EntranceKievan Rus and its first princes. Old Russian state Kievan Rus
At the end of the 9th century AD. e. scattered tribes of the Eastern Slavs unite into a powerful union, which will later be called Kievan Rus. The ancient state covered vast territories of central and southern Europe, uniting completely culturally different peoples.
Name
The question of the history of the emergence of Russian statehood has been causing a lot of disagreement among historians and archaeologists for decades. For a very long time, the manuscript “The Tale of Bygone Years,” one of the main documented sources of information about this period, was considered a falsification, and therefore the data on when and how Kievan Rus appeared was questioned. The formation of a single center among the Eastern Slavs presumably dates back to the eleventh century.
The state of the Russians received its familiar name to us only in the twentieth century, when the textbook studies of Soviet scientists were published. They clarified that this concept does not include a separate region of modern Ukraine, but the entire Rurikovich empire, located over a vast territory. The Old Russian state is called conventionally, for a more convenient distinction between the periods before and after the Mongol invasion.
Prerequisites for the emergence of statehood
In the early Middle Ages, throughout almost the entire territory of Europe, there was a tendency to unite disparate tribes and principalities. This was associated with the conquests of some king or knight, as well as with the creation of alliances of wealthy families. The prerequisites for the formation of Kievan Rus were different and had their own specifics.
By the end of IX, several large tribes, such as the Krivichi, Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichs, Vyatichi, Northerners, and Radimichi, gradually united into one principality. The main reasons for this process were the following factors:
- All alliances rallied to confront common enemies - the steppe nomads, who often carried out devastating raids on cities and villages.
- These tribes were also united by a common geographical location; they all lived near the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
- The first Kyiv princes known to us - Askold, Dir, and later Oleg, Vladimir and Yaroslav made campaigns of conquest in the North and South-East of Europe in order to establish their rule and impose tribute on the local population.
Thus, the formation of Kievan Rus gradually took place. It is difficult to speak briefly about this period; many events and bloody battles preceded the final consolidation of power in one center, under the leadership of the all-powerful prince. From the very beginning, the Russian state developed as a multi-ethnic state; peoples differed in terms of beliefs, way of life and culture.
"Norman" and "anti-Norman" theory
In historiography, the question of who and how created the state called Kievan Rus has not yet been finally resolved. For many decades, the formation of a single center among the Slavs was associated with the arrival of leaders from outside the lands - the Varangians or Normans, whom the local residents themselves called upon.
The theory has many shortcomings, the main reliable source of its confirmation is the mention of a certain legend of the chroniclers of the “Tale of Bygone Years” about the arrival of princes from the Varangians and their establishment of statehood; any archaeological or historical evidence still does not exist. This interpretation was adhered to by German scientists G. Miller and I. Bayer.
The theory of the formation of Kievan Rus by foreign princes was challenged by M. Lomonosov; he and his followers believed that statehood in this territory arose through the gradual establishment of the power of one center over others, and was not introduced from the outside. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus, and this issue has long been politicized and used as a lever of pressure on the perception of Russian history.
The first princes
Whatever disagreements there may be regarding the issue of the origin of statehood, official history speaks of the arrival of three brothers to the Slavic lands - Sinius, Truvor and Rurik. The first two soon died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the then large cities of Ladoga, Izborsk and Beloozero. After his death, his son Igor, due to his early age, was unable to take over control, so Prince Oleg became regent for the heir.
It is with his name that the formation of the eastern state of Kievan Rus is associated; at the end of the ninth century, he made a campaign against the capital city and declared these lands “the cradle of the Russian land.” Oleg proved himself not only as a strong leader and a great conqueror, but also as a good manager. In each city he created a special system of subordination, legal proceedings and rules for collecting taxes.
Several destructive campaigns against Greek lands carried out by Oleg and his predecessor Igor helped strengthen the authority of Rus' as a strong and independent state, and also led to the establishment of wider and more profitable trade with Byzantium.
Prince Vladimir
Igor's son Svyatoslav continued his campaigns of conquest into remote territories, annexed the Crimea and the Taman Peninsula to his possessions, and returned cities previously conquered by the Khazars. However, it was very difficult to manage such economically and culturally different territories from Kyiv. Therefore, Svyatoslav carried out an important administrative reform, placing his sons in charge of all major cities.
The formation and development of Kievan Rus was successfully continued by his illegitimate son Vladimir, this man became an outstanding figure in Russian history, it was during his reign that Russian statehood was finally formed, and a new religion was adopted - Christianity. He continued to consolidate all the lands under his control, removing individual rulers and appointing his sons as princes.
The rise of the state
Vladimir is often called the first Russian reformer; during his reign, he created a clear system of administrative division and subordination, and also established a unified rule for collecting taxes. In addition, he reorganized judicial law, now the law was administered on his behalf by governors in each region. During the first period of his reign, Vladimir devoted a lot of effort to fighting the raids of steppe nomads and strengthening the country’s borders.
It was during his reign that Kievan Rus was finally formed. The formation of a new state is impossible without establishing a single religion and worldview among the people, so Vladimir, being a smart strategist, decides to convert to Orthodoxy. Thanks to the rapprochement with the strong and enlightened Byzantium, the state very soon became the cultural center of Europe. Thanks to the Christian faith, the authority of the head of the country is strengthened, schools are opened, monasteries are built and books are published.
Civil wars, collapse
Initially, the system of government in Rus' was formed on the basis of tribal traditions of inheritance - from father to son. Under Vladimir, and then Yaroslav, this custom played a key role in uniting disparate lands; the prince appointed his sons as governors in different cities, thereby maintaining a unified government. But already in the 17th century, the grandchildren of Vladimir Monomakh were mired in internecine wars among themselves.
The centralized state, created with such diligence over the course of two hundred years, soon fell apart into many appanage principalities. The absence of a strong leader and agreement between the children of Mstislav Vladimirovich led to the fact that the once powerful country found itself completely unprotected against the forces of Batu’s crushing hordes.
Way of life
By the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, there were about three hundred cities in Rus', although the majority of the population lived in rural areas, where they farmed the land and raised livestock. The formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs of Kievan Rus contributed to the massive construction and strengthening of settlements; part of the taxes went both to the creation of infrastructure and to the construction of powerful defensive systems. To establish Christianity among the population, churches and monasteries were built in every city.
