary phases, according to the separation mechanism, according to the technique of implementation, according to the purpose and objectives of the analysis. Methods for obtaining chromatograms (frontal, displacement, eluent). Basic parameters of the chromatogram. Basic equation of chromatography. Selectivity and efficiency of chromatographic separation. Theory of theoretical plates. Kinetic theory. Qualitative and quantitative chromatographic analysis.
Gas chromatography. Gas-adsorption (gas-solid-phase) and gas-liquid chromatography. Sorbents and carriers, requirements for them. Separation mechanism. Gas chromatograph diagram. Columns. Detectors, their sensitivity and selectivity. The concept of chromatography-mass spectrometry. Applications of gas chromatography. Advantages and disadvantages of gas chromatography.
Liquid Column Chromatography. Types of liquid chromatography. Benefits of High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Liquid chromatograph diagram. Pumps, columns. Main types of detectors, their sensitivity and selectivity. Advantages and disadvantages of HPLC.
Adsorption and partition liquid chromatography. Normal-phase and reverse-phase options. Polar and non-polar stationary phases and principles of their selection. Modified silica gels as sorbents. Mobile phases and principles of their selection. Applications of liquid chromatography.
Ion and ion exchange chromatography. Structure and physicochemical properties of ion exchangers. Ion exchange equilibrium. Selectivity of ion exchange and its determining factors. Areas of application of ion exchange chromatography. Features of the structure and properties of sorbents for ion chromatography. Single-column and double-column ion chromatography, their advantages and disadvantages. Ion chromatographic determination of cations and anions.
Ion-pair and ligand exchange chromatography. General principles. Mobile and stationary phases. Areas of use.
Size exclusion chromatography. General principles of the method. Features of stationary phases and separation mechanism. Determined substances and areas of application of the method.
Plane chromatography. General principles of separation. Methods for obtaining planar chromatograms (ascending, descending, circular, two-dimensional). Reagents for developing chromatograms. Advantages and disadvantages.
Thin layer chromatography. Mechanisms of separation. Sorbents and mobile phases. Areas of use.
Paper chromatography. Mechanisms of separation. Requirements for paper for chromatographic analysis. Mobile phases. Areas of use.
Use of various chromatographic methods in pharmaceutical analysis.

Gravimetric method of analysis
The essence of gravimetric analysis, advantages and disadvantages of the method. Direct and indirect methods of determination. Methods of distillation and precipitation. The most important organic and inorganic precipitants. Errors in gravimetric analysis. General scheme of definitions. Requirements for sedimentation and gravimetric forms. Changes in the composition of the sediment during drying and calcination. Thermogravimetric analysis.
Analytical balances. Sensitivity of scales and its mathematical expression. Factors affecting weighing accuracy. Weighing technique.
Examples of practical application of the gravimetric method of analysis. Determination of water in pharmaceutical preparations. Determination of elements (iron, aluminum, titanium) in the form of oxides. Determination of calcium and magnesium; sources of errors in their determination. Determination of sulfur, halogens in inorganic and organic compounds. Various methods for determining phosphorus and silicon. Application of organic reagents for the determination of nickel, cobalt, zinc and magnesium.

