How to derive formulas in physics. Preparation for the Unified State Exam

This lesson is a useful addition to the previous topic "".

The ability to do such things is not only useful, it is necessary. In all branches of mathematics, from school to higher. And in physics too. It is for this reason that tasks of this kind are necessarily present in both the Unified State Exam and the Unified State Exam. At all levels – both basic and specialized.

Actually, the entire theoretical part of such tasks consists of one single phrase. Universal and simple as hell.

We are surprised, but we remember:

Any equality with letters, any formula is ALSO an EQUATION!

And where the equation is, there is automatically . So we apply them in an order convenient for us and we’re done.) Have you read the previous lesson? No? However... Then this link is for you.

Oh, are you aware? Great! Then we apply theoretical knowledge in practice.

Let's start with something simple.

How to express one variable in terms of another?

This problem constantly arises when solving systems of equations. For example, there is an equality:

3 x - 2 y = 5

Here two variables- X and Y.

Let's say they ask us expressxthroughy.

What does this task mean? It means that we must get some equality, where there is a pure X on the left. In splendid isolation, without any neighbors or odds. And on the right - whatever happens.

And how do we get such equality? Very simple! Using the same good old identity transformations! So we use them in a convenient way us order, step by step getting to pure X.

Let's analyze the left side of the equation:

3 x – 2 y = 5

Here we are getting in the way of the three in front of the X and - 2 y. Let's start with - 2у, it will be easier.

We throw - 2у from left to right. Changing minus to plus, of course. Those. apply first identity transformation:

3 x = 5 + 2 y

Half the battle is done. Three left before the X. How to get rid of it? Divide both parts into this same three! Those. engage second identical transformation.

Here we divide:

That's it. We expressed x through y. On the left is a pure X, and on the right is what happened as a result of the “cleaning” of the X.

It would be possible at first divide both parts into three, and then transfer. But this would lead to the appearance of fractions during the transformation process, which is not very convenient. And so, the fraction appeared only at the very end.

Let me remind you that the order of transformations does not matter. How us It’s convenient, so we do it. The most important thing is not the order in which identity transformations are applied, but their right!

And it is possible from the same equality

3 x – 2 y = 5

express y in terms ofx?

Why not? Can! Everything is the same, only this time we are interested in the pure player on the left. So we clean the game from everything unnecessary.

First of all, we get rid of the expression 3x. Move it to the right side:

–2 y = 5 – 3 x

There was a deuce with a minus left. Divide both sides by (-2):

And that's all.) We expressedythrough x. Let's move on to more serious tasks.

How to express a variable from a formula?

No problem! Exactly the same! If we understand that any formula - same equation.

For example, this task:

From the formula

express variable c.

A formula is also an equation! The task means that through transformations from the proposed formula we need to get some new formula. In which there will be a clean one on the left With, and on the right - whatever happens, that’s what happens...

However... How do we get this very With pull something out?

How-how... Step by step! It is clear that to select a clean With straightaway impossible: it sits in a fraction. And the fraction is multiplied by r... So, first of all, we clean expression with letter With, i.e. the whole fraction. Here you can divide both sides of the formula into r.

We get:

The next step is to pull it out With from the numerator of the fraction. How? Easily! Let's get rid of the fraction. If there is no fraction, there is no numerator.) Multiply both sides of the formula by 2:

All that's left is the elementary stuff. Let's provide the letter on the right With proud loneliness. For this purpose the variables a And b move to the left:

That's all, one might say. It remains to rewrite the equality in the usual form, from left to right, and the answer is ready:

It was an easy task. And now a task based on real version of the Unified State Exam:

The locator of the bathyscaphe, which is uniformly plunging vertically downwards, emits ultrasonic pulses with a frequency of 749 MHz. The submersion speed of the bathyscaphe is calculated by the formula

where c = 1500 m/s is the speed of sound in water,

f 0 – frequency of emitted pulses (in MHz),

f– frequency of the signal reflected from the bottom, recorded by the receiver (in MHz).