The class division in Kievan Rus developed over a long period of time. One of the first to stand out was a group of leaders; it usually consisted of representatives of a separate family; the social inequality between the leaders and the rest of the population was striking. Gradually, the future feudal nobility is formed from the princely squad. Despite the active slave trade with Byzantium and other eastern countries, there were not many slaves in Ancient Rus'. Among the subordinate people, historians distinguish smerds, who obey the will of the prince, and slaves, who have practically no rights.
Economy
The formation of the monetary system in Ancient Rus' occurred in the first half of the 9th century and was associated with the beginning of active trade with large states of Europe and the East. For a long time, the country used coins minted in the centers of the Caliphate or in Western Europe; the Slavic princes had neither the experience nor the necessary raw materials to make their own banknotes.
The formation of the state of Kievan Rus became possible largely thanks to the establishment of economic ties with Germany, Byzantium, and Poland. Russian princes always prioritized protecting the interests of merchants abroad. Traditional trade goods in Rus' were furs, honey, wax, flax, silver, jewelry, castles, weapons and much more. The message took place along the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” when ships ascended the Dnieper River to the Black Sea, as well as along the Volga route through Ladoga to the Caspian Sea.
Meaning
Social and cultural processes that took place during the formation and heyday of Kievan Rus became the basis for the formation of Russian nationality. With the adoption of Christianity, the country forever changed its appearance; in subsequent centuries, Orthodoxy will become a unifying factor for all peoples living in this territory, despite the fact that the pagan customs and rituals of our ancestors still remain in the culture and way of life.
Folklore, for which Kievan Rus was famous, had a huge influence on Russian literature and people’s worldview. The formation of a single center contributed to the emergence of common legends and fairy tales glorifying the great princes and their exploits.
With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', the widespread construction of monumental stone structures began. Some architectural monuments have survived to this day, for example, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which dates back to the 9th century. Of no less historical value are examples of paintings by ancient masters that remained in the form of frescoes and mosaics in Orthodox temples and churches.
FIRST PRINCE OF KIEVAN RUS
The Old Russian state was formed in Eastern Europe in the last decades of the 9th century as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kyiv and Novgorod, as well as lands located along the waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. Already in the 830s, Kyiv was an independent city and claimed to be the main city of the Eastern Slavs.
Rurik, as the chronicle tells, when dying, transferred power to his brother-in-law Oleg (879–912). Prince Oleg remained in Novgorod for three years. Then, having recruited an army and moved in 882 from Ilmen to the Dnieper, he conquered Smolensk, Lyubech and, settling in Kiev for a living, made it the capital of his principality, saying that Kyiv would be “the mother of Russian cities.” Oleg managed to unite in his hands all the main cities along the great waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” This was his first goal. From Kyiv he continued his unification activities: he went against the Drevlyans, then against the northerners and conquered them, then he subjugated the Radimichi. Thus, all the main tribes of the Russian Slavs, except for the outlying ones, and all the most important Russian cities gathered under his hand. Kyiv became the center of a large state (Kievan Rus) and freed the Russian tribes from Khazar dependence. Having thrown off the Khazar yoke, Oleg tried to strengthen his country with fortresses from the eastern nomads (both Khazars and Pechenegs) and built cities along the border of the steppe.
After Oleg's death, his son Igor (912–945) took over, apparently having no talent as a warrior or ruler. Igor died in the country of the Drevlyans, from whom he wanted to collect double tribute. His death, the matchmaking of the Drevlyan prince Mal, who wanted to marry Igor’s widow Olga, and Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband form the subject of a poetic legend, described in detail in the chronicle.
Olga remained after Igor with her young son Svyatoslav and took over the rule of the Principality of Kyiv (945–957). According to ancient Slavic custom, widows enjoyed civic independence and full rights, and in general, the position of women among the Slavs was better than among other European peoples.
Her main business was the adoption of the Christian faith and a pious journey in 957 to Constantinople. According to the chronicle, Olga was baptized “by the king and the patriarch” in Constantinople, although it is more likely that she was baptized at home in Rus', before her trip to Greece. With the triumph of Christianity in Rus', the memory of Princess Olga, in the holy baptism of Helen, began to be revered, and Equal-to-the-Apostles Olga was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.
Olga's son Svyatoslav (957–972) already bore a Slavic name, but his character was still a typical Varangian warrior, a warrior. As soon as he had time to mature, he formed himself a large and brave squad and with it began to seek glory and prey for himself. He left his mother's influence early and was "angry with his mother" when she urged him to be baptized.
How can I change my faith alone? The squad will start laughing at me,” he said.
He got along well with his squad and led a harsh camp life with them.
After the death of Svyatoslav in one of the military campaigns, an internecine war occurred between his sons (Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir), in which Yaropolk and Oleg died, and Vladimir remained the sole ruler of Kievan Rus.
Vladimir waged many wars with various neighbors over the border volosts, and also fought with the Kama Bulgarians. He also became involved in a war with the Greeks, as a result of which he converted to Christianity according to the Greek rite. This most important event ended the first period of power of the Varangian Rurik dynasty in Rus'.
This is how the Principality of Kiev was formed and strengthened, politically uniting most of the tribes of the Russian Slavs.
Another even more powerful factor of unification for Rus' was Christianity. The baptism of the prince was immediately followed by the adoption of Christianity in 988 by all of Russia and the solemn abolition of the pagan cult.
Returning from the Korsun campaign to Kyiv with the Greek clergy, Vladimir began to convert the people of Kiev and all of Rus' to the new faith. He baptized people in Kyiv on the banks of the Dnieper and its tributary Pochayna. The idols of the old gods were thrown to the ground and thrown into the river. Churches were erected in their places. This was the case in other cities where Christianity was introduced by princely governors.
During his lifetime, Vladimir distributed control of individual lands to his numerous sons.