Titrimetric methods of analysis
Methods of titrimetric analysis. Classification. Requirements for the reaction in titrimetric analysis (general and special, depending on the specific titrimetric method). Types of titrimetric determinations (direct, reverse, indirect). Methods for determining the concentration of the titrated substance (methods of individual weighing and pipetting). Methods of expressing the concentrations of solutions in titrimetry. Equivalent, molar mass of equivalent, molar concentration, molar concentration of equivalent, titer, titrimetric conversion factor (titer for the analyte), correction factor. Primary and secondary standard solutions. Fixanaly. Titration curves, their main parameters and connection with the basic laws of chemical equilibrium, types of titration curves. Factors influencing the nature of titration curves and the magnitude of the titration jump in various methods. Equivalence point. Electroneutrality point. Methods for determining the titration end point in various methods. Indicators. Intervals of indicator color changes. Modern methods of titrimetric analysis and instruments.
Acid-base titration. Construction of titration curves. The influence of the values ​​of acidity or basicity constants, the concentration of acids or bases, and temperature on the nature of titration curves. Acid-base titration in non-aqueous media. Factors determining the choice of non-aqueous solvent. Acid-base indicators. Ion-chromophoric theory of acid-base indicators. Titration errors in the determination of strong and weak acids and bases, polybasic acids and bases.
Examples of practical application. Primary standard solutions for establishing the concentration of solutions of acids and bases. Preparation and standardization of solutions of hydrochloric, sulfuric acids and sodium hydroxide. Titration of acids, bases, mixtures of acids and mixtures of bases, ampholytes. Analysis of mixtures of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate, sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. Determination of nitrogen using the Kjeldahl method and ammonium salts by direct and indirect methods. Determination of nitrates and nitrites; formaldehyde. Application of acid-base titration in non-aqueous media (determination of boric and hydrochloric acids in their mixture, amino acids).
Redox titration. Titration curves: calculation, construction, analysis. Influence of the concentration of hydrogen ions, complexation, formation and dissolution of poorly soluble compounds, ionic strength of the solution on the nature of titration curves. Methods for determining the titration end point. Indicators in redox processes. Titration errors.
Methods of redox titration. Permanganatometry. Determination of iron(II), oxalates, hydrogen peroxide, nitrites. Dichromatometry. Determination of iron(II).
Iodometry and iodymetry. The iodine-iodide system as an oxidizing or reducing agent. Determination of arsenites, arsenates, iron(III), copper(II), halide ions, peroxides, acids. Determination of water and functional groups of organic compounds.
Chloriodometry, iodometry, bromometry, bromatometry, cerimetry, nitrimetry. Primary and secondary standard solutions of methods, indicators used. Determination of inorganic and organic compounds.
Application of redox titration methods in pharmaceutical analysis.
Complexometric titration . Inorganic and organic titrants in complexometry. Mercurimetric titration. The essence of the method. Method indicators. Application of mercurimetry.
Use of aminopolycarboxylic acids in complexometry. Construction of titration curves. Metallochromic indicators and requirements for them. The most important universal and specific metallochromic indicators. Complexometric titration methods: direct, reverse, indirect. Titration selectivity and methods for increasing it. Titration errors. Examples of practical application: determination of calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, copper, zinc in solutions of pure salts and in their joint presence.
Precipitation titration. Precipitation titration methods: argentometry (Gay-Lussac, Mohr, Fayans-Fisher-Khodakov, Volhard methods), thiocyanatometry, mercurometry, hexacyanoferratometry, sulfatometry, barimetry. Primary and secondary standard solutions of various methods of precipitation titration, their preparation, standardization. Precipitation titration curves, their calculation, construction, analysis. Methods for determining the titration end point; precipitation, metallochromic, adsorption indicators. Errors in precipitation titration: their origin, calculation, methods of elimination. Examples of practical use of various precipitation titration methods in pharmaceutical analysis .
Other titrimetric methods of analysis. Thermometric, radiometric titration. The essence of methods, practical application.

Electrochemical methods of analysis
General characteristics of the methods. Classification. Electrochemical cells. Indicator and reference electrodes. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium electrochemical systems. Phenomena occurring during the flow of current (ohmic voltage drop, concentration and kinetic polarization).

Potentiometry
Direct potentiometry. Potential measurement. Reversible and irreversible redox systems. Indicator electrodes: metal and ion-selective. Ionometry. Classification of ion-selective electrodes. Nikolsky-Eisenman equation. Characteristics of ion-selective electrodes: electrode function, slope of electrode function, detection limit, potentiometric selectivity coefficient, response time. Examples of practical application of ionometry. Determination of pH, alkali and alkaline earth metal ions, halide and nitrate ions.
Potentiometric titration. Change in electrode potential during titration. Methods for detecting the end point of titration in reactions: acid-base, complexation, oxidation-reduction; deposition processes.
Examples of practical application. Titration of phosphoric, mixtures of hydrochloric and boric, hydrochloric and acetic acids in aqueous and aqueous-organic media. Determination of iodides and chlorides when present together.
Coulometry
Theoretical foundations of the method. Faraday's laws. Direct coulometry and coulometric titration. Conditions for carrying out coulometric measurements at constant potential and constant current. Methods for determining the amount of electricity in direct coulometry and coulometric titration. External and internal generation of coulometric titrant. Titration of electroactive and electroinactive components. Determination of the titration end point. Advantages and limitations of the coulometric titration method compared to other titrimetric methods. The use of coulometric titration for the determination of small amounts of acid and alkali, sodium thiosulfate, oxidizing metal ions, and water.

