International legal protection of flora and fauna. The influence of anthropogenic factors on the ecological situation International conservation of flora and fauna

INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION.

@ O.V. Mosin.

INTRODUCTION

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND EVOLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT.

Millennium historical evolution all and all exchanges and relations between tribes, peoples, countries, cultures led to the emergence of the phenomenon of international life (IL), formed its structure, basic components, functional and technological internal connections, interdependencies with the external environment for the phenomenon (natural-physical complex, internal the world of subjects of international life; the sphere of his immediate habitat created by man himself). The emergence of each subsequent qualitative level of international life led to its complication, without canceling the levels of historically earlier ones. As a result, four specific time and content layers, each of which is represented in modern international life and influences her.

Real time , within the absolute modulus of duration, and within specific cross-border interactions stand out international life (all and all interactions beyond national borders in general), international politics(the entire political part of such interactions) and global politics (that part of the political part of cross-border interactions that has global significance in a given era, period).

On a social time scale (up to three absolute modules duration) based on the MF and the named types of transboundary interactions, relatively stable international relationships , including interstate relations (between special sovereign subjects) and their political part, cast in a certain period inherent international order .

Finally, on a historical time scale , beyond the life of three successive generations of people (more than three absolute modules of duration), specific interactions and longer processes and relationships that have their own logic are formed The World History (the entire set of events, phenomena and processes in the world) and world development (that part of this totality that leads to and is expressed in qualitative changes and therefore is not distributed equally throughout the world, but is concentrated, especially initially, in certain centers of development).

Over the same millennia, in the environment of international life, it developed natural-biological complex ; the changes that actually took place in it were caused, as a rule, by natural causes, and only in some cases by human activity (deforestation ). The central and most important link in the evolution of the environment of international life for dozens of centuries remained the subjects of MF and their inner world . From the collapse of clan and inter-tribal relations to civil society and political democracy; from hunting and primitive agriculture to the industrial revolution: from the herd instinct to the heights of science, culture, self-knowledge - these are the scale of this evolution, the length of its path, the greatness of the results.

XX century, especially its second half, brought revolutionary quality changes in all aspects of human life, its scale, organization and, as a consequence, into international life. The human-created habitat, and then the natural-physical complex, underwent no less impressive evolution. The reverse impact of the results of this evolution on the MF and its main components is only just beginning to appear.

And finally, the beginning of the 20th century. marked by the emergence the fourth qualitative milestone in the historical evolution of the phenomenon international life , a sharp expansion of the possibilities, scales and limits of activity available to man (in creation and destruction). Internationalization the main directions, types of human and social life became from the end of the 19th century. and the form of manifestation of accumulated changes, and the mechanism for their implementation, and their most powerful accelerator.

This work is devoted to the problem of international environmental protection.

CHAPTER 1. NATURE UNDER THE PROTECTION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

Environmental protection is an international challenge

Pollution of the atmosphere, water, soil, and depletion of natural resources affect the interests of all people living on earth. Eliminating the “overloads” to which humans subject nature is, in some cases, no longer within the power of individual states and can only be carried out on the basis of broad international cooperation. And although environmental protection within the territory of states is primarily a matter for these states themselves, the coordination of their efforts, the interaction of their economic, scientific and technical potentials can significantly expand the capabilities and means available to them and solve ecological problems that are beyond the power of one or more states to solve." ^ That is why environmental problems have taken a prominent place in modern international relations; they are discussed at various world forums, including the UN.

Scientists argue that solving problems of environmental conservation requires the creation of some kind of “one world power”, or “world government”. Ensuring collective international cooperation of all states, regardless of their social system, in the matter of nature conservation is possible only on the basis of international agreements between them, concluded in accordance with the basic principles of modern international law, first of all, the principles of respect for the sovereignty and equality of states and non-interference in their internal affairs.

Environmental protection- this is a problem not only of science and technology. It is also an economic, social and political-legal problem. The development of technology uncontrolled by law, especially in the military field, can lead to irreparable negative consequences here. The arms race and testing of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction pose a particular danger in this regard. In particular, the damage caused to flora and fauna by land-based nuclear explosions is enormous. According to a special commission that studied the consequences of testing nuclear weapons at a test site in the desert of Nevada (USA), each of the nuclear explosions, depending on its power, completely destroyed life on an area from 73 to 204 hectares. Irreparable damage was caused to the ecological balance in the area of ​​the Bikini and Enewetak atolls in the Pacific Ocean, where after the Second World War the United States carried out 66 tests of atomic and hydrogen weapons.

Tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, which are still being carried out by some countries, disfigure the appearance of our lands and lead to dangerous contamination of the air with radioactive substances. Among the states that do not want to take into account the interests of protecting nature and humanity are France, South Africa, Israel, etc. The press reported that Israel and South Africa carried out a nuclear explosion over the South Atlantic region in 1979.

The disastrous consequences of such tests are described in the report of the UN Special Committee on Environmental Protection. The explosion of one nuclear charge with a capacity of 10 thousand tons of TNT, the report states, causes complete or significant destruction of vegetation on an area from 400 to 1300 hectares. And the explosion of a neutron bomb with a power of 1 thousand tons in TNT equivalent at an altitude of 200 m can destroy microorganisms on an area of ​​40 hectares, insects on an area of ​​100 hectares, plants on an area of ​​330 hectares, amphibians and reptiles on an area of ​​350 hectares, and many mammals and birds - on an area of ​​490 hectares.

There are other ways to spread radioactive materials, such as by spraying. As a result of the continuous use of radio-electronic radiation (including ultrashort radio waves, microwaves, etc.) on a large scale for the maintenance of military installations, the environment becomes infected with a kind of “electronic smog.” Tests of other types of weapons of mass destruction, in particular chemical weapons in the form of binary (two-chamber) projectiles, in which, upon explosion, a powerful nerve gas is formed from relatively harmless components contained in separate chambers, have a negative impact on the environment. Manufacturing and storing binary projectiles is considered safer than projectiles containing pure toxic substances. At the same time, as American experts admit, the leakage of these substances (and over the past 13 years there have been about a thousand cases of such leakages) has already caused symptoms of poisoning in the population of the areas where these incidents occurred.

A significant environmental problem has been caused by the uncontrolled burial of radioactive and toxic chemical waste underground and at the bottom of the ocean, practiced by concerns in capitalist countries. About 50 thousand tons of radioactive waste have now accumulated off the coast of Ireland alone. The United States is also trying to make the bottom of the Pacific Ocean near the island of Guam a site for mass burial of such waste. This waste, packaged in special containers, accumulates in depressions of the ocean floor, which are extremely seismically unstable, so the danger of destruction of such containers there is especially great. Any damage to them will cause intense contamination of ocean waters.

But the greatest damage to the natural environment is, of course, caused by wars, during which both flora and fauna are destroyed everywhere. Moreover, if previously the harm caused to nature was, as it were, a side effect of wars, then during the war that the United States waged in Indochina, environmental destruction for the first time in human history became an essential component of the criminal military strategy of the aggressor state. The US Army used various means, which destroyed vegetation cover over vast territories in order to deprive the enemy of natural shelters, freedom of movement, as well as sources of food and other supplies. Among these means were chemical poisonous substances that destroy vegetation (55 thousand tons of herbicides), massive and constant bombing, and the widespread use of heavy bulldozers (the so-called Roman plows). The consequences of the war were especially severe for South Vietnam, which accounted for about 71% of all high-explosive bombs, almost all herbicides and all operations to “clear”, or rather, destroy the jungle where they were based. partisan detachments. Agricultural crops were destroyed everywhere and indiscriminately. This was the “scorched earth” tactic - the deliberate and systematic destruction of an animal by the American aggressor and flora Indochina. The damage caused by the United States to the flora and fauna of Indochina is so enormous that it still has a detrimental effect on the economies of the countries in this region.