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Old Russian chronicles connected the formation of the state equally with southern Rusyo and northern Rusyo. Obviously, in the 9th century. The Eastern Slavs formed two pre-state associations. One of them was the lands of glades with the center in Kyiv; to others - the lands of the Ilmen Slavs, parts of the Krivichi, Chud and Meri S center in Novgorod. Probably, on the eve of the unification, both of them were headed by princes of Varangian origin. In 882, the Novgorod prince Oleg united the north and south, as a result of which the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” ended up in the same hands, the capital shifted from Novgorod to Kyiv.
A single state emerged - Kievan Rus. The question of the origin of the Old Russian state and the dynasty of the Kiev princes gave rise in domestic science to a centuries-old dispute between Normanists, who prove the organizing role of the Scandinavian principle in the formation of the state among the Slavs, and anti-Normanists, who defend the theory (I of the natural emergence of the Slavic state as the result of an international social process.
The merger of Kyiv and Novgorod completes the formation of the Old Russian state. The chronicle connected this event with the name of Oleg (879-I). The Kiev prince began to create strongholds in the lands of the Eastern Slavs, collect tribute from them and demand participation in campaigns. But many lands of the Eastern Slavs were not yet connected with Kiev, and the ancient Russian state itself stretched in a relatively narrow strip from north to south along the great waterway along the Dnieper, Lovat, and Volkhov. The record tells about the successful Russian naval campaign against Constantinople in 907. Its result was the conclusion of an agreement between Byzantium and Russia, which was very beneficial for us.
During the reign of Igor (912-945), the Russians made a new campaign against Byzantium, which was unsuccessful. The campaign was repeated in 944. Again, an agreement was concluded with Byzantium, less beneficial for Rus'. Prince Igor died while trying to collect tribute from the Drevlyans.
Prince Igor's wife, Olga (945-964), brutally took revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband - she burned the capital of the Drevlyans, the city of Iskorosten. She proved herself to be a wise ruler. “The witty Olga sought everything in this world with wisdom,” the chronicler wrote about her. She traveled all over the country, establishing rules, order, amounts of tribute, established graveyards - a place for collecting quitrents, determined places of trade where guests could gather, etc. In 955, Olga traveled to Constantinople and converted to Christianity.
The Russians made campaigns in Transcaucasia (80s, 909, 910, 913-914, 943-944), using the Don and Volga to access the Caspian Sea. Constant and ever-developing ties, as was usually the case in the era of early feudalism, were interspersed with military clashes.
During the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich (964-972), a crushing blow was dealt to the Khazar Kaganate. The possessions of Kyiv extended to the lower reaches of the Don, the North Caucasus, Taman and Eastern Crimea, where the Russian Tmutarakan principality arose. Rus' included the lands of the Yases, Kasogs, and Bezes - the ancestors of the present-day Ossetians, Balkars, Circassians, Kabardians, Abazins, etc.
Svyatoslav made a trip to the Danube. The goal of the campaign was to create a vast Slavic, Russian-Bulgarian state with its center in the lower reaches of the Danube. Svyatoslav attracted the Bulgarian Tsar Boris to his side, and Bulgaria became an ally of Rus'. In 970 the Russians launched an offensive. In the spring of 971, the Byzantine emperor went on the offensive. The Russians heroically defended Dorostol, but the enormous numerical superiority of the Greeks forced Svyatoslav to enter into negotiations with the emperor. The Russians returned to the Black Sea region, moved towards Kyiv, but at the rapids they were attacked by Pecheneg nomads. Svyatoslav was killed. Svyatoslav completed the process of unifying the East Slavic lands.
2. The rise of Kievan Rus
The period of strengthening and flourishing of Kievan Rus (late 10th - early 11th centuries) is associated with the reign of Vladimir the Holy (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). The content of this period is as follows: the final completion of the unification of the East Slavic lands within a single state; in solving the problem of defense of the southern and south-eastern borders of the country; in expanding the territory of the state
The heyday of Kievan Rus is characterized by a process of further feudalization. Large land estates arise (princely, boyar, church hereditary estates); the process of enslaving previously free peasants is underway. From among the ruined peasants (smerds), new categories of dependent population are formed - ryadovichi, purchasers, serfs. However, the bulk of the rural population continues to be free peasants - community members, subordinate only to the state and exploited by it (state feudalism).
Within the framework of this period in the history of Kievan Rus, a single state religion - Christianity - was adopted and approved, the first written laws appeared in the country (the “Russian Truth” became the legal code of Kievan Rus),
£ The pagan religion could no longer satisfy the needs of the feudal state. An attempt to reform paganism, undertaken under Vladimir and consisting in uniting the main deities, including tribal ones, into a single pantheon headed by Perun, which copied the relations that had developed in Rus' between the prince and his retinue, as a half-measure, was not successful, and the religion of the early feudal Christianity became the ancient Russian state.
Byzantium played a decisive role in the establishment of Christianity in Rus'. Bulgaria was also important. Rus' has long been closely connected with both of these countries, especially with Bulgaria, which is related in language and culture. Christianity was the religion of feudal society, and the feudal class, which was strengthening in Rus', considered Christianity as the most acceptable form of ideology of the society it led.
According to the chronicle story, the official adoption of Christians by Russia as the dominant religion occurred in 988. The new faith was introduced by force. They toppled, chopped and burned idols. The Kievites who tried to “save themselves from baptism” were frightened with confiscation of property and death and were thrown into the river to be baptized with “fear.”
The adoption of the Christian religion, which replaced traditional tribal, pagan beliefs, ensured the spiritual unity of Kievan Rus, ideologically strengthened the Authority of the state, and raised the importance of | pian power. Christianity organized the consciousness and drinking habits of East Slavic society in a new way, had a huge impact on political and legal relations, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of literature. The adoption of Christianity included Rus' in the system of general Christian values. The question of the Christianization of Rus' continues to provoke and heated discussions. Some historians argue that the adoption of Christianity, despite the Byzantine version, brought Rus' closer to Christian Europe. Others believe that accepting the “Greek faith” oh! The development of Rus' followed the Byzantine (Eastern) model of development. I
Under Yaroslav the Wise, the strengthening of the borders of RuYa continued. In the south, on the San River, the walls of the city of Yaroslav rose, in the north-west, the land of the “Chudi” (Estonians), Yuriev (Tartu) was founded, named after the Christian name of Yaroslav the Wise - Yuri. In 1036, near Kyiv itself! The Russians completely defeated the Pechenegs, the remnants of which migrated to the southwest. To the south of Kyiv, in Porosye, those who recognized the< и подданными киевского князя тюрки-кочевники: торки, печенеги, берендеи 1
The development of feudalism was expressed primarily in the growth of feudal land ownership. In the XI - early XII centuries. this process proceeds very quickly *(Sources of that time often talk about large-scale feudal land ownership of princes, boyars, and monasteries.
