Linguistic theories. Archive of scientific articles Golovin linguistic foundations of the doctrine of terms

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1. Averbukh K. Ya. Terminological variation // Questions of linguistics. 1986. No. 6.
2. Arnold I.V. Lexicology of modern in English. M.: graduate School, 1986.
3. Akhmanova O. S., Minaeva L. V. On the subject and metalanguage of educational lexicography // Dictionaries and linguistic studies. M.: MSU, 1982.
4. Akhmanova O. S. Linguistic terminology // Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990.
5. Buyanova L. Yu. A highly specialized term as an object and the result of terminological derivation // Principles and methods of research in philology: the end of the 20th century: collection. articles of the scientific and methodological seminar "TEXTUS". Stavropol: SSU Publishing House, 2000. Issue. 6.
6. Gvozdev A. N. Essays on the stylistics of the Russian language. M.: Education, 1965. 3rd ed.
7. Golovin B. N., Kobrin R. Yu. Linguistic foundations of the doctrine of terms. M.: Higher School, 1987.
8. Grinev S.V. Introduction to terminology. M.: Moscow. Lyceum, 1993.
9. Danilenko V. P. Linguistic aspect standardization of terminology. M.: Nauka, 1993.
10. Ignatiev B.I. Issues of bilingual scientific and technical lexicography: abstract of thesis. ...cand. Phil. Sci. L.: Leningrad State University, 1975.
11. Itskovich V. A. On the zero value of a classifying feature in terminology // Problems of structural linguistics. M.: Nauka, 1978.
12. Kandelaki T. L. Meanings of terms and systems of meanings of scientific and technical terminologies // Problems of the language of science and technology. Logical, linguistic and historical-scientific aspects of terminology. M.: Nauka, 1970.
13. Kapanadze L. A. On the concept of “term” and “terminology” // Development of vocabulary of the modern Russian language. M., 1965.
14. Kulikova I. S., Salmina D. V. Introduction to metalinguistics (systemic, lexicographic and communicative-pragmatic aspects of linguistic terminology). SPb.: SAGA, 2002.
15. Kutina L. L. Language processes that arise during the formation of scientific terminological systems // Linguistic problems of scientific and technical terminology. M.: Nauka, 1970.
16. Leichik V. M. Features of the terminology of social sciences and the scope of its use // Language and style of scientific presentation (linguistic and methodological research). M.: Nauka, 1983.
17. Lotte D. S. Issues of borrowing and organizing foreign language terms and term elements. M.: Nauka, 1982.
18. Lotte D. S. Fundamentals of constructing scientific and technical terminology. M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1961.
19. Miloslavskaya D. Legal terms and their interpretation [ Electronic resource] // Rostov electronic newspaper. 1999. No. 21 (27).
20. Moiseev A.I. On the linguistic nature of the term // Linguistic problems of scientific and technical terminology. M.: Nauka, 1970.
21. Novichkova L. M. Linguistic problems of terminology. M.: USSR Academy of Sciences; Institute of Linguistics, 1991.
22. Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect-Press, 1997.
23. Stepanova M. D., Chernysheva I. I. Lexicology of modern German language. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2003.
24. Superanskaya A.V., Podolskaya N.V., Vasilyeva N.V. General terminology. Theory issues. M.: Publishing house "Editorial URSS", 2004.
25. Khayutin A.D. Compound terms - a functional type of complex linguistic units (CLU) from the perspective of lexicography // Industry terminology and lexicography. Voronezh: Voronezh. state ped. Institute, 1981.
26. Shelov S. D. On two approaches to the meaning of the term // Islam, society and culture: mat. Int. scientific conf. "Islamic civilization on the eve of the 21st century (to the 600th anniversary of Islam in Siberia)." Omsk: Omsk. state univ., 1994.
27. Shelov S. D. Terminology, professional vocabulary and professionalisms // Questions of linguistics. M.: Higher School, 1984. Issue. 5.
28. Shcherba L.V. Experience in the general theory of lexicography. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1971.
29. Zhu J. Morphologie, Semantik und Funktion fachsprachlicher Komposita. Heidelberg, 1987.