Determine the frequency of the reflected signal in MHz if the submersion speed of the submersible is 2 m/s.

“A lot of books”, yes... But the letters are lyrics, and general essence doesn't matter same. The first step is to express this very frequency of the reflected signal (i.e. the letter f) from the formula proposed to us. This is what we'll do. Let's look at the formula:

Directly, of course, the letter f There’s no way you can pull it out, it’s hidden in the shot again. And both in the numerator and in the denominator. Therefore, the most logical step would be to get rid of the fraction. And then it will be seen. For this we use second transformation - multiply both sides by the denominator.

We get:

And here is another rake. Please pay attention to the brackets in both parts! Often it is in these very brackets that errors in such tasks lie. More precisely, not in the brackets themselves, but in their absence.)

The left parentheses mean that the letter v multiplies for the entire denominator. And not into its individual pieces...

On the right, after multiplication, the fraction disappeared and the lone numerator remained. Which, again, all entirely multiplied by a letter With. Which is expressed by brackets on the right side.)

But now you can open the brackets:

Great. The process is underway.) Now the letter f became on the left common factor. Let's take it out of brackets:

There's nothing left. Divide both sides by brackets (v- c) and - it's in the bag!

Basically, everything is ready. Variable f already expressed. But you can additionally “comb” the resulting expression - take out f 0 beyond the bracket in the numerator and reduce the entire fraction by (-1), thereby getting rid of unnecessary minuses:

This is the expression. But now you can substitute numerical data. We get:

Answer: 751 MHz

That's it. I hope the general idea is clear.

We make elementary identity transformations in order to isolate the variable of interest to us. The main thing here is not the sequence of actions (it can be any), but their correctness.

These two lessons cover only two basic identity transformations of equations. They are working Always. That's why they are basic. In addition to this couple, there are many other transformations that will also be identical, but not always, but only under certain conditions.

For example, squaring both sides of an equation (or formula) (or vice versa, taking the root of both sides) will be an identical transformation if both sides of the equation are obviously non-negative.

Or, say, taking the logarithm of both sides of an equation will be an identical transformation if both sides obviously positive. And so on…

Such transformations will be discussed in appropriate topics.

And here and now - examples for training on elementary basic transformations.

A simple task:

From the formula

express the variable a and find its value atS=300, V 0 =20, t=10.

A more difficult task:

The average speed of a skier (in km/h) over a distance of two laps is calculated using the formula:

WhereV 1 AndV 2 – average speeds (in km/h) on the first and second laps, respectively. What was it like average speed skier on the second lap, if it is known that the skier ran the first lap at a speed of 15 km/h, and the average speed over the entire distance turned out to be 12 km/h?

Task based on real version of the OGE:

Centripetal acceleration when moving in a circle (in m/s 2) can be calculated using the formulaa=ω 2R, where ω – angular velocity(in s -1), andR– radius of the circle. Using this formula, find the radiusR(in meters), if the angular velocity is 8.5 s -1 and the centripetal acceleration is 289 m/s 2.

Problem based on a real version of the profile Unified State Exam:

To a source with EMF ε=155 V and internal resistancer=0.5 Ohm they want to connect a load with resistanceROhm. The voltage across this load, expressed in volts, is given by the formula:

At what load resistance will the voltage across it be 150 V? Express your answer in ohms.

Answers (in disarray): 4; 15; 2; 10.

And where are the numbers, kilometers per hour, meters, ohms - somehow they themselves...)

There are many ways to derive an unknown from a formula, but as experience shows, all of them are ineffective. Reason: 1. Up to 90% of graduate students do not know how to correctly express the unknown. Those who know how to do this perform cumbersome transformations. 2. Physicists, mathematicians, chemists - people who speak different languages, explaining methods for transferring parameters through the equal sign (they offer the rules of triangle, cross, etc.) The article discusses a simple algorithm that allows one reception, without repeated rewriting of the expression, deduce the desired formula. It can be mentally compared to a person undressing (to the right of equality) in a closet (to the left): you cannot take off your shirt without taking off your coat, or: what is put on first is taken off last.