The development of feudal land ownership is clearly reflected! "Russian Truth". It was compiled in 1072 by Izyaslav, Svyatosn! Vom and Vsevolod - the sons of Yaroslav the Wise.
Relations between states in the XI - early XLU centuries. were essentially peaceful: there were only two military conflicts in 1043, when Russian troops made their last campaign against Constantinople, and in the mid-1110s, when the Kiev prince Vladimir IVfl nomakh attempted to imprison the Byzantine emperor And the throne of his protege.
During the period of the existence of the unified state of Rus', from the end of the 11th to the beginning of the 12th century, it played a prominent role in international transactions. The Kyiv princes intervened in the political struggle in Po/Yash, Hungary, and Norway. Constant connections were maintained, including the chip! through numerous dynastic marriages, also with Germany, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, the Czech Republic, and France.
While Rus' remained a relatively unified state, its ii|> rulers pursued an all-Russian foreign policy: advantage! iit| orientation towards an alliance with one or another foreign state | (Byzantium, Germany, Poland, Hungary) was in the XI - early * centuries a consequence of the personal (matrimonial in the first place) C1 zees of one or another prince. A different situation arose during the period of separation. Now each land carried out its own external pos. It was not uncommon in the 12th - early. 13th century facts of the participation of foreigners (Hungarians, Poles) in the internecine wars of the Russian princes.
3. Old Russian culture
In the formation of ancient Russian culture, the adoption of Christianity in its Eastern, Orthodox form was decisive!
>n<>introduced the country to Byzantine cultures, and through it indirectly to ancient and Middle Eastern cultures. But long before baptism, Rus' began to enter the orbit of the emerging Slavic Christian culture - thanks to the assimilation of the Slavic alphabet created by Cyril and Methodius. The activities of the Cyril and Methodius mission took place in the second half of the 9th century. in other Slavic countries, Bulgaria and Moravia, but already from the beginning of the 10th century, one of the two Slavic alphabets created by her works - the Cyrillic alphabet - began to be used in Russia. And after Christianization, a powerful flow of Slavic literature came here.
Monuments created in the second half of the 19th-10th centuries. in Bulgaria, Moravia, the Czech Republic, were preserved mainly in Russian lists (some only in Russian), that is, Rus' acted, due to historical circumstances, as the custodian of early Slavic literature created within its borders.
The appearance of writing in the Slavic language, understandable to the entire population (in the early Middle Ages, the speech of Slavs from different regions differed only slightly), and the introduction of worship in the Slavic language (this was also a legacy of the Cyril and Methodius Mission) was of invaluable importance for the culture of the Russian Middle Ages. These features distinguished the Slavic Orthodox countries from Catholic Europe (including the Slavic countries that adopted Christianity from Rome), where the language of worship and, accordingly, the literary language in the first centuries after Christianization was Latin, the knowledge of which was the lot of a small layer of learned people.
In Rus', the written language was close to the living language. This, firstly, led to a very high level of literacy for the early Middle Ages: it was discovered thanks to the discovery by archaeologists in the middle of the last century (1951) of birch bark letters - letters of various contents on birch bark, written by people from various strata of ancient Russian society (nowadays such griots have already been discovered in a dozen ancient Russian cities; most of them come from Novgorod, where soil and climatic conditions helped preserve birch bark in the ground). Secondly, it contributed to the rapid development of its own original literature.
Most of the works of literature that have come down to us from the pre-Mongol period are monuments of church literature, primarily of a liturgical nature, which were best preserved. Among them there are outstanding works - “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion (mid-11th century), monuments of the hagiographic
genre - Lives of Boris and Gleb, the first Russian saints, Theodosius of Pechersk (second half of the 11th century).
One of the original genres of ancient Russian literature was chronicle writing. Researchers date its origins differently - to the end of the 10th century. (the era of Vladimir Svyatoslavich), 1030s. (reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich), second half of the 11th century. The earliest chronicle that has come down to us in a relatively complete form (as part of the Novgorod First Chronicle) is the so-called Initial Kiev vault of the end of the 11th century. At the beginning of the 12th century. In Kyiv, “The Tale of Bygone Years” was created - a work in which the history of Russia was inscribed in the history of all Slavs and the world. In the XII - early XIII centuries. Chronicles are already being created in many centers of Rus' - Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Rostov, Galich.
A number of works that are unique in their genre characteristics have also been preserved. Such, for example, is the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh (early 12th century) - a whole complex of works created by the Kiev prince. The most outstanding work of ancient Russian literature in terms of its artistic merit - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (end of the 12th century) - together with its similar style in the “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” (second quarter of the 13th century) represent fragments of the tradition of the Old Russian court poetry. Such a monument as “The Word (or Prayer) of Daniel the Imprisoner” (late 12th century) also has no analogues.
Architecture that combines local traditions, Byzantine and Western European influences has reached a high level of development. The oldest monuments of ancient Russian architecture that have survived to this day - the St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv and Novgorod, the Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov - date back to the mid-11th century. In the XII-early XIII centuries. Stone architecture reached its greatest heights in the Novgorod and Suzdal lands.
Questions for self-study.
1.What conditions contributed to the creation of the Old Russian state?
2.Political activities of the first Russian princes.