Verbal language has become an important human invention. Thanks to him, the intelligence inherent in animals turned into reason and ensured the formation and development of culture. Although a person does a lot, he does not realize and understand everything. All people are native speakers and practitioners of language, but the vast majority do not have a theory of language. Everyone speaks in prose, but like Moliere’s Jourdain, they don’t give an account of it. This is exactly what linguistics as a complex does scientific disciplines language learners.

3.1. Union of worldview and linguistics: teachings about language. Grammar is considered the oldest Panini (IV century BC). The illiterate and brilliant Hindu verbally gave enough Full description Sanskrit. Later, centuries later, it was written down and subject to numerous commentaries.

IN Ancient China hieroglyphs excluded grammar. Already in the 5th century. BC. here interpretations of complex hieroglyphs from ancient texts appeared. They formulated the problem of the relationship of language to reality. In the 3rd century. BC. The doctrine of correcting names arose, based on the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bconformity/inconsistency of the hieroglyph (name) with the characteristics of the individual. The correct choice of name ensures happy life, error leads to conflicts. Xiu Shen (1st century) identified the component parts of the hieroglyph in the form of graphics and phonetics (sound tones), laying down an idea of ​​the structure of the root syllable. By the 11th century. phonetic tables were compiled, and by the 18th century. a dictionary of 47,035 hieroglyphs and 2 thousand variants emerged.

IN Ancient Greece linguistics developed in the bosom of philosophy. The school of sophists posed the question: “What does language correspond to: natural things or social institutions?” One can also highlight Aristotle's first classification of parts of speech and his definition of noun and verb. The Stoic school developed this by introducing the concept of case. Subsequently, the basic concepts of grammar were formed in the Alexandrian school (II century BC - III century). Ancient Roman scholars were busy adapting Greek schemes to Latin. As a result, the grammar of Donatus and Priscian (IV century) was formed.

IN medieval Europe Latin was the common language of culture. The school of milliners (XIII-XIV centuries) constructed a speculative scheme, where Latin grammar was between outside world and thinking. Since the former received depth in the course of creation, language must not only describe, but also explain. The modists not only theorized, they began to create syntax terminology, which was completed by the Frenchman P. de la Rame (1515 - 1572). It belongs to him modern system members of the sentence (subject – predicate – object).

Port-Royal Grammar. It has become one of the linguistic pinnacles. Its authors are French Antoine Arnault (1612 - 1694) And Claude Lanslot (1615 - 1695)– very sensitively perceived the promising plans of their predecessors and creatively developed them, relying on the strength of a circle of like-minded people. The authors sought educational goals, but they were carried away by scientific research, which culminated in the creation of an explanatory theory. They proceeded from the rationalism of the modists and R. Descartes. Language is a universal means of analyzing thinking, because its operations are expressed by grammatical structures. As basic parts of grammar, words are sounds and at the same time express thoughts. The latter are differentiated into representation, judgment and inference. In turn, the representation breaks down into names, pronouns and articles; judgment - on verbs, verbal parts, conjunctions and interjections. As for inferences, their system forms a coherent text (speech). Arno and Anslo traced the relationship between two fundamental levels - logic and grammar. If the first is represented by a categorical system, then the second is divided into general science and private art. Logic gives deep meaning to grammar, and it acts as a superficial (lexical, syntactic, etc.) structure of thought. The life of language is built on this complementarity.

Hypotheses of the origin of language. In the 18th century The topic of the historical development of the language was updated. Philosophers and scientists were clearly not satisfied biblical story O Tower of Babel. How did people learn to speak? Thinkers have put forward a variety of versions of the emergence of language: from onomatopoeia, from involuntary shouts, from a “collective agreement” (J.-J. Rousseau). The most coherent project was proposed by the French philosopher E. Condillac (1714 - 1780). He believed that the initial signs were gestural signs, which at first were only supplemented by sounds. Then sound signs came to the fore and developed from spontaneous cries to controlled articulations. At a late stage sound speech received a written note.

3.2. The formation of scientific linguistics. Many of the ideas of the philosophers were very interesting, permeated with the spirit of historicism, but they were united by one drawback - speculative speculation, ignoring the study of facts. The discovery of Sanskrit by Europeans helped overcome it (W. Jones, 1786). This gave rise to the stage of comparative comparison of European languages ​​with the ancient language of India. The similarity of Sanskrit with Greek and other languages ​​of Europe was obvious and Jones put forward a hypothesis about it as a proto-language. Only in the middle of the 19th century. it was refuted.