Algorithm:

1. Write down the formula and analyze the direct order of the actions performed, the sequence of calculations: 1) exponentiation, 2) multiplication - division, 3) subtraction - addition.

2. Write down: (unknown) = (rewrite the inverse of the equality)(the clothes in the closet (to the left of the equality) remained in place).

3. Formula conversion rule: the sequence of transferring parameters through the equal sign is determined reverse sequence of calculations. Find in expression last action And postpone it through the equals sign first. Step by step, finding the last action in the expression, transfer here all known quantities from the other part of the equation (clothing per person). In the reverse part of the equation, the opposite actions are performed (if the trousers are taken off - “minus”, then they are put in the closet - “plus”).

Example: hv = hc / λ m + mυ 2 /2

Express frequencyv :

Procedure: 1.v = rewrite the right sidehc / λ m + mυ 2 /2

2. Divide by h

Result: v = ( hc / λ m + mυ 2 /2) / h

Express υ m :

Procedure: 1. υ m = rewrite left side (hv ); 2. Consistently move here with the opposite sign: ( - hc /λ m ); (*2 ); (1/ m ); (√ or degree 1/2 ).

Why is it transferred first ( - hc /λ m ) ? This is the last action on the right side of the expression. Since the entire right hand side is multiplied by (m /2 ), then the entire left side is divided by this factor: therefore, parentheses are placed. The first action on the right side, squaring, is transferred to the left side last.

Every student knows this elementary mathematics with the order of operations in calculations very well. That's why All students quite easily without rewriting the expression multiple times, immediately derive a formula for calculating the unknown.

Result: υ = (( hv - hc /λ m ) *2/ m ) 0.5 ` (or write square root instead of a degree 0,5 )

Express λ m :

Procedure: 1. λ m = rewrite left side (hv ); 2.Subtract ( mυ 2 /2 ); 3. Divide by (hc ); 4. Raise to a power ( -1 ) (Mathematicians usually change the numerator and denominator of the desired expression.)

In every physics problem, you need to express the unknown from a formula, the next step is to substitute numerical values ​​and get the answer; in some cases, you only need to express the unknown quantity. There are many ways to derive an unknown from a formula. If we look at the Internet, we will see many recommendations on this matter. This suggests that there is no single approach to solving this problem scientific community has not yet been developed, and the methods that are used, as experience at school shows, are all ineffective. Up to 90% of graduate students do not know how to correctly express the unknown. Those who know how to do this perform cumbersome transformations. It’s very strange, but physicists, mathematicians, and chemists have different approaches when explaining methods for transferring parameters through the equal sign (they offer the rules of a triangle, a cross, or proportions, etc.) We can say that they have a different culture of working with formulas. You can imagine what happens to the majority of students who encounter different interpretations of how to solve a given problem while consistently attending lessons in these subjects. This situation is described by a typical online dialogue:

Teach how to express quantities from formulas. 10th grade, I’m ashamed of not knowing how to make another from one formula.

Don’t worry - this is a problem for many of my classmates, even though I’m in 9th grade. Teachers most often show this using the triangle method, but it seems to me that this is inconvenient, and it’s easy to get confused. I'll show you the easiest way I use...

Let's say the formula is given:

Well, a simpler one....you need to find time from this formula. You take and substitute only different numbers into this formula, based on algebra. Let's say:

and you probably clearly see that to find the time in the algebraic expression 5 you need 45/9, i.e. let’s move on to physics: t=s/v

Most students develop a psychological block. Students often note that when reading a textbook, difficulties are primarily caused by those fragments of the text that contain a lot of formulas, that “long conclusions still cannot be understood,” but at the same time a feeling of inferiority and lack of faith in one’s abilities arises.