3. Justify the need for Rus' to adopt the great religion of Christianity?
4. The personality of Prince Vladimir in Russian epics?
5.Rus in the system of pan-European relations under Yaroslav the Wise
Describe the written sources of the Old Russian state? Topic 5. Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation (XII - XIII centuries)
1. Reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus
2. Political situation of the largest Russian principalities.
3.Mongol-Tatar invasion and its consequences
4. Defeat of the Swedish and German invaders
1. Reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus
As individual ancient Russian lands strengthened, the princes from the Rurik family who ruled them sought greater independence and, relying on the local boyars, began to oppose the se- ( "and grand-ducal power. At the same time, the process of ousting the system of horizontal (sequential) order of inheritance of power by seniority began, which had been dragging on for centuries (from the eldest brother to the next) vertical order, ensuring the transfer of power from father to son.The decision, according to which each princely line was to hereditarily own its principality, was made at the congress of princes in 1097. However, from the adoption of the decision to its implementation More than one decade passed.The disintegration of the country into separate independent lands was preceded by numerous and devastating strife, a short period of strengthening the unity of Kievan Rus under Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (1125-1132).
For a long time, Kievan Rus retained the features of the early feudal monarchy. Supreme power belonged to the Grand Duke of Kiev, to whom the princes of the subject lands from among his closest relatives were subordinate. In Rus', patrimonial suzerainty was recognized. The prince had a squad. Vassal relations were established between the prince and the squad. The warriors lived in the princely court, took part in campaigns, and shared the spoils of war. The prince consulted with the spring on all issues of administration, court, and collection of tribute. Otherwise, he could lose the support of the vigilantes. The most experienced, senior warriors made up the council (duma) and were called boyars. (The emergence of the squad as a permanent military force was a step towards eliminating the universal armament of the people, characteristic of the tribal system, although people's militias continued to play an important role).
Princely-retinue power was limited to elements of self-government, preserved from the pre-state organization of tribes.
(We are talking about the veche power, i.e. the people's assembly). It is easy to believe that the state structure was based on an agreement between the prince and the people's assembly (veche) of individual lands. These institutions were especially strong on the outskirts of the country. However, in the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. in Kievan Rus there was essentially a process of transition to a new political system. The Old Russian state turned into a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Kiev prince, whose power became increasingly weaker and acquired a nominal character. By the middle of the 12th century. The parallel process of strengthening individual principalities and weakening Kiev led to the collapse of this formally unified state and the formation of a number of independent principalities and lands on the territory of Kievan Rus. The largest of them were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigov, Smolensk, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Minsk, and Ryazan principalities. A special political system was established in the Novgorod land (Novgorod feudal republic).
By the middle of the 12th century. Rus''s situation deteriorated sharply. Feudal fragmentation deepened, and the political unity of the country was weakened. The economy of the southern lands was ruined, trade ties with the southern countries were completely interrupted, and the Danube cities and Tmutarakan were lost.
But even in such conditions, Rus'’s struggle with its enemies did not stop, although it became increasingly difficult to achieve the unification of the forces of even several principalities. This was the case in 1185, when a group of princes led by the Novgorod Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich made a trip deep into the steppes. At first the campaign was successful, however, having gone deeper into the steppe, the Russians were defeated and Igor was captured. It is no coincidence that the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich was sung in the immortal work of the end Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) destroyed Kyiv and it lost its political significance as the center of Rus'. IN During the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Kyiv lost its role as the residence of the metropolitan. In 1299, Metropolitan Maxim, leaving Kyiv, found refuge in North-Eastern Rus'. The Grand Duchy of Vladimir, maintaining its primacy! The political position among the rest of the northeastern lands became the object of constant claims from a number of Russian princes. The history of Kievan Rus allows us to talk about the original and< образной древнерусской цивилизации, в которой в силу серединного по ложения Руси между Востоком и Западом в трансформированном вил проявились черты и средневековой западноевропейской, и традиционном восточной цивилизаций. 2. Political situation of the largest Russian principalities Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. From the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. all of Rus' was divided into a number of separate political entities. However, local features of both the economy and the medieval social structure in different lands of vast Russia also determined the diversity of their state forms. The largest were the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Novgorod Republic and the Alitsko-Volyn Principality. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality bordered on the Ryazan and Chernigov principalities (north of the Oka River), on the Smolensk land and on the 11th Ovgorod possessions. Then the borders in the north went from White Lake across the Sukhona River to Zavolochye, and in the northeast - to Nizhnyaya ()ka. After the death of Monomakh, the region became politically isolated; here the beginning of the local dynasty was laid by his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). Under him, a number of new cities emerged and old ones were strengthened. The first mention of Moscow in the chronicle dates back to this time - 1147. Yuri Dolgoruky called the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav to him with the words: “Come to me in Moscow.” The name of Yuri Dolgoruky is associated with the fortification of the city of Moscow, the location of which he correctly assessed. The new fortress covered the approaches from the south and southwest to the Vladimir-Suzdal gml. Fighting for Kyiv, Yuri at the same time. sought to establish his rule both in Novgorod and in other regions of Rus'. In his desire to strengthen himself on the grand-ducal throne in Kiev, a tendency towards the restoration of the political unity of Russia is visible. Along with this, Prince Yuri begins the fight against the local strong boyars in Rostov-on-Don. | Uzdal principality, trying to weaken and subjugate them to his power. After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, his son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) began to reign. This was one of the strongest princes in Rus'. The defeat of Kyiv in 1169 dealt a serious blow to other princes - presidents on the Kiev throne, who sought not only to seize Kiev ·IH forge the land, but also use Novgorod against Andrey. The prince moved his capital to the city of Vladimir-on-Klyazma. Not far from this city, in the village of Bogolyubovo, a castle was built, which served as a princely