Voltammetry
Classification of voltammetric methods. Indicator electrodes. Obtaining and characterizing the current-voltage curve. Limiting diffusion current. Polarography. Ilkovich equation. Ilkovich-Heyrovsky polarographic wave equation. Half-wave potential. Identification and determination of inorganic and organic compounds. Modern types of voltammetry: direct and inversion, alternating current; chronoamperometry with linear sweep (oscillography). Advantages and limitations compared to classical polarography. Registration and decoding of the polarogram of an individual depolarizer ¾ metal ion. Registration of the polarographic spectrum. Determination of the concentration of substances by the calibration graph method and the method of additives using classical, oscillographic, alternating current polarography.
Amperometric titration. The essence of the method. Indicator electrodes. Selecting the potential of the indicator electrode. Types of titration curves. Concept of amperometric titration with two indicator electrodes. Amperometric titration of inorganic and organic substances.
Examples of practical application of voltammetric methods and amperometric titration in pharmaceutical analysis.

Conductometry
The essence of the method. Direct conductometry and conductometric titration. Constant current and alternating current; contact and non-contact conductometry. Determination of the concentration of the analyzed solution based on electrical conductivity measurements (calculation method, calibration graph method). Conductometric titration. The concept of high-frequency conductometric titration. Types of acid-base and precipitation conductometric titration curves. Advantages and disadvantages of conductometry.
Comparative characteristics of sensitivity and selectivity, areas of application of electrochemical methods.

Spectroscopic methods of analysis
The place and role of spectroscopic methods in analytical chemistry and chemical analysis. Comparative characteristics of sensitivity and selectivity, areas of application of spectroscopic methods.
Electromagnetic radiation and its characteristics. Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. The main types of interaction of matter with radiation: absorption, emission (thermal, luminescence), scattering, light refraction, reflection. Classification of spectroscopic methods by energy. Classification of spectroscopic methods based on the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation and the object: atomic, molecular, absorption, emission spectroscopy.
Energy transitions. Selection rules. Laws of emission and absorption, Einstein's equations. Probabilities of transitions and lifetimes of excited states. The main types of light scattering (Rayleigh-Mie and Tyndall), Raman scattering. Basic laws of absorption (Bouguer-Lambert) and emission of electromagnetic radiation (Boltzmann, Moseley). Relationship between analytical signals and the concentration of the compound being determined.
Spectra of atoms. Ground and excited states of atoms, characteristics of states. Characteristics of atomic spectral lines: position in the spectrum, intensity, width. Factors influencing the width of atomic lines.
Spectra of molecules; their features. Diagrams of electronic levels of a molecule. The idea of ​​the total energy of molecules as the sum of electronic, vibrational and rotational. Relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its molecular spectra. Functional analysis using vibrational and electronic spectra.
Equipment. Radiation sources. Methods of monochromatization of electromagnetic radiation. Classification of spectral devices, their characteristics. Radiation receivers. Instrumental interference. Noise and signal-to-noise ratio; assessment of the minimum analytical signal.

Methods of atomic optical spectroscopy
Atomic emission method. Thermodynamics of processes in atomic emission spectroscopy (evaporation, atomization, excitation, ionization). Sources of atomization and excitation: flames, plasmatrons, inductively coupled plasma, electrical discharges (spark, glow discharge, arc), lasers; their main characteristics. Physical and chemical processes in sources of atomization and excitation.
Qualitative and quantitative analysis by atomic emission spectroscopy. The Lomakin-Shaibe equation and the reasons for deviation from Boltzmann's law. Spectral, chemical and physico-chemical interference, methods for eliminating them.
Methods of atomic emission spectroscopy. Flame emission photometry, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, spark atomic emission spectroscopy and their comparison. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities.
Atomic absorption method. Atomizers (flame and non-flame), main advantages. The basic law of light absorption in atomic absorption spectroscopy, its features. Radiation sources (gas-discharge lamps, continuous spectrum sources, lasers), their characteristics, the reason for the main use of gas-discharge lamps. Spectral and physico-chemical interference, methods for eliminating them. Main components of an atomic absorption spectrometer. Metrological characteristics, capabilities, advantages and disadvantages of the method, its comparison with the atomic emission method.
Atomic fluorescence method. Principle of the method; features and application.
Examples of practical application of atomic emission and atomic absorption methods in pharmaceutical analysis.