I suggest next solution given problem - most students can still solve examples and, therefore, arrange the order of actions. Let's use this skill of theirs.

1. In the part of the formula that contains the variable that needs to be expressed, it is necessary to arrange the order of actions, and we will not do this in monomials that do not contain the desired value.

2. Then, in the reverse sequence of calculations, transfer the elements of the formula to another part of the formula (via the equal sign) with the opposite action (“minus” - “plus”, “divide” - “multiply”, “squaring” - “extracting the square root” ).

That is, we will find the last action in the expression and transfer the monomial or polynomial that performs this action through the equal sign to the first, but with the opposite action. Thus, sequentially, finding the last action in the expression, transfer all known quantities from one part of the equality to the other. Finally, let's rewrite the formula so that the unknown variable is on the left.

We get a clear algorithm of work, we know exactly how many transformations need to be performed. We can use already known formulas for training, or we can invent our own. To begin work on mastering this algorithm, a presentation was created.

Experience with students shows that this method is well received by them. Teachers' reaction to my performance at the Teacher festival specialized school" also speaks of the positive grain inherent in this work.

Physics is the science of nature. It describes the processes and phenomena of the surrounding world on the macroscopic level - the level of small bodies comparable to the size of the person himself. To describe processes, physics uses a mathematical unit.

Instructions

1. Where do physical formulas? A simplified scheme for acquiring formulas can be presented as follows: a question is posed, guesses are made, a series of experiments is carried out. The results are processed and certain formulas, and this gives a preface to a new physical theory or continues and develops an existing one.

2. A person who comprehends physics does not need to go through each given difficult path again. It is enough to master the central concepts and definitions, become familiar with the experimental design, learn to derive fundamental formulas. Of course, you can’t do without strong mathematical knowledge.

3. It turns out, learn the definitions physical quantities related to the topic under consideration. Every quantity has its own physical meaning, one that you must understand. Let's say 1 coulomb is a charge passing through the cross-section of a conductor in 1 second at a current of 1 ampere.

4. Understand the physics of the process in question. What parameters does it describe, and how do these parameters change over time? Knowing the basic definitions and understanding the physics of the process, it is easy to obtain the simplest formulas. As usual, directly proportional or inversely proportional relationships are established between quantities or squares of quantities, and a proportionality index is introduced.

5. Through mathematical reforms it is possible to derive secondary ones from primary formulas. If you learn to do this easily and quickly, you won’t have to remember the latter. The core method of reform is the method of substitution: some value is expressed from one formulas and is substituted into another. The main thing is that these formulas corresponded to the same process or phenomenon.

6. Equations can also be added, divided, and multiplied. Time functions are often integrated or differentiated, obtaining new dependencies. Logarithm is suitable for power functions. In the end formulas rely on the result, the one you want to get as a result.

Each human life surrounded by most diverse phenomena. Physicists are dedicated to understanding these phenomena; their tools are mathematical formulas and the achievements of predecessors.

Natural phenomena

Studying nature helps us to be smarter about existing sources and discover new sources of energy. So, geothermal sources heat approximately the entire Greenland. The word “physics” itself comes from the Greek root “physis,” which means “nature.” Thus, physics itself is the science of nature and natural phenomena.

Forward to the future!

Often, physicists are literally “ahead of their time,” discovering laws that are used only tens of years (and even centuries) later. Nikola Tesla discovered the laws of electromagnetism, which are used today. Pierre and Marie Curie discovered radium virtually without support, under conditions incredible for a modern scientist. Their discoveries helped save tens of thousands of lives. Now physicists of every world are focused on questions of the Universe (macrocosm) and the smallest particles of matter (nanotechnology, microcosm).