residence. Hence the prince’s nickname - Bogolyubsky. He was the first to appropriate to himself the title of Grand Duke of All Rus'. However, Andrei failed to bring the fight to the end. The local feudal lords were too strong; The cities were not yet strong enough at that time. The enemies of Andrei Bogolyubsky united, organized a conspiracy and killed the prince. A peasant uprising began in the principality; they smashed the boyars and exterminated the princely administration. With great difficulty the uprising was suppressed. Andrei's brother, Vsevolod Yuryevich, nicknamed the Big Nest (1176-1212), became the prince. He did a lot to strengthen the power of the Grand Duke. It is no coincidence that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” calling Vse-1 Volod “the Grand Duke,” emphasizes his strength and wealth, saying that his army could “sprinkle the Volga with oars and pour out the Don with helmets.” From many strong boyars from among his enemies, Vsevolod took away “villages 1 ... and horses and cattle,” distributing them to his nobles and serving boyars. Merchants and rich artisans of Vladimir and other cities received! benefits from the prince. Vsevolod, like his predecessors, continued to fight against large feudal lords who sought to weaken the great prince. female power. After the death of Vsevolod, feudal wars resumed in the principality, in which not only local princes and boyars took part, but also Novgorod and others. The Grand Duchy of Vladimir was fragmented! moved to several fiefs-principalities, where other princes Vsevolodovich ruled. The power of the Grand Duke began to strengthen again under Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218-1238). The borders of the grand duchy expanded. After a successful campaign against the Bulgarians, a new city 1 Nizhny Novgorod was founded here. It became an important trade and craft center and a stronghold in the Volga region and in the Oka River basin. . ; In 1236, the Suzdal prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich became the prince of Kiev, and his son Alexander (later Nevsky) became a prince in Veliky Novgorod. The successes of the socio-economic development of the Vladimir Principality put it forward as a contender for the unification of Rus', but this did not happen. As a result of internecine wars, the principality split into a number of small principalities. Mister Veliky Novgorod. The center of the Novgorod land - Veliky Novgorod is located on the Volkhov River, which divides it into two sides: the eastern, Torgovaya, and the western, Sofia. Novgorod adjoins Lake Ilmen, the Volkhov, Lovat, and Mologa rivers connected the region with the Gulf of Finland, I
Dnieper and Volga - with the Black and Caspian seas. The Novgorod land included not only the regions of the Novgorod (Ilmen) Slovenes, but also the Finno-Ugric tribes and nationalities - Vodi, Izhora, Karelians, Chuds, etc. Novgorod colonization was directed to the Baltic region, relying there on the city of Yuryev (Tartu). Back in XI century began the advance of the Novgorodians to the White Sea and the Ural Mountains. In the Novgorod land, agriculture has long been developed, as well as hunting, fishing, salt making and beekeeping. To the north of Novgorod, peasants mined iron. Craftsmen worked not only to order, but also market. With the growth of the social division of labor, the domestic and foreign trade of Novgorod flourished. This was facilitated by its convenient geographical position. Novgorod merchants constantly traveled to the island of Gotland, Sweden, Denmark, and from the second half of the 12th century, trade between Novgorod and the Hansa flourished, union of German cities. Novgorod merchants exported furs, wax, flax, hemp, lard, seal oil and walrus tusks, and handicrafts to Western Europe. Merchants from Chapada Europe imported cloth, wine, spices, and luxury goods to Novgorod. Trade with other principalities of Kievan Rus, especially with the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, developed successfully. The strength of the people of Novgorod approved the veche organization. The first ruling class of feudal lords became the leader of the republic, adapting the veche for their class purposes, firmly holding all the main positions in their hands. The republic in feudal Novgorod became boyar and aristocratic. Supreme power formally belonged to the council, in which all free residents of the city could participate. The veche decided issues of war and peace, elected senior officials, invited the prince under certain conditions, etc. The veche was led by the Yuyars. Even in those cases when the rebel Novgorodians gathered at the veche, their struggle was usually in a hurry to be used by one of the groups of boyars who sought seize power. Higher elected positions were filled only by boyars, sometimes even by inheritance. The first place among the highest officials was occupied by the largest feudal lord in Novgorod - the bishop (later - the archbishop). He kept the treasury of Novgorod, was in charge of state lands, participated in the management of foreign policy, oversaw trade measures, headed the church court, and the Novgorod chronicle was kept at his court; the bishop had his own feudal lords and his own regiment. The bishop disappeared at the head of the “council of masters,” which included boyars and senior officials. The posadnik headed the court of Novgorod, appointed and dismissed various officials, supervised the activities of the prince, acted with him at the head of the army, and communicated with other states. Tysyatsky was the mayor's assistant. He commanded the people's militia, was in charge commercial court. Novgorod also had a prince. The prince and his retinue were needed only as a police force and as the military leader of all armed forces in the event of war. In addition, in the person of the prince, Novgorod was connected with another part of Russia - the “fatherland” of the invited prince. The prince could not judge and govern, he, his boyars and squad could not have possessions in the Novgorod land, could not participate in trade, etc. The prince was paid a salary. The veche concluded an agreement with the prince. If the prince violated the agreement, the Novgorodians usually “showed him the way” and drove him away. The urban masses of Novgorod achieved some rights in self-government. The city was divided into five ends (districts); these ends, like the streets, had their own associations (konchay, ulichans), elected administration. Each end also had some power over the territory of Novgorod land adjacent to it. But these bodies were actually also in the hands of the boyars. Using inter-princely strife, Novgorod more than once successfully defended its independence. Nevertheless, the aggravation of the class struggle from the beginning of the 13th century. forced the Novgorod boyars to seek support from the strong Vsevolod the Big Nest. But the situation in Novgorod became more complicated. His lands began to be threatened by German invaders and Lithuania; The class struggle also intensified. Galicia-Volyn principality. The Galician-Volyn principality was formed at the end of the 12th century. as a result of the merger of two principalities - Galician and Volyn. The Galician land bordered with Poland, along the Carpathians - with Hungary, in the southeast the border ran from the Southern Bug to the mouth of the Danube. Volyn occupied the land along the Western Bug and the upper reaches of Pripyat. In Volyn and the Galician land with their black soil, arable farming and, in addition, cattle breeding, hunting and fishing have long developed. With the establishment of feudal relations, it grew rapidly here! large boyar and princely land ownership. Their extensive trade also contributed to the enrichment of the boyars. The region was located at the intersection of important river and land routes. Very strong economically, bo-| The fury of the region, especially Galician, turned into. powerful political force. Serving