Molecular optical spectroscopy methods
Molecular absorption spectroscopy in the optical region (spectrophotometry). The basic law of light absorption in spectrophotometry (Bouguer-Lambert-Beer). The main reasons for deviation from the law (instrumental, physico-chemical and chemical). Concepts about true and apparent molar absorption coefficient, specific absorption coefficient (E1% 1 cm).
Photometric reaction. Photometric analytical reagents; requirements for them. Examples of photometric reactions for the determination of medicinal substances of various natures. The role of sample preparation in spectrophotometry. Extraction-photometric analysis. Methods for determining the concentration of substances: standard series method, color equalization method, dilution method; their use in pharmacy.
Measurement of high and low optical densities (differential method). Analysis of multicomponent systems. Derivative spectrophotometry. Application of the method to study reactions in solutions (complex formation, protolytic, aggregation processes), accompanied by changes in absorption spectra. Basic types and characteristics of devices. The concept of spectrophotometric titration. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities. Examples of practical application of the method in pharmaceutical analysis.

Vibrational spectroscopy.
Comparative characteristics of IR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy (Raman spectroscopy). Reasons for the difference between IR spectroscopy and spectrophotometry. Capabilities of IR spectroscopy in qualitative, quantitative, functional and structural analysis. Basic instruments (spectrophotometers, interferometers), advantages of Fourier transform IR spectroscopy. The basic law of light absorption in IR spectroscopy, the sensitivity of the method. Application of IR spectroscopy in pharmaceutical analysis (identification of medicinal substances, proof of the authenticity of medicinal products, quantitative analysis in the IR region of the spectrum). Limitations of IR spectroscopy. The use of Raman spectroscopy in inorganic and organic analysis, in non-destructive analysis of biological and pharmaceutical objects.
Molecular luminescence spectroscopy. Features of luminescence as a phenomenon. Classification of types of luminescence according to excitation sources (chemiluminescence, bioluminescence, electroluminescence, photoluminescence, etc.), mechanism and duration of luminescence. Fluorescence and phosphorescence. Terenin-Lewis (Yablonsky) diagram. Laws and rules of luminescence: Stokes-Lommel, Kashi, Vavilov, Levshin (mirror symmetry). Quantitative analysis by the luminescent method, the basic equation of the method, requirements for reactions. Factors influencing luminescence intensity. Quenching of luminescence. Basic devices in luminescence, requirements for radiation sources. Spectral and physico-chemical interference. Metrological characteristics and analytical capabilities of the method. Comparison of the capabilities of molecular absorption and luminescence spectroscopy in the determination of inorganic compounds. Advantages of luminescence spectroscopy in the identification and determination of organic compounds. Extraction-fluorescence analysis. Titration using fluorescent indicators. Examples of the use of luminescence spectroscopy in pharmaceutical analysis.
Light scattering spectroscopy. Basic types of light scattering and their use in analytical chemistry. Nephelometry and turbidimetry, their comparative characteristics and comparison with luminescence spectroscopy and spectrophotometry. Basic equations of methods, requirements for research objects and reactions. Basic devices, sensitivity and selectivity of methods. Examples of practical application. Ideas about modern methods of scattering spectroscopy.
Other methods of molecular spectroscopy. Refractometry. Polarimetry. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy in the optical and IR regions. Fluorescence microscopy. Optical sensors.

Mass spectrometry
Basic principles of methods. Identification and determination of organic substances; elemental and isotope analysis. The main components of a mass spectrometer and their purpose. Main types of ionization and ion sources (electron impact, chemical ionization, electrospray ionization, inductively coupled plasma, atomic bombardment, laser desorption). Characteristics of mass analyzers, their main types (magnetic sector analyzer, quadrupole mass filter, quadrupole ion trap, time-of-flight mass analyzer, cyclotron resonance analyzer). Basic types of detectors. Mass spectrum and its interpretation and processing. Examples of the use of mass spectrometry. Chromatography-mass spectrometry and its use in liquid and gas chromatography options.

Kinetic methods of analysis
The essence of methods. Catalytic and non-catalytic variants of kinetic methods; their sensitivity and selectivity. Types of catalytic and non-catalytic reactions used: oxidation-reduction, exchange of ligands in complexes, transformations of organic compounds, photochemical and enzymatic reactions. Methods for determining concentration from kinetic measurement data.
Examples of practical application. Determination of inorganic and organic compounds. Use of catalytic reactions to determine small amounts of substances.