As we see, the preservation of nature and the environment is inextricably linked with the preservation of peace on Earth. This idea is emphasized in the UN General Assembly resolution “On the historical responsibility of states for preserving the nature of the Earth for the present and future generations», adopted at its XXXVI session in 1981 on the initiative of the USSR, as well as in the World Charter for Nature proclaimed at the XXXVII session of the UN General Assembly in 1982. For the first time in the practice of international relations, they reveal the organic connection between preserving the environment, preserving peace on Earth and curbing the arms race.

International treaties aimed at limiting the arms race and disarmament are of great importance in this regard. Among them Moscow Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Underwater; Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons; Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) Weapons and on Their Destruction; Treaty on the Prohibition of the Placement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Types of Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Bottom of the Seas and Oceans and in Their Subsoil; Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Impact Techniques , and etc.

Concern for preserving the environment also permeates other international proposals in the field of disarmament and ending the arms race: a complete ban on nuclear weapons testing, including underground; on the ban on the neutron bomb; on the prohibition of chemical weapons and the destruction of their stockpiles, etc. All these international treaties, both existing and still in the process of development, can serve as a good basis for broad international cooperation in the field of environmental protection, creating the preconditions for the gradual restoration of ecological balance in nature, disturbed by wars, barbaric attitude towards nature in many countries, pollution of the waters of the World Ocean and atmospheric air various wastes, etc.

Habitat for Humanity- a very delicate and sensitive organism to all external influences. Often attempts to solve one or another environmental problem cause side problems. Therefore, specific measures to preserve the Earth’s natural resources must be taken on the basis of deep scientific analysis and the efforts of many states. This cannot be done without international agreements and international law.

One of the most important tasks of international nature conservation is the protection of the world's fauna: wild animals, mammals, fish and birds. These facts are alarming. Over the past two millennia, almost 200 species of animals and birds have disappeared from the face of the earth, more than half of them during the 19th and 20th centuries. If the process of destruction of fauna is not stopped, then a very sad fate awaits about a thousand more species of rare and endangered wild animals. This is largely “facilitated” by the predatory attitude of capitalist monopolies towards nature, their pursuit of profit, and the anarchy inherent in the capitalist mode of production.

Currently, there are more than 200 multilateral and bilateral international treaties that regulate the conservation, study and use of fauna and flora. The peculiarity of these agreements is that their participants are not only states, but also non-governmental international organizations. This is, for example, the tripartite agreement concluded in 1964 between Ecuador, UNESCO and the Charles Darwin Federation on measures to protect the biological communities of the Galapagos archipelago . In addition, many resolutions, recommendations and other documents on nature conservation have been adopted by various international organizations - intergovernmental and public, such as International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Nature conservation is also carried out by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the International Agency for Atomic Energy (IAEA), Inter-Parliamentary Union, World Peace Council and other representative international forums.

After many years of painstaking work, in which Soviet scientists also took an active part, a international red book, where those of our “little brothers” who need help in the first place are included. And now there are many of them: approximately 200 species of fish, 40 amphibians, about 100 reptiles, more than 250 bird species and 300 mammals.

International treaties

The main source of legally binding rules in this area are international treaties between states. Apart from individual cases of concluding agreements on the protection of rare breeds of animals and birds in the distant past, as, for example, in ancient China, then the first international agreements for the purpose of preserving individual representatives of the fauna began to be concluded at the end of the last - beginning of this century. These were Treaty for the Regulation of Salmon Fisheries in the Rhine Basin (1886). International Convention for the Conservation of Birds Useful to Agriculture (1902), Convention concerning Fisheries on the Waters of the Danube and Prut (1907), Convention for the Conservation of Seals in the North Pacific Ocean (1911), Treaty between England and Nicaragua on sea ​​turtle fishery (1916), Convention on the regulation of fishing of sea and river flounder in the Baltic Sea region (1929), etc. During the same period, international conventions were concluded on plant protection (1881), on pest control vineyards phylloxera (1889) and etc.

Regional agreements

In the post-war years, along with an increase in the number of agreements of this kind, there was a growing tendency to conclude international treaties for various regions of the planet: Africa, America, Europe, Antarctica, and various regions of the World Ocean. These are the Convention for the Conservation of the Fauna and Flora of Africa; Convention for the Protection of Nature and the Conservation of Fauna and Flora of the Western Hemisphere; Coordinated measures to protect the fauna and flora of Antarctica, etc.

From the point of view of the interests of nature conservation, international legal norms must ensure a balance between that part of the animals that is removed from the population (i.e., a given species of animal) when they are hunted, and the ability of such a population to reproduce naturally. International agreements take into account: scientific principles of nature conservation, i.e. the dynamics of populations, reproduction and development of organisms; factors of distribution, migration and behavior of animals; patterns of natural mortality and the impact of fishing; the interdependence of all types of living beings and their relationship with a changing habitat - flora, soil, air, solar radiation, etc. Based on all this scientific data, agreements create rules on the establishment of absolute and partial natural reserves, on providing complete and limited protection to certain animal species and flora; they prohibit certain methods of hunting wild animals, regulate their export outside the designated area, trade in them and their products within the area, etc.

It is known what enormous damage was caused to the fauna and flora of the African continent European colonization. Colonizers burned forests, fenced off pastures and water sources, and massacred wild animals under the pretext of protecting crops from pests and infecting livestock with sleeping sickness. For the sake of making profits from trading ivory and these unique animals were barbarously exterminated with the horn of rhinoceroses. All this led to a sharp reduction and even extinction of some valuable animals of the African fauna in certain areas or even on the entire continent already in the first quarter of the 20th century. Only in 1933, under the influence of the international scientific community, the colonial powers that then dominated Africa were forced to conclude an international convention for the protection of the fauna and flora of Africa. This convention also applies to the islands of Madagascar and Zanzibar.

The Convention considers the main method of nature conservation to be the creation of reserves with varying degrees of protection for animals and plants and different legal status: national parks, nature reserves with a strict regime, ordinary and special reserves. In these territories, hunting, capturing or shooting animals, collecting botanical collections or destroying flora is prohibited or limited. However, with the exception of the obligations to organize ordinary reserves, all other provisions. The conventions are purely advisory in nature, which reduces their effectiveness.

In order to establish special protection for animals that were most endangered, they were divided into two classes. Class “A” included 20 species of animals and birds, hunting of which was allowed only with special permission from the highest authorities and only for scientific purposes. Animals included in this class were all subspecies of gorillas, lemurs of Madagascar, aardwolf, great black antelope, Atlas red deer, pygmy hippopotamus, mountain zebra, wild ass, white rhinoceros, African elephant and others, and of birds - shoebill, bald ibis and white-breasted guinea fowl. For 22 species of animals and birds included in class “B”, hunting was permitted under special licenses issued for a certain time of year and for a certain territory. These animals and birds included chimpanzee, giraffe, wildebeest, black rhinoceros, African elephant (if the weight of each tusk exceeds 5 kg), pangolin, marabou, hornbill, ostrich, secretary bird, egret, etc.