feudal lords received from the princes for their service land taken from the peasants or confiscated from the boyars. In the Galician land, large-scale development of salt was carried out, which was removed. moved to other lands of Rus'. In the 12th century. there were about 80 cities in the region; villages (Vladimir-Volynsky, Lutsk, Berestye, Dorogichip, etc.). Attempts to isolate Volyn from Kyiv began in the middle of the 11th century. The strengthening of the Galician princes brothers Volodar and Pasilko Rostislavich (1084-1124) caused an alliance of the Kyiv and Volyn princes and Poland, and then Hungary, against them. However, Rostislavich, with the support of local feudal lords and cities, successfully withstood the struggle. Galician land III finally became isolated, while Volyn until the middle of the 12th century. Remained dependent on Kyiv. The Galician principality especially strengthened during the reign of Yaroslav Vopodimirkovich (1153-1187). This prince persistently sought to strengthen his power. He skillfully used agents among the princes in Ru-41 and at the same time pursued foreign policy in accordance with the interests of not only his principality, but also the entire country. His outstanding qualities were also recognized by his contemporaries, giving him the nickname Osmomysl. The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” speaks of Yaroslav Osmomysl as one of the most powerful princes in Russia, who supports “the Ugric Mountains with his iron regiments.” “Kievan Rus” is a concept that is subject to much speculation today. Historians argue not only about whether there was a state with that name, but also about who inhabited it. If today in Russia the phrase “Kievan Rus” is gradually leaving scientific usage, being replaced by the concept “Old Russian state,” then Ukrainian historians use it everywhere, and in the context of “Kievan Rus - Ukraine,” emphasizing the historical continuity of the two states. However, until the beginning of the 19th century, the term “Kievan Rus” did not exist; the ancient inhabitants of the Kyiv lands did not even suspect that they lived in a state with such a name. The first to use the phrase “Kievan Rus” was the historian Mikhail Maksimovich in his work “Where does the Russian Land Come From,” which was completed in the year of Pushkin’s death. It is important to note that Maksimovich used this expression not in the sense of the state, but in a number of other names of Rus' - Chervonnaya, Belaya, Suzdal, that is, in the sense of geographical location. The historians Sergei Solovyov and Nikolai Kostomarov used it in the same meaning. Some authors of the early 20th century, including Sergei Platonov and Alexander Presnyakov, began to use the term “Kievan Rus” in the sovereign-political sense, as the name of the state of the Eastern Slavs with a single political center in Kyiv. However, Kievan Rus became a full-fledged state during the Stalin era. There is an interesting story about how academician Boris Grekov, working on the books “Kievan Rus” and “Culture of Kievan Rus,” asked his colleague: “You are a party member, please advise, you should know what concept He (Stalin) will like.” Having used the term “Kievan Rus”, Grekov considered it necessary to explain its meaning: “In my work, I deal with Kievan Rus not in the narrow territorial sense of this term (Ukraine), but precisely in the broad sense of the “Rurikovich empire”, corresponding to the Western European empire Charlemagne, which includes a vast territory on which several independent state units were subsequently formed.” Official domestic historiography says that statehood in Rus' arose in 862 after the Rurik dynasty came to power. However, for example, political scientist Sergei Chernyakhovsky argues that the beginning of Russian statehood should be pushed back at least 200 years into history. He draws attention to the fact that in Byzantine sources, when describing the life of the Rus, obvious signs of their state structure were reflected: the presence of writing, the hierarchy of the nobility, the administrative division of lands, small princes, over whom stood “kings,” are also mentioned. And yet, despite the fact that Kievan Rus united under its rule vast territories inhabited by East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes, many historians are inclined to believe that in the pre-Christian period it could not be called a full-fledged state, since there were no class structures there and there was no centralized authority. On the other hand, it was not a monarchy, not a despotism, not a republic; most of all, according to historians, it was like some kind of corporate governance. It is known that the ancient Russians lived in tribal settlements, were engaged in crafts, hunting, fishing, trade, agriculture, and cattle breeding. The Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan described in 928 that the Russians built large houses in which 30-50 people lived. “The archaeological monuments of the Eastern Slavs recreate a society without any clear traces of property stratification. In the most diverse regions of the forest-steppe zone, it is not possible to indicate those that, in their architectural appearance and in the content of the household and household equipment found in them, would stand out for their wealth,” emphasized historian Ivan Lyapushkin. Russian archaeologist Valentin Sedov notes that the emergence of economic inequality is not yet possible to establish based on existing archaeological data. “It seems that there are no clear traces of property differentiation of Slavic society in the grave monuments of the 6th-8th centuries,” the scientist concludes. Historians conclude that the accumulation of wealth and its transfer by inheritance in ancient Russian society was not an end in itself; it apparently was neither a moral value nor a vital necessity. Moreover, hoarding was clearly not welcomed and even condemned. For example, in one of the agreements between the Rus and the Byzantine emperor there is a fragment of the oath of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, telling what will happen in case of violation of obligations: “let us be golden, like this gold” (meaning the golden tablet-stand of the Byzantine scribe) . This once again shows the despicable attitude of the Rus towards the golden calf. A more correct definition of the political structure of pre-dynastic Kievan Rus is a veche society, where the prince was completely dependent on the people's assembly. The veche could approve the transfer of power to the prince by inheritance, or it could re-elect him. The historian Igor Froyanov noted that “the ancient Russian prince was not an emperor or even a monarch, for above him stood a veche, or people’s assembly, to which he was accountable.” The Tale of Bygone Years tells how Kiy, who lived on the Dnieper “mountains,” together with his brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid, built a city on the right bank of the Dnieper, which was later named Kiev in honor of the founder. Kiy, according to the chronicle, he was the first prince of Kyiv. However, modern authors are more inclined to believe that the story of the founding of the city is an etymological myth designed to explain the names of Kyiv localities. Thus, the hypothesis of the American-Ukrainian orientalist Omelyan Pritsak, who believed that the emergence of Kyiv is connected with the Khazars, and Kiy as a person is identical to the hypothetical Khazar vizier Kuya, became widely known. At the end of the 9th century, no less legendary princes appeared on the historical stage of Kyiv - Askold and Dir. It is believed that they were members of the Varangian squad of Rurik, who later became the rulers of the capital city, adopted Christianity and laid the foundations of ancient Russian statehood. But here too there are many questions. The Ustyug Chronicle says that Askold and Dir were “neither the tribe of a prince nor a boyar, and Rurik would not give them a city or