Theory and practice of sampling and sample preparation
Representativeness of the sample; relationship with the object and method of analysis. Factors that determine the size and method of collecting a representative sample. Sampling of homogeneous and heterogeneous composition. Methods for obtaining an average sample of solid, liquid and gaseous substances; devices and techniques used in this; primary processing and storage of samples; dosing devices.
The main methods of converting a sample into the form required for a specific type of analysis are: dissolution in various media; sintering, fusion, decomposition under the influence of high temperatures, pressure, high-frequency discharge; combining various techniques; features of the decomposition of organic compounds. Methods for eliminating and accounting for contamination and loss of components during sample preparation.
Features of sample preparation of solid, liquid and soft dosage forms in pharmaceutical analysis.

Recommended reading
Main
1. Kharitonov Yu.Ya. Analytical chemistry. Analytics. In two books. 3rd edition. M.: Higher. school, 2005.
2. Workshop on analytical chemistry. / Ed. Ponomareva V.D., Ivanova L.I. M.: Higher. school, 1983.
3. Kharitonov Yu.Ya., Grigorieva V.Yu. Analytical chemistry. Workshop. Qualitative chemical analysis. M.: Publishing group "GEOTAR-Media", 2007.
4. Lurie Yu.Yu. Handbook of Analytical Chemistry. M.: Chemistry, 1989.

Additional

1. Ponomarev V.D. Analytical chemistry. M.: Higher. school, 1982.
2. Fundamentals of analytical chemistry (edited by Yu.A. Zolotov). In two books. General issues. Separation methods. Methods of chemical analysis. M.: Higher. school.. 2004. Series “Classical University Textbook”.
3. Fundamentals of analytical chemistry. Tasks and exercises. / Ed. Yu.A. Zolotova. M.: Higher. school, 2004.
4. Dorokhova E.N., Prokhorova G.V. Analytical chemistry. Physico-chemical methods of analysis. M.: Higher. school, 1991.
5. Dorokhova E.N., Prokhorova G.V. Problems and exercises in analytical chemistry. M.: Mir, 2001.
6. Vasiliev V.P. Analytical chemistry. In two books. M.: Bustard, Book. 1. 2004, Book. 2. 2005.
7. State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR. XI edition. Vol. 1. General principles of analysis. M.: Medicine, 1987.
8. State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR. XI edition. Vol. 2. General methods of analysis. Medicinal plant raw materials. M.: Medicine, 1990.
9. State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR. X edition. M.: Medicine, 1968.
10. Dzhabarov D.N. Collection of exercises and problems in analytical chemistry. M.: Russian doctor, 1997.
11. Kolner R. Analytical chemistry. Problems and approaches. In two volumes. M.: Mir, 2004.
12. Otto M. Modern methods of analytical chemistry (in two volumes). / Per. with him. and ed. A.V. Garmash. T.1. M.: Tekhnosphere, 2003. T.2. M.: Tekhnosphere, 2004.
13. Analytical chemistry. Problems and approaches. In 2 volumes. / Per. from English, ed. Yu.A. Zolotova. M.: Mir, 2004.
14. Marchenko Z., Balcezhak M. Methods of spectrophotometry in the UV and visible regions in inorganic analysis. M.: Binom. Knowledge Laboratory, 2009.
15. Henze G. Polarography and voltammetry. Theoretical foundations and analytical practice. M.: Binom. Knowledge Laboratory, 2008.
16. Kunze U., Schwedt G. Fundamentals of qualitative and quantitative analysis. M.: Mir, 1997.
17. Pilipenko A.T., Pyatnitsky I.V. Analytical chemistry. In two volumes. M.: Chemistry, 1990.
18. Petrukhin O.M., Vlasova E.G., Zhukov A.F. and others. Analytical chemistry. Chemical methods of analysis. M.: Chemistry, 1993.
19. Laitinen G.A., Harris V.E. Chemical analysis. M.: Chemistry, 1979.
20. Peters D., Hayes J., Hiftje G. Chemical separation and measurement. In two books. M.: Chemistry, 1978.
21. Skoog D., West D. Fundamentals of analytical chemistry. In two books. M.: Mir, 1979.
22. Fritz J., Schenk G. Quantitative analysis. M.: Mir, 1978.
23. Ewing D. Instrumental methods of chemical analysis. M.: Mir, 1989.
22. Yanson E.Yu. Theoretical foundations of analytical chemistry. M.: Higher. school, 1987.
23. Derffel K. Statistics in analytical chemistry. M.: Mir, 1994.
24. Journal of Analytical Chemistry. Monthly publication of the MAIK publishing house.

The program has been compiled
Assoc. Muginova S.V.
Editor Prof. Shekhovtsova T.N.