However, the effectiveness of the 1933 Convention decreased due to the fact that some African territories were removed from its scope. For example, England removed the Gambia from the provisions of the Convention on Nature Reserves; Belgium has not adopted provisions for the protection of elephants in the Congo; Republic of South Africa - on the protection of wolves, mountain zebras and rhinoceros in South-West Africa. National legislation adopted in accordance with the Convention has proven to be ineffective. Attempts to end the smuggling trade in ivory and rhino horn have failed. This was explained by the special rule of the Convention that all animals found dead are the property of the government of the corresponding African territory, i.e. England, France, Belgium and other colonial powers that divided Africa at the end of the last century. Such a clause only stimulated the extermination of animals. As a result, herds of African elephants, rhinoceroses, and wildebeest continued to melt. Trade in rhinoceros horn, ivory, and wildebeest tails flourished, and the fashion in Western Europe and the United States for coats made from the skins of jaguars, leopards, cheetahs and other spotted cats threatened the complete destruction of these animals. Urgent international legal measures also needed to be taken to protect lowland gorillas, which were being intensively captured throughout their habitat.

The acquisition of independence by African states and the liquidation of colonial empires in Africa open up ample opportunities for the peoples of this long-suffering continent to transform it into a continent of abundance, where the kingdom of nature will be combined with the rise of the economy, well-being and culture of its people. Achieving this is not easy, but important steps have already been taken. Thus, at the first Inter-African Conference on Nature Conservation in Arusha (Tanzania, 1961), African states expressed their firm determination to become true masters of their rich fauna and flora. In 1963, they adopted a special Declaration on the Conservation of African Nature, in which they solemnly declared their commitment to the principles of conserving the continent's natural resources and assumed responsibility to the people of Africa for the conservation of African nature through its rational use. It was decided to revise the 1933 Convention as not meeting the new conditions. After long and complex negotiations, on September 15, 1968, the heads of 38 African states and governments signed the new African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

The new convention established the common approach of the liberated African states - members of the Organization of African Unity. (OAU) to the conservation, rational use and development of flora, fauna, soil and water resources on the basis of their planned integrated involvement in economic circulation. The Convention recognizes the inextricable link between the protection, use and development of Africa's renewable natural resources in accordance with scientific principles and with due regard to the best interests of peoples. The list of animals under special protection has increased. Class “A” of this list, in contrast to the provisions of the 1933 Convention, already included 75 species and subspecies of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish, including: chimpanzees, pelicans, flamingos, sea turtles, blind fish, etc. ; in class “B” - 93 species, among them: lion, leopard, crocodiles and other animals that were not protected by the 1933 Convention. The significance of the new rules is especially great considering that over the past 50 years the number of large game in Africa has decreased by 50 once. In accordance with the convention, young African states have adopted new hunting and environmental legislation, creating extensive reserves and national parks wildlife(for example, world-famous parks in Kenya and Tanzania), work on education and propaganda in the field of nature conservation, create special environmental bodies,

The states of the American continent also need to establish genuine international cooperation in nature conservation. Although most of them gained independence in the last century, many to this day remain in the networks of economic dependence on US imperialism and Western monopolies. This could not but affect the solution of problems related to nature conservation. Essentially, it was not protected, but was subjected to predatory destruction to please foreign entrepreneurs. True, back in 1940, the Convention for the Protection of Nature and the Conservation of Fauna and Flora of the Western Hemisphere was signed in Washington. However, most of its decisions are of a formal, declarative nature. The Convention, for example, does not oblige, but only calls on states to adopt laws to protect endangered animals and plants, migratory birds, and rare species of fauna and flora. The list of these species subject to full protection provided for therein was never made.

The destruction of nature on the American continent continues. A striking example of this is the state of the natural resources of the Amazon. This is the name of a vast area of ​​the Amazon River basin with an area of ​​2 million square meters. miles, within which eight countries of South America are located. This is a storehouse of valuable minerals, a region with unique flora and fauna. But, if radical measures are not adopted to limit the predatory exploitation of the natural resources of this region by Western transnational corporations, it is in danger of turning into a lifeless desert in a few years. One of these measures is the conclusion of a special agreement in this area.

IN last years many countries Latin America strive to break free from US control in this matter and create their own international legal system of nature conservation in the region, which would be based on equal cooperation of the Latin American states themselves in the preservation and development of their natural resources, without the interference of imperialist powers and monopolies, first of all USA.

Nations also face serious problems in the field of nature conservation South-East Asia and the Pacific Basin. The nature of this region suffered great damage as a result of the long-term rule of European, American and Japanese colonialists, as well as the wars they waged. Demands to implement nature conservation measures here are constantly heard at regularly convened Pacific scientific congresses, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and other forums. IUCN developed a special project on nature conservation in Southeast Asia, and in 1965 a conference on this issue was held in Bangkok (Thailand). However, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, China, Burma, Kampuchea and some other countries in the region did not take part in it. The conference resolution on the need to create a regional organization for nature conservation in Southeast Asia remained unimplemented. Meanwhile, the interests of the peoples of these countries urgently require coordinated measures for the comprehensive protection of their natural resources.

The conclusion of special agreements in this area between all states of the region, regardless of their social or political system, opens the way for Asian countries to make their valuable contribution to the conservation of the Earth's nature.

Special human care requires the protection of the fauna and flora of the polar regions of our planet - the Antarctic and Arctic, which are especially sensitive to human activity. Antarctica, or the South Polar Region, and the sixth continent located within it - Antarctica - is the coldest region of our planet and at the same time the richest treasury of biological resources of all mankind. The living resources of Antarctica are incredibly diverse: whales, seals, fish, krill, and birds live there. Many of their species exist only here. Their unregulated extraction could lead to the destruction of the entire Antarctic ecological system. Therefore, it is very important to place it under strict international legal protection. Currently, some species of local animals are already protected by international conventions.

Thus, Antarctic whales are protected by the International Whaling Convention of 1946. This convention, although formally extends to the entire World Ocean, is practically applied primarily to Antarctica, since Antarctica's share in the world's whale catch is over 90%. Enormous reserves of whales in Antarctica as a result of their unlimited fishing in the 20th century. have decreased significantly, so the main objective Convention is to bring the whale population to its highest level. Unfortunately, this goal has not yet been achieved due to a number of shortcomings of the convention. Currently, a draft of a new convention has been developed, which should replace the current one and become an effective legal means of protecting whales.

The international Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals of 1972 applies to seals. In accordance with it, four of the six species of seals living here are classified as protected, and fishing for the rest is limited. Their production should not exceed the optimal permissible level. The scope of the convention covers all seas south of 60° south latitude.

In addition to whales and seals, Antarctica also contains other fauna: Antarctic krill, rich in protein, rare species of birds that live only here (for example, penguins), as well as significant fish stocks in the Antarctic seas. All of them need international legal protection.

Since the Antarctic nature is extremely fragile and sensitive to human activity, states, in order to protect it and maintain ecological balance, decide to declare a moratorium (postponed indefinitely) on industrial exploration and development of Antarctic mineral resources. By the way, there is still evidence of the presence of significant mineral reserves here that are of interest for industrial development, although the possibility of discovering some of their reserves, primarily oil and gas, cannot be ruled out.

An important milestone in the protection of Antarctic nature was the international Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Resources, adopted in 1980 at a conference in Canberra (Australia) with the active participation of the Soviet Union. Among marine living resources, this act includes populations of fin fish, molluscs, crustaceans and all other species of living organisms, including birds, found south of the Antarctic Convergence, i.e., the boundaries between the cold Antarctic waters and the warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans . The Convention aims to prevent any harvested population from declining to levels below those that ensure its sustainable replenishment.