Understanding the world

The most important engine of society is curiosity. This is why experiments at the Large Hadron Collider are so important and are sponsored by an alliance of 60 countries. There is a real chance of revealing the secrets of society. Physics is a fundamental science. This means that any discoveries of physics can be applied in other areas of science and technology. Small discoveries in one branch can have a dramatic effect on the entire “neighboring” branch. In physics, the practice of research by groups of scientists from different countries is famous; a policy of assistance and cooperation has been adopted. The mystery of the universe and matter worried the great physicist Albert Einstein. He proposed the theory of relativity, which explains that gravitational fields bend space and time. The apogee of the theory was the well-known formula E = m * C * C, combining energy with mass.

Union with mathematics

Physics relies on the latest mathematical tools. Often, mathematicians discover abstract formulas by deriving new equations from existing ones, using higher levels of abstraction and the laws of logic, making bold guesses. Physicists follow the development of mathematics, and occasionally scientific discoveries abstract science help explain hitherto unfamiliar natural phenomena. It also happens the other way around - physical discoveries push mathematicians to create guesses and a new logical unit. The connection between physics and mathematics is one of the most important scientific disciplines reinforces the authority of physics.

To derive the formula of a compound, you must first of all establish, through analysis, what elements the substance consists of and in what weight ratios the elements included in it are connected to each other. Usually the composition of a compound is expressed as a percentage, but it can be expressed in any other numbers indicating the ratio difference between the weight quantities of the elements forming a given substance. For example, the composition of aluminum oxide, containing 52.94% aluminum and 47.06% oxygen, will be completely defined if we say that and are combined in a weight ratio of 9:8, i.e., that at 9 wt. parts of aluminum account for 8 weight. including oxygen. It is clear that the ratio of 9:8 should equal the ratio of 52.94:47.06.

Knowing the weight composition of a complex substance and the atomic weights of its constituent elements, it is not difficult to find the relative number of atoms of each element in the molecule of a given substance and thus establish its simplest formula.

Suppose, for example, that you want to derive the formula for calcium chloride containing 36% calcium and 64% chlorine. The atomic weight of calcium is 40, chlorine is 35.5.

Let us denote the number of calcium atoms in a calcium chloride molecule by X, and the number of chlorine atoms through u. Since a calcium atom weighs 40, and a chlorine atom weighs 35.5 oxygen units, the total weight of the calcium atoms that make up the calcium chloride molecule will be equal to 40 X, and the weight of chlorine atoms is 35.5 u. The ratio of these numbers, obviously, must be equal to the ratio of the weight quantities of calcium and chlorine in any amount of calcium chloride. But the last ratio is 36:64.

Equating both ratios, we get:

40x: 35.5y = 36:64

Then we get rid of the coefficients for the unknowns X And at by dividing the first terms of the proportion by 40, and the second by 35.5:

The numbers 0.9 and 1.8 express the relative number of atoms in the calcium chloride molecule, but they are fractional, whereas the molecule can only contain an integer number of atoms. To express attitude X:at two integers, divide both terms of the second ratio by the smallest of them. We get

X: at = 1:2

Consequently, in a calcium chloride molecule there are two chlorine atoms per calcium atom. This condition is satisfied by a number of formulas: CaCl 2, Ca 2 Cl 4, Ca 3 Cl 6, etc. Since we do not have data to judge which of the written formulas corresponds to the actual atomic composition of the calcium chloride molecule, we will focus on the simplest of these, CaCl 2, indicating the smallest possible number of atoms in a molecule of calcium chloride.

However, arbitrariness in choosing a formula disappears if, along with the weight composition of the substance, its molecular composition is also known weight. In this case, it is not difficult to derive a formula expressing the true composition of the molecule. Let's give an example.

By analysis it was found that glucose contains 4.5 wt. parts of carbon 0.75 wt. parts of hydrogen and 6 wt. including oxygen. Its molecular weight was found to be 180. It is required to derive the formula for glucose.