Comparative historical linguistics. Germany and Denmark became the center of comparative studies, because here at the turn of the 8th and 19th centuries. scientific centers emerged. In 1816, a German linguist Franz Bopp (1791 - 1867) published a book in which he clearly formulated the principles of the comparative historical method and applied them in the analysis of a number of Indo-European languages. He suggested comparing not whole words, but their component parts: roots and endings. The emphasis on morphology rather than vocabulary has proven promising. Dane Rasmus Rask (1787 - 1832) developed the principle of regularity of correspondences and differentiated classes of vocabulary. Words related to science, education and trade are most often borrowed and are not suitable for comparison. But kinship names, pronouns, and numerals are rooted and meet the goals of comparative studies. The distinction between basic and non-basic vocabulary proved to be a valuable finding.

Another important topic was historical development individual languages ​​and their groups. So, in the "German Grammar" Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) the history of the Germanic languages ​​was described, starting with very ancient forms. Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov (1781-1864) examined Old Church Slavonic writing and revealed the secret of two special letters (nasal vowels), the sound meaning of which had been forgotten.

Each language develops as a whole, expressing the spirit of the people. A German researcher has become a classic of world linguistics Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767 - 1835). He was interested in the nature of human language as such, and his research merged with philosophical reflection. The scientist proposed a scheme of three stages of development related to any language. In the first period, language appears in all its naivety, but not in parts, but all at once as a single and autonomous whole. At the second stage, the structure of the language is improved and this process, like the first, is inaccessible to direct study. At the third stage, a “state of stability” is achieved, after which fundamental changes in the language are impossible. All linguists find languages ​​in this state, which is different for each ethnic form.

Language is far from the deliberate actions of individuals; it represents a spontaneous and independent strength peoples Their national spirit lives in language as a continuous collective activity that dominates all its verbal products. The linguistic element determines people’s cognitive attitude to the world and forms types of thinking. At all levels - sounds, grammar, vocabulary - linguistic forms give matter an ordered structure. Such creativity flows continuously, through all generations of people.

Thus, Humboldt gave linguistics a new ideological dynamic and anticipated a number of promising directions.

Neogrammarists: the history of language takes place in the individual psyche. In the middle of the 19th century. The influence of French positivism reached German science. The strategy of examining facts and banishing philosophy made sweeping generalizations in the style of Humboldt unfashionable. In this vein, the school of neogrammarians was formed. Its head was Hermann Paul (1846 - 1921). His main book, “Principles of the History of Language” (1880), states the leading ideas: rejection of too general questions, empiricism and inductivism, individual psychologism and historicism. There is a clear exaggeration of the individual here: as many individuals as there are separate languages. As a consequence of this, there is a bias towards psychologism; all sounds and writing exist in the minds of people (in “psychic organisms”). Along with the usual comparative historical methods, Paul highlighted introspection, without which it is difficult to fix sound laws. German neogrammarians influenced linguists in other countries. In Russia they were Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov (1848 - 1914), trained in Germany, and Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov (1864 - 1920).

Fundamentals of the Russian linguistic school. It is worth highlighting two Russian-Polish scientists - Nikolai Vladislavovich Krushevsky (1851 - 1887) And Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), beyond the scope of neogrammatism. The first declared the limitations of historicism, which goes back to antiquity, and needs to be studied modern languages, there is an abundance of genuine facts here. Comparison cannot be the main method of linguistics; it is more important to study language as a system of signs (a quarter of a century before F. de Saussure).

Synchrony of language: phoneme and morpheme. Baudouin de Courtenay was in solidarity with his Kazan colleague. Linguistics does not require historicism, but consistent synchronism; psychology needs the help of sociology; only then will the individual be complemented by the social. The scientist criticized word-centrism and introduced new concepts of phoneme and morpheme. A phoneme was understood as an objectively existing, stable mental unit obtained from the pronunciation of the same sound. This distinction between sound and phoneme turned out to be very promising. The morpheme acquired the same property as any independent part of the word - the root and all kinds of affixes. The scientist’s main achievement was synchronous linguistics with the concepts of phoneme and morpheme.

3.3. Structuralism as the basis of classical linguistics. A change in linguistic paradigms was carried out by a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913). From student notes of his lectures, colleagues S. Bally and A. Seshe prepared and published the “Course general linguistics"(1916), which brought the scientist posthumous fame.