The new convention should become a reliable means of ensuring the safety of Antarctic marine fauna and thus an important element in maintaining the overall ecological balance on our planet. The nature of another polar region - the Arctic - requires the adoption of effective legal protection measures. Economic development of the Arctic began much earlier than the development of Antarctica. In addition, the indigenous peoples of the Far North have long hunted fish, whales, seals, walruses, polar bears, ungulates, fur-bearing animals, and birds. Until the 50s, there was no international legal regulation and protection of Arctic fauna. This had a negative impact on the stocks of valuable animals, especially the bowhead whale, harp seal, hooded seal, walrus, polar bear and wild reindeer. To prevent the extinction of these valuable species of polar animals, the states whose territories adjoin the Arctic, and primarily the USSR, adopted legislation regulating the hunting of polar bears, walruses, seals, wild reindeer, foxes, arctic foxes, etc. In the USSR, by a special government decree It has been established that the capture of polar bears is allowed only for zoos with special permits. Fishing for walrus and wild reindeer is prohibited everywhere, with the exception of some autonomous okrugs and northern regions of Yakutia, where special permits from local Soviets are required to harvest these animals. Special permits are also required for eider fishing.

But, as life has shown, unilateral measures by states are not enough here either. The fact is that some of the most valuable species of marine animals in the Arctic make long and large migrations and spend almost their entire lives in the open sea (for example, whales) or on drifting ice in different areas of the Arctic (walruses, seals and polar bears). Therefore, for their effective protection it is necessary to unite the efforts of neighboring states.

In 1957, the Soviet Union, following the call of the IUCN, was the first to conclude an Agreement with Norway on measures to regulate seal fishing Atlantic Ocean. “The agreement provides for the prohibition of the hunting of bowhead whales, crested whales and walruses in the Greenland, Norwegian and Barents seas. Following this agreement, in 1963, the states party to the international Convention on Fisheries in the North-West Atlantic Ocean, including the USSR, USA, Norway , Poland, Canada and others, have extended its effect to the harp seal and seals.

In 1973, the USSR, USA, Denmark, Canada and Norway signed an Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears. The agreement prohibited their extraction (hunting, shooting and trapping), except in cases where it is carried out for genuine scientific purposes. The participating states are implementing national research programs for the study of the polar bear, in particular research on its conservation and rational use. On December 4, 1975, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a special resolution “On measures to ensure the implementation of the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears of November 15, 1973,” providing for the adoption of effective measures for its implementation.

Some measures to protect the fauna and flora of the high-latitude areas of the Arctic are provided for by the 1946 Convention on the Regulation of Whaling, the 1950 Bird Convention, the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (which strictly regulates the sale of and the purchase, and consequently the removal from the natural environment, of more than 600 species of vertebrate animals), as well as those treaties that prohibit sea pollution with various industrial wastes and other materials (oil, radioactive waste, etc.).

Thus, nature protection is carried out both by regional international treaties covering a certain geographical area (Africa, America, the Arctic, Antarctic, etc.), and by treaties of a general nature. In the latter case, treaties are usually aimed at protecting one or more specific species of fauna or flora (whaling conventions, bird conservation conventions, plant protection conventions, etc.). For example, the 1950 Convention for the Conservation of Birds will protect all species of wild birds in their natural habitat, including migratory birds, not only from complete extermination, but also from reduction in numbers. States pledged to protect all birds, as well as their nests, eggs and chicks during the breeding season, ban spring hunting of migratory birds, provide year-round protection for endangered birds and birds of scientific interest, and end the mass destruction and trapping of man's feathered friends. Unfortunately, a number of capitalist states (England, Italy, Norway, Germany, France, etc.) have not ratified this convention. This may negatively affect the solution to the issue of bird protection, which should be carried out through the joint efforts of all states.

The international Plant Protection Convention of 1951 applies to the flora of the earth, in which more than 50 states participate. It is known, however, that the problems of the emergence and spread of plant pests and diseases are, as a rule, regional in nature, and their solution depends on the coordinated actions of the countries of a certain geographical area. Therefore, when concluding the 1951 Convention, states provided for the possibility of adopting additional regional agreements to develop its goals and principles, and establishing international organizations for plant protection. Such agreements have been concluded between the states of Europe, America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. and the Pacific Basin. The Soviet Union concluded bilateral conventions on quarantine and plant protection with many countries, including the GDR, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, North Korea, Iran, Afghanistan, etc. As a result of such cooperation in Iran and Afghanistan, for example, the area , infested with locusts.

Special agreements on cooperation in the field of environmental protection were concluded by the Soviet Union in the 70s with the USA, England, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Finland, Sweden, Canada, Japan and other countries. For example, in 1976, the USSR and the USA concluded a convention on the protection of migratory birds and their habitats. The Soviet-Canadian communique of 1971 specifically noted the importance of bilateral cooperation on environmental issues in the Arctic in order to prevent pollution of the waters of the Arctic regions and take other measures aimed at maintaining the natural balance in them.

In the implementation of international cooperation between states to protect nature, everything big role played by the UN and its specialized agencies - FAO, WHO, UNESCO, etc. In 1972, a special UN conference on the human environment was held in Stockholm. The Conference adopted a Declaration on the Environment and an Action Plan in this area. The Declaration emphasizes that the growing number of environmental problems requires widespread cooperation among states and action by international organizations in the common interests of humanity. The Declaration called on governments and peoples to make joint efforts to preserve and improve the human environment. It enshrines one of the fundamental international legal principles of environmental protection - the exercise by states of sovereign rights to use their natural resources in such a way as not to cause economic damage to other states or international territories. The latter, as already mentioned, include the Antarctic spaces, waters open sea, the airspace above them and outer space. This provision also applies to international rivers, i.e. rivers crossing several states and having navigable access to the sea (Danube, Rhine, Amazon, Niger, etc.) and to border rivers and lakes (Amur, Kura, Great lakes of the USA and Canada, a number of lakes in Africa, etc.).

Environmental protection issues occupy a significant place in the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975. In the section devoted to cooperation in the field of economics, science and technology, it is noted that many problems of protecting and improving the environment, rational use of natural resources can be effectively resolved only through close international cooperation. An important element of such cooperation is the promotion of the progressive development, codification and application of international law as one of the important means of preserving and improving the human environment.

The Soviet Union took the initiative to hold pan-European meetings in this area. The first pan-European meeting on environmental issues took place in Geneva in November 1971. It focused on the problems of creating and implementing waste-free technology, the transfer of air pollutants across national borders (transboundary transport), protection and rational use of water resources, protection of flora and fauna. During the Geneva meeting, states, including the USSR, concluded the Convention on Transboundary Air Pollution, the purpose of which is to reduce or prevent this phenomenon. In addition, they adopted a declaration on waste-free technology. As a follow-up to the Geneva meeting in 1980, states adopted a declaration on policies for preventing and combating pollution of water resources, including transboundary pollution. These and other pan-European meetings with the participation of the USSR, the USA and Canada undoubtedly made a useful contribution to the development of the international legal framework for cooperation on environmental protection in the spirit of the Helsinki agreements.

Among global problems environmental protection special meaning has the prevention of sea pollution. As already noted, this issue was highlighted at the 1972 Stockholm Environment Conference. And this is no coincidence. The ocean is the cradle of life, and life on the continents depends on its condition. However, scientific and technological progress has created many sources of ocean pollution: oil, coastal sewage and industrial waste, radioactive waste, etc. "All this put on the agenda the issue of taking urgent measures for international marine protection (birth. One of the first such measures There was the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil of 1954, which was replaced by a more comprehensive convention on the same subject adopted in 1973. In 1972, a convention on the prevention of marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other materials, including radioactive waste, was adopted. About 50 states participate in the convention, including the USSR.In addition, issues of protecting the marine environment from radioactive contamination are reflected in other universal conventions: the Brussels Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships of 1963, the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage of 1963 ., finally, the Convention on the Law of the Sea of ​​1982. In certain regions of the World Ocean there are special conventions on these issues: Agreement on cooperation in combating oil pollution of the North Sea waters of 1969, Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area of ​​1973. , Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, 1976, etc.