As in the previous case, we first find the ratio between the number of carbon atoms (atomic weight 12), hydrogen and oxygen in the glucose molecule. Denoting the number of carbon atoms by X, hydrogen through at and oxygen through z, make up the proportion:

2x :y: 16z = 4.5: 0.75: 6

where

Dividing all three terms of the second half of the equality by 0.375, we get:

X :y:z= 1: 2: 1

Therefore, the simplest formula for glucose would be CH 2 O. But the calculation from it would be 30, whereas in reality there is 180 glucose, that is, six times more. Obviously, for glucose you need to take the formula C 6 H 12 O 6.

Formulas based, in addition to analytical data, also on the determination of molecular weight and indicating real number atoms in a molecule are called true or molecular formulas; formulas derived only from analysis data are called simplest or empirical.

Having become familiar with the conclusion chemical formulas,” it is easy to understand how precise molecular weights are determined. As we already mentioned, existing methods Determinations of molecular weights in most cases do not give completely accurate results. But, knowing at least the approximate and percentage composition of a substance, it is possible to establish its formula, which expresses the atomic composition of the molecule. Since the weight of a molecule is equal to the sum of the weights of the atoms that form it, by adding the weights of the atoms that make up the molecule, we determine its weight in oxygen units, i.e., the molecular weight of the substance. The accuracy of the molecular weight found will be the same as the accuracy of atomic scales.

Finding the formula of a chemical compound in many cases can be greatly simplified if we use the concept of ovality of elements.

Let us recall that the valence of an element is the property of its atoms to attach to themselves or replace a certain number of atoms of another element.

What is valence

element is determined by a number indicating how many hydrogen atoms(oranother monovalent element) adds or replaces an atom of that element.

The concept of valence extends not only to individual atoms, but also to entire groups of atoms that are part of chemical compounds and participating as a whole in chemical reactions. Such groups of atoms are called radicals. IN inorganic chemistry the most important radicals are: 1) aqueous residue, or hydroxyl OH; 2) acid residues; 3) main balances.

An aqueous residue, or hydroxyl, is formed when one hydrogen atom is removed from a water molecule. In a water molecule, the hydroxyl is bonded to one hydrogen atom, therefore the OH group is monovalent.

Acidic residues are groups of atoms (and sometimes even one atom) that “remain” from acid molecules if you mentally subtract from them one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a metal. of these groups is determined by the number of hydrogen atoms removed. For example, it gives two acidic residues - one divalent SO 4 and the other monovalent HSO 4, which is part of various acid salts. Phosphoric acidH 3 PO 4 can give three acidic residues: trivalent PO 4, divalent HPO 4 and monovalent

N 2 RO 4 etc.

We will call the main residues; atoms or groups of atoms that “remain” from base molecules if one or more hydroxyls are mentally subtracted from them. For example, sequentially subtracting hydroxyls from the Fe(OH) 3 molecule, we obtain the following basic residues: Fe(OH) 2, FeOH and Fe. they are determined by the number of hydroxyl groups removed: Fe(OH) 2 - monovalent; Fe(OH) is divalent; Fe is trivalent.

The main residues containing hydroxyl groups are part of the so-called basic salts. The latter can be considered as bases in which some of the hydroxyls are replaced by acid residues. Thus, when replacing two hydroxyls in Fe(OH)3 with an acidic residue SO 4, the basic salt FeOHSO 4 is obtained, when replacing one hydroxyl in Bi(OH) 3

the acidic residue NO 3 produces the basic salt Bi(OH) 2 NO 3, etc.

Knowledge of the valencies of individual elements and radicals allows simple cases quickly compose formulas for many chemical compounds, which frees the chemist from the need to memorize them mechanically.

Chemical formulas

Example 1. Write the formula for calcium bicarbonate - an acid salt of carbonic acid.

The composition of this salt should include calcium atoms and monovalent acid residues HCO 3. Since it is divalent, then for one calcium atom you need to take two acidic residues. Therefore, the formula of the salt will be Ca(HCO 3)g.