a village.” Historians believe that their desire to go to Kyiv was stimulated by the desire to obtain lands and a princely title. According to historian Yuri Begunov, Askold and Dir, having betrayed Rurik, turned into Khazar vassals. The chronicler Nestor writes that the troops of Askold and Dir in 866 made a campaign against Byzantium and plundered the outskirts of Constantinople. However, academician Alexei Shakhmatov argued that in the more ancient chronicles telling about the campaign against Constantinople there is no mention of Askold and Dir, nothing is said about them in either Byzantine or Arab sources. “Their names were inserted later,” the scientist believed. Some researchers suggest that Askold and Dir ruled in Kyiv at different times. Others put forward the version that Askold and Dir are one and the same person. According to this assumption, in the Old Norse spelling of the name "Haskuldr", the last two letters "d" and "r" could be isolated into a separate word, and over time turn into an independent person. If you look at Byzantine sources, you can see that during the siege of Constantinople, the chronicler speaks of only one military leader, although without naming his name. The Khazar Kaganate is considered a powerful state, under whose control were the most important trade routes from Europe to Asia. +In its heyday (at the beginning of the 8th century), the territory of the Khazar Kaganate extended from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, including the lower Dnieper region. The Khazars carried out regular raids on the Slavic lands, subjecting them to plunder. According to the testimony of the medieval traveler Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, they mined not only wax, furs and horses, but mainly prisoners of war for sale into slavery, as well as young men, girls and children. In other words, the lands of Southern Rus' actually fell into Khazar bondage. Maybe they were looking for the Khazar state in the wrong place? Publicist Alexander Polyukh is trying to understand this issue. In his research, he focuses on genetics, in particular, on the position according to which the blood type corresponds to the way of life of the people and determines the ethnic group. He notes that according to genetic data, Russians and Belarusians, like most Europeans, have more than 90% blood group I (O), and ethnic Ukrainians are 40% carriers of group III (B). This serves as a sign of peoples who led a nomadic lifestyle (he includes the Khazars here), in whom blood group III (B) approaches 100% of the population. These conclusions are largely supported by the archaeological finds of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Valentin Yanin, who confirmed that Kyiv at the time of its capture by the Novgorodians (IX century) was not a Slavic city, this is also evidenced by “birch bark letters”. Despite the paradoxical nature of the conclusions, perhaps they are not so divorced from reality. Indeed, in a number of sources of the 9th century, the ruler of the Rus was called not a prince, but a kagan (khakan). The earliest report of this dates back to 839, when, according to ancient Russian chronicles, Rurik’s warriors had not yet arrived in Kyiv. 1. At the end of the 9th century. the process of formation of a single Old Russian state took place. It consisted of two stages: - the calling to reign in 862 by the inhabitants of Novgorod of the Varangians, led by Rurik and his squad, the establishment of the power of the Rurikovichs over Novgorod; - the forced unification by the Varangian-Novgorod squad of East Slavic tribes settled along the Dnieper into a single state - Kievan Rus. At the first stage, according to the generally accepted legend: Rurik became the Prince of Novgorod and is considered the founder of the princely Rurik dynasty, which ruled Russia for more than 700 years (until 1598). Having established themselves in power in Novgorod and mixed with the local population, the Rurikovichs and the Novgorod-Varangian squad began to unite the neighboring East Slavic tribes under their rule: The unification of Kyiv and Novgorod in 882 under the rule of one prince (Oleg) is considered the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state. 2. In connection with the formation of Kievan Rus, there are two common theories: Accurate archival evidence of this or that theory has not been preserved. Both points of view have their supporters and opponents. There are two theories about the origin of the term “Rus”: Also controversial is the question of the existence of a single ancient Russian people and the centralized nature of the state of Kievan Rus. Most sources, especially foreign ones (Italian, Arabic), prove that even under the rule of the Rurikovichs, Kievan Rus, until its collapse, remained a union of different Slavic tribes. Boyar-aristocratic Kyiv, culturally close to Byzantium and nomads, was very different from the trading democratic republic of Novgorod, which gravitated towards the northern European cities of the Hanseatic Trade Union, and the life and way of life of the Tiverts living at the mouth of the Danube was very different from the life of Ryazan and the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Despite this, in the 900s. (X century) there is a process of spreading the power of the Rurikovichs and strengthening the Old Russian state they created. It is associated with the names of the first ancient Russian princes: 3. In 907, the squad of Kievan Rus, led by Prince Oleg, made the first major foreign campaign of conquest and captured the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (Constantinople). After this, Byzantium, one of the largest empires of that time, paid tribute to Kievan Rus. 4. In 912, Prince Oleg died (according to legend, from the bite of a snake hidden in the skull of Oleg’s horse). His heir was Rurik's son Igor. Under Igor, the tribes were finally united around Kyiv and forced to pay tribute. In 945, during the collection of tribute, Prince Igor was killed by the Drevlyans, who with this step protested against the increase in the amount of tribute. Princess Olga, Igor's wife, who reigned from 945 to 964, continued his policies. Olga began her reign with a campaign against the Drevlyans, burned many Drevlyan settlements, suppressed their protests and avenged the death of her husband. Olga was the first of the princes to convert to Christianity. The process of Christianization of the ancient Russian elite began, while the majority of the population remained pagans. 5. The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav, spent most of his time on campaigns of conquest, in which he showed very great strength and courage. Svyatoslav always declared war in advance (“I’m going to fight you”) and fought with the Pechenegs and the Byzantines. In 969 - 971 Svyatoslav fought on the territory of Bulgaria and settled at the mouth of the Danube. In 972, during his return from a campaign in Kyiv, Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs. 6. By the end of the 10th century. the process of formation of the Old Russian state, which lasted about 100 years (from Rurik to Vladimir Svyatoslavovich), was basically completed. Its main results can be highlighted:Where did “Kievan Rus” come from?
State before Rurik
The first Kyiv princes
Historian Boris Rybakov explained: “The personality of Prince Dir is not clear to us. It is felt that his name is artificially attached to Askold, because when describing their joint actions, the grammatical form gives us a single, and not a double, number, as it should be when describing the joint actions of two persons.”Kievan Rus and Khazaria
According to Polyukh, the conquest of Kyiv by the Novgorodians and the revenge on the Khazars carried out by the Prophetic Oleg suspiciously coincide in terms of timing. Perhaps it was the same event? Here he makes a resounding conclusion: “Kyiv is the possible capital of the Khazar Kaganate, and ethnic Ukrainians are the direct descendants of the Khazars.”