CHAPTER 2. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

Concept of international environmental law

International environmental law is a set of principles and norms of international law governing the relations of its subjects in the field of environmental protection and rational use of its resources . In Russian literature the name is more common "international environmental law". Term "environmental law"seems preferable only due to its international use. S. V. Vinogradov, O. S. Kolbasov, A. S. Timoshenko, V. A. Chichvarin are known for research in this area.

Nowadays, international environmental protection comes to the fore. The consequences of insufficient attention to the problem can be catastrophic. This is not just about the well-being of humanity, but about its survival. What is especially alarming is that the degradation of the natural environment may be irreversible. Pollution of the world's oceans harms human health and fish stocks. Interregional projects for the construction of dams, dams, canals, and drainage of swamps lead to the degradation of the world's farmland, drought and soil erosion in many countries of the world. Hence malnutrition, hunger, disease. Air pollution is increasingly damaging the health of people on our planet. Massive destruction of forests negatively affects the planet's climate and reduces biodiversity and the gene pool. A serious health threat is the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects against harmful radiation from the sun. Leads to catastrophic changes in the Earth's climate" Greenhouse effect", i.e. global warming as a result of rising emissions carbon dioxide in atmosphere. The irrational use of mineral and living resources leads to their depletion, which again poses the problem of human survival. Finally, accidents at enterprises associated with the release of radioactive and toxic substances into the atmosphere, not to mention the testing of nuclear weapons, cause enormous damage to human health and nature. Suffice it to recall the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant and at an American chemical plant in India. Armed conflicts cause great damage to the environment, as evidenced by the experience of the wars in Vietnam, Kampuchea, Yugoslavia, the Persian Gulf, in particular, the war in Iraq.

The position of states with regard to international environmental protection varies. In developing countries, environmental problems can undermine the success of the development process, and the means to change the situation are lacking. In the most developed countries The current consumption system leads to such a depletion of resources not only in our own countries, but also in other countries, which poses a threat to future development throughout the world. This demonstrates that international environmental protection concerns all aspects of social development and is vital for all countries, regardless of their level of development. Therefore, such protection should become an element of the international policy of any state. Since national parts of the environment form a single global system, its protection should become one of the main goals of international cooperation and an integral element of the concept of international security. In a 1991 resolution, the UN General Assembly indicated the importance of peace for nature conservation and noted the inverse relationship - nature conservation contributes to strengthening peace by ensuring the proper use of natural resources.

All of the above stimulates the dynamic development of international environmental law. A noteworthy feature of this development is the large role of the public and the media. Many international acts in the field of international environmental protection are adopted by governments. Mass movements in defense of nature and various green parties are becoming increasingly influential.

The position of governments is explained by differences in interests. International environmental protection is very expensive. It negatively affects the competitiveness of goods. Activities on their territory do not prevent transboundary pollution. For example, Russian factories on the Kola Peninsula are causing damage to the Norwegian environment. In 1996, Russia entered into an agreement for Norway to finance the installation of filters at a metallurgical plant on the Kola Peninsula. In general, an international problem can only be solved on a global scale, and this requires enormous funds.

International environmental law began to take shape as customary law, first of all, this concerns its norms and principles. This is how the basic principle of international environmental law was established - the principle of not causing harm to the nature of another state by actions carried out on its own territory . The most general principle - the principle of environmental protection . Formation in progress the principle of responsibility for causing harm to the nature of another state . I would especially like to note cardinal principle , which was formulated in the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 as follows: “Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and proper living conditions, to an environment of such quality that makes it possible to live with dignity and prosperity.”

International environmental law is closely related not only to human rights, but also to other branches of international law. It should be emphasized that environmental protection is principle also of maritime and space law . The International Labor Organization pays significant attention to the protection of workers from polluted environments; for example, in 1977 it adopted the Convention for the Protection of Workers against Occupational Hazards from Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration.

IN general process In the formation of customary norms of international environmental law, an important role belongs to resolutions of international organizations and conferences that pave the way for positive law. As an example, I will point to such acts of the UN General Assembly as the 1980 resolution. "On the historical responsibility of states for preserving the nature of the Earth for present and future generations" and the World Charter for Nature of 1982.

An important source of international environmental law are treaties. In recent years, a whole range of universal conventions in this area have been adopted, which give an idea of ​​the subject matter of this branch of international law. First of all, this Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Impact on the Natural Environment of 1977, as well as the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals of 1979, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora endangered, 1973, UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972

The leading role in the development of international environmental law belongs to international organizations. The UN occupies a special place. Fundamental resolutions of the General Assembly have already been noted earlier. The Economic and Social Council is constantly involved in environmental issues; an important role belongs to other organizations of the UN system, as well as its regional commissions. In their field they develop standards and principles for environmental protection United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UNESCO, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). There is a special UN Environment Program (UNEP ), which practically constitutes an international organization, although legally it is a subsidiary body created by a resolution of the General Assembly. UNEP has a primary role in promoting the development of international environmental law. Within its framework, the foundations of this right are being developed and the preparation of conventions is being initiated.

Regional organizations play a significant role. Environmental protection is one of the main objectives OSCE. Within its framework, a number of conventional acts and a number of decisions in this area have been adopted.

Cooperation within the CIS is expected to play a significant role in protecting the environment. This task is set by the CIS Charter and confirmed by many other acts. The 1996 agreement between Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia obliges to increase "cooperation in the field of environmental protection, including the development and adoption of common environmental safety standards" . The parties “take joint measures to prevent and eliminate the consequences of accidents, natural disasters, nuclear and environmental disasters” (Article 9). The above provisions give an idea of ​​how the principle of environmental protection is understood in the relations between the CIS countries.

In implementation of the principle in 1992, the CIS countries concluded Agreement on cooperation in the field of ecology and environmental protection. Based on the Agreement, the Interstate Environmental Council was established, and under it the Interstate Environmental Fund. The task of the Council is to coordinate cooperation between states in the field of nature conservation and to prepare relevant regulations. The fund is intended to finance interstate programs, assistance in eliminating environmental emergencies, as well as project and research work in the field of environmental protection.

Protection of various types of environment

Marine Wednesday one of the first to become an object of protection. The relevant provisions are contained in the general conventions on the law of the sea. Particular attention is paid to combating oil pollution. The first environmental universal convention is devoted to this problem - London Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil 1954 It banned the discharge of oil and oil-water mixtures from ships: After a number of accidents with tankers, new conventions were adopted. Brussels Convention on Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969 ., provided coastal states with very broad powers, including the right to destroy the ship and cargo in the event of a threat of serious pollution of the coast and coastal waters. The Convention paved the way for the fight against marine pollution and other substances in similar cases (Protocol 1973).

Naturally, the question of compensation for damage caused by oil pollution arose. It refers to Brussels Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 It established absolute, i.e., independent of fault, liability of shipowners, but at the same time limited its scope, albeit to a rather high ceiling. Combating the consequences of oil pollution requires joint action by states. The organization of such actions is dedicated to Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Control and Cooperation, 1990

All operational discharges from ships are prohibited in Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 Dedicated to the disposal of environmentally harmful substances at sea Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Materials, 1972

Agreements have also been concluded at the regional level. So, Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, 1992 concerns issues of land-based sources of pollution, disposal, and cooperation in the fight against pollution by oil and other harmful substances in emergency conditions.