Language is social system abstract signs manifested in speech. F. de Saussure proposed new principles that distinguish between language and speech. If speech is the internal property of individuals, then language exists outside of them, forming an objective social reality. The scientist distanced himself from Humboldt's opinion, saying that language is not an activity, it is a historically established structure. It is represented by a system of special signs expressing concepts. These signs are related to all other signs: identification marks, military signals, symbolic rituals, etc., which will form the subject of a future science - “semiology” (semiotics). The linguistic sign is dual and consists of a signified (rational meaning) and a signifier (sensory impression). They complement each other like two sides of a coin.

Opposition between synchrony and diachrony. The scientist developed a diagram of two axes: the axis of simultaneity (synchrony), where phenomena coexisting in time are located, and the axis of sequence (diachrony), where everything happens in succession historical changes. This gives rise to two different linguistic directions. Although pre-Saussurean linguistics took into account the opposition synchrony/diachrony, it did so inconsistently and confusingly. The Swiss researcher raised opposition to a strict principle.

Significance as a functional relationship of one sign to others. Traditional linguistics proceeded from isolated linguistic units: sentences, words, roots and sounds. F. de Saussure proposed a different approach, centered on the concept of “significance”. The point is that any element of language acquires meaning in abstract functional relationships with other elements. Only in the system of some symbolic whole can its part make sense. Let's take the game of chess. The knight is an element of this game and it is significant insofar as it has a set of rules and prohibitions that determine its moves in relation to other pieces. It's the same in language. Signifiers may have very different sensory contents, but signifieds express pure roles in relation to other signifieds. Language unit outside the network of abstract relationships is meaningless. The pattern of significance is the signifier/signified relationship.

So, F. de Saussure's contribution to linguistics is great. If we limit ourselves to a holistic perspective, then it can be called the foundations of structuralism. “A system of abstract signs”, “significance as a functional relationship of sign elements” became the ideological core of the new approach.

Glossematics or Copenhagen (formal) structuralism. The head of this direction is a Danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev (1899 - 1965). He developed the ideas of F. de Saussure and brought them to their logical conclusion. In this he was helped by the principles of neopositivism, where the formal rules of theory construction were placed at the center of the study. Jelmslev set a goal - to build the most general theory language, based on the requirements of mathematical logic. By and large, there are three of them: consistency, completeness and simplicity. They make it possible to construct linguistics independently of linguistic and speech specifics in the form of a special calculus. And yet such a theory is “empirical”, because it does not involve a priori provisions of an extra-linguistic nature. Hjelmslev replaced “signifier” with the term “plane of expression”, and “signified” with “plane of content”. If for Saussure the units of language were signs and only them, then he developed “non-sign figures” - phonemes, roots and affixes. If for the first the opposition “signifier/signified” had a relationship to reality, then for Hjelmslev it disappeared. Consistent formalization eliminated phonetics and semantics, reducing glossematics to an algebraic game, very far from real life language.

Functional structuralism of the Prague Linguistic Circle. The school was organized by a Czech researcher Vilém Mathesius (1882 - 1945), Russian emigrants became carriers of ideas Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890 - 1938) and Roman Osipovich Yakobson (1896 - 1982). Here the ideas of F. de Saussure and I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay intersected, giving new shoots. All members of the circle recognized that the main advantage of the latter was the introduction of the concept of function into linguistics, and Saussure's contribution was expressed in the concept of linguistic structure. They intended to develop these two approaches. In the book “Fundamentals of Phonology” Trubetskoy clearly distinguished between phonetics and phonology. If the first studies the sound side of speech, then the second studies all possible combinations of distinctive elements and the rules of their relationships. In phonology, instead of a psychological one, a functional criterion was put forward: the participation or non-participation of certain features in the discrimination of meaning. The basic unit of phonology was recognized as the phoneme, which functions through sound opposition. This aspect became Trubetskoy’s most important contribution.

So, until the 17th century. The development of linguistics was very slow. In modern times there was an acceleration and, starting from the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries, the change and improvement of theoretical hypotheses took on a rapid and continuous character. There are many national schools, and F. de Saussure, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N. S. Trubetskoy and a number of other scientists became the pinnacles of classical linguistics.