The Baltic Sea also occupies a special position. It was classified as a "special areas" Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973 Such areas are subject to increased pollution prevention requirements. In 1974, the Baltic countries concluded Helsinki Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area . Its peculiarity is the prohibition of sea pollution from land. On the basis of the Convention, the Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea was created. However, it soon became clear that the provisions of the Convention were insufficient, and in 1992 a new Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea was adopted, which established more stringent requirements. I would especially like to note that its effect extends to a certain part of internal waters; the limits of such distribution are determined by each state.

Waters of rivers and lakes have such significant differences that the development of a common convention was impossible. Even prepared by the Council of Europe in 1974. regional convention did not collect the required number of ratifications. Separate provisions on the prevention of river pollution are contained in agreements on other issues. The mentioned Baltic Sea Convention also affects the rivers flowing into it. But in most cases, protection issues are resolved by agreements between coastal states, although so far unsatisfactorily. As a positive example, we can refer to the norms and organizational forms of protection of the Rhine waters. In 1963 it was signed Berne Convention for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution. To implement it, a Commission was established, which prepared in 1976. Convention for the Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution and another - about protection against chlorides.

In connection with the growing consumption of fresh water and the limited availability of its resources, the issue of protecting freshwater basins is acquiring exceptional importance. As a result, new aspects of international environmental law are emerging. Responding to the demands of life, the UN International Law Commission prepared and submitted to the General Assembly draft articles on the right of non-navigational use of international watercourses.

A watercourse is understood as a system of not only surface water, but also underground water, forming a single whole and usually flowing to one outlet. International watercourses are watercourses, parts of which are located in different states. The regime of such watercourses is determined by agreement of the states with whose territory they are connected. Each such state has the right to participate in the agreement.

States have an obligation to use watercourses in such a way as to provide them with the necessary protection. They are obliged to participate in the protection of watercourses on an equitable basis and to cooperate to achieve this goal.

Air environment , as already noted, is the common heritage of humanity. Despite this, its protection is not reflected in any way in international environmental law. The issue is being resolved at the bilateral and regional levels. Perhaps the only significant step in this area is the OSCE prepared Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979, subsequently supplemented by a number of protocols. Particular attention is paid to reducing sulfur emissions into the atmosphere, which generate acid rain, which is transported over long distances and harms all living things on the planet.

An important direction in protecting nature is cooperation in counteracting the increase in the greenhouse effect, i.e., global warming as a result of the saturation of the atmosphere with carbon dioxide, the main source of which is motor transport. The consequences of this effect could be catastrophic in the coming decades. On the one hand, new vast deserts will appear, and on the other, rising sea levels will lead to the flooding of large areas developed by humans. In 1992 it was adopted UN Framework Convention about climate change. It defined general provisions and main areas of cooperation. The general responsibility of states is established, but differences in economic potential must be taken into account. Particular attention should be paid to the interests of developing countries, which are most vulnerable to negative climate change, and on the other hand, have the least ability to counteract it.

Ozone layer protects the Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Under the influence of human activity, it has been significantly depleted; "ozone holes". In 1985 it was adopted Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. It talks about monitoring his condition and cooperating to protect him. In 1987 appeared Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Restrictions have been established on the production of substances that negatively affect this layer.

Radioactivity As a result of the peaceful and military use of nuclear energy, it has become a serious danger to life on Earth. An important step in reducing it was Moscow Treaty Banning Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, 1963 The IAEA sets safety standards for the use of nuclear energy in national economy, including the safety of workers associated with it. Was prepared Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials 1980 The Convention contains provisions allowing any state to prosecute foreigners for relevant crimes, regardless of the place where they were committed.

Operates in Europe European Atomic Energy Agency . The main standards in this area are established by the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (EUROATOM).

Protection of fauna and flora

UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 1972 endorsed the principle that the Earth's natural resources, including air, waters, surfaces, flora and fauna, should be protected for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning and management where necessary.

The overall strategy was developed by a non-governmental organization - the International Union for Conservation, Nature and Natural Resources - and published in 1982 as a Program of Action "World Conservation Strategy". In the process of preparing the document, numerous consultations were held with governments and international organizations. The purpose of the strategy is to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources by proposing to governments effective methods regulation of these resources. The strategy aims to support important ecological processes and self-preservation of systems, such as soil restoration and protection, nutrient recycling, water purification, and biodiversity conservation. Many vitally important things depend on all this. important processes. The goal is to ensure the sustainable use of certain species of animals and vegetation, as well as ecosystems.

Achieving these goals should be as quickly as possible. The Earth's ability to provide for its population is constantly decreasing. Many millions of tons of soil are lost every year due to deforestation and misuse. At least 3 thousand square meters per year. km of agricultural land are taken out of use only in industrialized countries as a result of the construction of buildings and roads.

As one of important means In order to achieve its goals, the strategy points to a radical improvement in legislation on natural resources. It is necessary to create more effective and broad-based national environmental law, along with increased development of international environmental law. The survival of the entire diversity of nature, including humans, can be ensured only on the condition that state policies are built with an understanding of the fact that all elements of nature are interconnected, interdependent, that the environment is a single global system.

World Charter for Nature , was approved and solemnly proclaimed by the General Assembly in 1982. According to the Charter, living resources should not be used beyond their restoration capabilities; Soil productivity should be maintained and increased; resources, including water, should be recycled and reused whenever possible; Non-renewable resources should be used with maximum restrictions.

Among the conventions dedicated to flora and fauna, I would like to mention first of all Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972 , designed to ensure cooperation in the protection of natural complexes of particular importance, habitats of endangered species of animals and plants. Dedicated to the protection of flora 1983 Tropical Forest Agreement The general significance is Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 ., which determined the basis for control over such trade.

The bulk of the conventions are aimed at protecting various representatives of the animal world - whales, seals, polar bears. I would especially like to note Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 , the name of which gives an idea of ​​its content. It is also important Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979

Everything that has been said above gives an idea of ​​the enormous importance of environmental protection and the urgency of decisive measures based on broad cooperation between states. This determines the role of international environmental law, which still lags behind the needs of life.

INSTEAD OF CONCLUSION.

International conservation of natural resources. Practice of Western countries.

What is more valuable - a small fish or a big dam?

In the rapids of the Little Tennessee River there lives a small, inconspicuous fish - snail darter First discovered in 1973, this member of the perch family is found only here.

The same year the snail darter was discovered, the US Congress passed the Endangered Species Act. Number endangered species so small that in the near future they may be completely wiped out from the face of the earth. The law, in particular, states that the actions of the federal government should not threaten the existence of species listed in the Red Book and species that are about to get there; These government agencies must also not allow the destruction or alteration of the habitats of species whose numbers have reached critical levels.

In 1966, seven years before people first learned about the existence of the snail darter, the US Congress authorized the construction of a dam on the river. Tellico, which was to be carried out under the leadership of the Administration for the River Basin. Tennessee, as well as reservoirs on the Little Tennessee River. Until the discovery of the darter, the construction of the dam was half completed. By 1975, when the darter was registered as an endangered species and included in the Red Book, the construction of the dam was already three-quarters completed.

But darters do not breed in stagnant water of reservoirs; they need running water to reproduce. Thus, completion of the dam, which cost an estimated $116 million, threatened to destroy the spawning grounds of the discovered new species, which would immediately lead to the death of the entire darter population and violate the Endangered Species Act. A number of environmental groups brought a case to stop construction, which eventually ended up in the Supreme Court. In 1978, when the dam was 90% complete, the Supreme Court ruled that the construction project did violate environmental law and should therefore be either canceled or modified. But was saving the small population of small fish (these darters are 7.5 cm long) really what members of Congress cared about when they passed this law? As Holden (1977) noted, “There is no doubt that many members of Congress voted for this legislation out of genuine concern for the cute creatures with dark eyes or the winged creatures soaring high in the sky, but they ended up facing a Pandora's box of countless crawling creatures, whose existence they never even suspected.”

The debate surrounding the little fish has forced the Tennessee River Basin Authority to reconsider plans to build a dam on the River. The Little Tennessee, which is one of the region's few remaining clear, cold water rivers teeming with fish. These discussions also prompted the US Congress to amend the Endangered Species Act, under which even the smallest fish would feel protected from the threat of a grandiose construction project. (NYTPictures).

What is the value of any kind? Why should we strive to save them from the threat of extinction? Do we have the right to decide which species are worth saving and which are not? According to scientists, there are currently from 5 to 10 million species living on Earth, but to date, ecologists have discovered and described only from 1 to 1.5 million species. Meanwhile, the discovery of new species is increasingly becoming a fast-paced race against endangered species. In prehistoric times, about one species went extinct every thousand years. Today we are losing one species every year. Over the next 20 years, about a million species could disappear, most of which live in tropical rainforests.

Wildlife is an inexhaustible source of resources

Even such highly developed countries as the USA cannot do without the gifts of wild nature (fuel, fish, nuts, berries, wood used as fuel, etc.). Annual production of wildlife-based animal and plant products in the United States is estimated at $2.8 billion. The use of wood for heating homes increased by 50% in the seventies. In Vermont, for example, more than half of homes are now heated primarily with wood.

In developing countries, the importance of natural resources such as food and fuel is even greater. Ten percent of the total animal protein consumed worldwide comes from fish. In many developing countries, wood is used exclusively for heating and cooking.

Ecosystem "household services"

In addition to the benefits that nature provides us in the form of food and fuel and which are easy to quantify, wild animals and plants provide us with a number of services that, figuratively speaking, can be classified as ecosystem “household services.” Plants produce oxygen that people and animals breathe. Further, plants and microorganisms purify water and air from pollutants, participate in the cycle of nutrients, and soften the climate. If one of these “services” can be provided through technological processes (removing phosphates from Wastewater can be carried out at wastewater treatment plants, although this is more expensive), others are practically irreproducible.

Practical significance of wild animals and plants for medicine, agriculture and industry.

Extinct species are forever lost opportunities. Wild animals and plants serve as a source of medicines, food and basic materials used in industry. 25% of medicines common in the United States today contain plant extracts that cannot be obtained synthetically. These drugs include tranquilizers such as reserpine, various antibiotics, painkillers, and drugs used to treat heart disease and lower blood pressure. Vincristine, derived from the tropical periwinkle plant, has been successfully used to treat Hodgkin's disease, a disease that kills 5-7 thousand Americans every year. Meanwhile, currently only 5 thousand plant species have been studied for the production of medicinal drugs. According to scientists, another 5 thousand medicinal plants can be discovered among the 500 thousand species growing on our planet.

Agronomists have discovered beneficial qualities in many organisms. For example, biological control methods play an important role in agriculture, including the use of certain types of organisms to protect crops from the harmful effects of others. In particular, some species of wasps successfully protect sugar cane plantations from the moth. Diatraea saccharalis . In addition, in modern agriculture the practice of crossing different plant species in order to obtain hybrids characterized by high productivity is widely used. Genetic engineering today is only at the beginning of its development, but it is already clear that in the future it will be possible to transfer desired genes that control traits beneficial to humans from one plant to another. Examples include resistance to various diseases, drought, insect pests, as well as medicinal properties and high protein content. Reducing the number of different different types on earth means a reduction in the genetic pool of living nature. Every time we allow a species of animal or plant to become extinct, we risk losing either a beneficial organism or a beneficial gene forever.

Many plants secrete chemical substances, which are natural insecticides (killing insects) or herbicides (killing weeds). Others serve as a source of waxes, lubricating oils, resins, aromatic oils and dyes. This list can be continued indefinitely. Meanwhile, this is only what has already been discovered in useful plants and animals. Many substances useful for agriculture, medicine and industry are still waiting to be discovered.

Biological species as elements of biocenoses

The extinction of a species or group of species can have far-reaching consequences for the community in which the species lives. Complex food webs are common in temperate and tropical zones, but because only relatively few of these webs have been fully studied, we are unable to predict all the consequences that will occur if any animal or plant species goes extinct. Many rare species of insects, snails, and birds either feed only on a certain type of plant or use only certain types of plants to build their homes. Therefore, the disappearance of a given plant species essentially means the death of the animal dependent on it. In another case, a predator that normally regulates the number of a pest may disappear. Then there will be a sharp explosion in the number of the pest, as happened, for example, in those areas where DDT was widely used." Spraying with DDT led to the destruction of all ladybugs feeding on spider mites, as a result of which spider mites resistant to DDT began to multiply intensively, causing enormous damage to agriculture.

Humans' desire to exterminate wolves is partly explained by the fact that the role of this predator in food webs has not yet been fully elucidated. Wolves destroy other animals, such as deer, on which they feed, killing, as a rule, the weakest, sick and old individuals. Thus, they contribute to the health of the reindeer herd and maintain its numbers at a level that corresponds to the available supplies of food resources. People, when hunting deer, not only reduce the number of animals that the wolf feeds on, but at the same time always choose the most complete individuals, thereby worsening the quality of the herd.

Concern about extinct plant species has grown much more slowly than concern about endangered animal species, although both are so closely interrelated that they can only be conserved together. There are many examples when the number of some animals reached a critical level, since the plants that served them as food or shelter practically disappeared. According to estimates by Peter Raven, an employee of the Missouri Botanical Garden, for every plant species that has disappeared, there are from 10 to 30 species of insects, higher animals, and other plants that are in danger of extinction. Thus, the red-headed woodpecker is in danger of extinction due to the fact that it nests on the dried trunks of swamp and Australian pines. However, in many areas there are practically no old trees left, they are being replaced by young seedlings that are grown for pulp. The ripening of swamp pine, in turn, depends on the presence of grass cover from triostrenica Aristida stricta , The sea otter, or sea otter, was almost completely exterminated in the 18th and 19th centuries. because of the valuable fur. Currently, thanks in part to the adoption of special laws, such as the law on the protection of marine mammals, the sea otter population is recovering. And now they are trying to take revenge, if not from humans, then at least from species that are very valuable and useful for us, namely abalone, Pacific lobster and crab. Several individuals discovered near Monterey (California) in 1938 gave rise to a huge herd, now numbering up to 2000 animals. This herd spread over 240 km along the coast. Unfortunately, this same stretch of coastline is home to numerous edible shellfish, such as abalone, which fetch $8 to $10 a pound at market. Fishermen who supply these shellfish for sale are calling for restrictions on sea otter numbers to prevent further destruction of the lucrative fishing industry. However, ecological studies have shown that capans are vital members of the coastal community. Feeding on species of marine invertebrates such as sea ​​urchins, capans protect thickets of seaweed, especially brown algae, from excessive grazing. Brown algae form the basis of food webs that include species such as harbor seal and bald eagle. (Dr. Daniel Costa, Joseph M. Long Marine Laboratory, University of California, Santa Cruz)

Species value

The need to preserve the entire diversity of species existing on Earth stems not only from practical, but also from general philosophical considerations. We lose any extinct species irretrievably. By not doing everything in our power to prevent these losses, we are making a choice not only for ourselves, but also for our descendants. This means that future generations of people will not see the animals and plants that we see; the nature surrounding them will not be as rich and varied as the one that surrounds us. Meanwhile, this is not just a question of aesthetic pleasure; It should be borne in mind that human evolution took place in the conditions of the enormous diversity of nature that surrounded him, and it is possible that this diversity is an indispensable condition for maintaining his mental health.

So far we have considered species from the point of view of their usefulness to humans. On this occasion, Henry Beston (1928) wrote: “Being far from pristine nature, living a complex unnatural life, a civilized person sees everything in a distorted light, he sees a log in a speck, and approaches other living beings from the standpoint of his limited knowledge. We look at them condescendingly, demonstrating our pity for these “underdeveloped” creatures, who are destined to stand much lower than the level on which man stands. But such an attitude is the fruit of the deepest delusion. Animals should not be approached by human standards. Living in a more ancient and perfect world than ours, these creatures have such developed feelings that we have long lost or never possessed, the voices that they hear are inaccessible to our ears. We are not their elder brothers, and they are not despicable creatures; it’s just a completely different world, the existence of which coincided in time with ours, they are just as captives of this beautiful and cruel life.”

Endangered Species and Human Health

Once upon a time, the idea of ​​using animals in scientific research met with opposition mainly because it was perceived as an example of cruelty to animals inflicted with pain. Scientists had to make a lot of effort “to convince the public that experimental animals never experience pain.

Nowadays, however, new ethical issues. One is whether the experimental animals are kept in conditions appropriate to their social and behavioral characteristics? For example, animals such as chimpanzees, which normally live in groups, cannot be kept in an isolated cage because this would be cruelty to the animal.

Further delving into the problem confronts us with another question: is it even legal to use animals in experiments whose numbers continue to decrease, even if we assume that humanity will greatly benefit from this. N. Wade (1978) writes in this regard: “...Continued production of the [hepatitis] vaccine may well lead to a fatal conflict between human interests and the existence of chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are the only animals in the world, with the exception of humans, on which the effect of the vaccine can be tested... If a ban is imposed on its use - chimpanzees in experiments are already classified as an endangered species - testing the safety of the vaccine and its production will become impossible. Meanwhile, even in developed countries, where cases of hepatitis are relatively rare, people continue to pay a fatal toll to this disease. In 1976, there were 15,000 cases of hepatitis in the United States. However, according to the Center for Infectious Disease Control, the actual figure reaches 150 thousand, of which 1,500 cases were fatal... ...Officials are trying to convince everyone that chimpanzees are captured only by humane means. “The capture method typically involves several people locating a group of chimpanzees, surrounding them, and then chasing them. Since young individuals usually get tired faster, they are simply picked up with their hands.” This is the version of the capture of chimpanzees outlined by a representative of the Merck company to the federal office for issuing licenses for the capture of wild animals...”

«... Absolutely impossible unless you have a large network, writes Jane Goodall. “This is fantastic... In natural conditions no man can handle wild chimpanzees, they are not at all inclined to huddle together... I can only say that someone really wants to hide what inhumane methods are actually used when capturing chimpanzees, and they are like that - first they shoot at mother. and then they take the cub away. This is the standard method used in Africa." . F.B.Orlans (1978) adds:

«... It is necessary to find a way to resolve this conflict so that it does not turn out to be disastrous for the chimpanzees. In the past, the development of an alternative method of vaccine production (particularly for polio) has helped save the lives of many animals. Today, ethical standards that require a ban on inhumane methods of killing chimpanzees (according to Wade, “to catch a chimpanzee, you kill the mother first”) and the conservation of this endangered species are ignored.”

Do you think that purely human needs should take precedence over the need to preserve endangered animal species? The first thing that immediately comes to mind when it comes to factors threatening the existence of a species is hunting. Indeed, hunting made its fatal contribution to the extinction of a number of animal species, especially vertebrates. However, some well-regulated wildlife populations are not necessarily harmed by hunting; in fact, it may even be useful, especially in cases where the population threatens to significantly exceed the optimal level for a given habitat. But uncontrolled hunting still contributes to the extinction of the species. Bison hunting on the American prairies brought this species to early XIX V. to the brink of extinction. Hunting in this case has simply become a sport; its goal often boiled down to catching a bison's head, which was placed in the hunter's house as a trophy. In Africa, hunting of many species of large animals is limited or completely prohibited in order to preserve these species not only in zoos, but also in nature.

Habitat destruction

However, hunting is not main danger which threatens animals. Most species are threatened with loss of natural habitats: territories in which they live, reproduce, find food and shelter. As the population grows, people need more and more housing, roads, and shopping centers; Therefore, people cut down forests, drain swamps, estuaries and bays, develop new mineral deposits, bringing barren rocks to the surface of the earth. All this leads to a reduction in land and food resources available to various species of animals and plants. In other words, man expands his habitat at the cost of reducing the habitats of other creatures.

In some cases, the destruction of habitats of wild species occurs as a result of special measures, such as burning or flooding of areas, carried out in order to attract even more animals that are objects of hunting. As a result, the numbers of animals such as elk, pronghorn antelope, white-tailed deer and black-tailed deer increase significantly. At the same time, these habitats become unsuitable for many other non-commercial species.

Many endangered plant species provide a living link between modern times and the ancient eras when these species flourished on our planet. Now some of them have been preserved in specific niches along river banks, in swamps and hollows, as well as in wastelands. Others are on inaccessible mountain slopes, in valleys between ridges, or in areas where glaciers never reach. Such plants are very rare because they are adapted to exist only in the specific environment that they currently occupy. They can survive only if their habitats are protected.

Death of tropical forests

Almost all types of habitats are being destroyed, but the problem is most acute in tropical rainforests. Every year, forests are cut down or otherwise subjected to an area equal to approximately the entire territory of Great Britain. If the current rate of destruction of these forests continues, in 20-30 years there will be practically nothing left of them. Meanwhile, according to experts, two thirds of the 5-10 million species of living organisms inhabiting our planet are found in the tropics, especially in tropical forests.

The most common cause cited for the death of most tropical forests is excessive population growth. This latter circumstance in developing countries leads to an increase in the collection of firewood for heating homes and an expansion of areas for shifting agriculture practiced by local residents. The essence of this method is that the farmer cuts down a plot of forest and grows crops in its place for several years. Then, when the soil is depleted, the farmer moves to a new place and again cuts down some of the trees. Some experts, however, believe that the accusation is aimed at the wrong address, since, in their opinion, the destruction of only 10-20% of forests is associated with the slash-and-burn method of cultivation (Fig. 5.6 and 5.7). Much of the rainforest is being destroyed due to large-scale ranching and military road construction in Brazil, as well as the growing demand for tropical timber from Brazil, Africa and Southeast Asia (see Global Outlook section after this part).

Pesticides and air pollution

A large number of habitats that remain largely undisturbed have become contaminated by acid rain, pesticides, and airborne pollutants. Pine trees growing on the mountain slopes around Los Angeles suffer from the harmful effects of smog that forms over the city. The widespread use of pesticides in agricultural regions threatens the survival of many species. For example, birds of prey such as falcons and hawks are severely affected by DDT. About 20-30 years ago, these birds began to lay eggs with very thin shells, so thin that they cracked even before the chicks were supposed to hatch. Scientists have suggested that this phenomenon is due to exposure to DDT (Grier, 1982). DDT is currently banned in the United States primarily due to its harmful effects on certain bird species.

As part of a program to control the spread of plague in the American West, attempts were made to exterminate coyotes, foxes and wolves using poisoned bait. However, this had a detrimental effect on some populations of endangered species, and in particular on the populations of the bald eagle, which was also eager to feast on the bait.

Collection of rare plants

Some plant species, namely cacti, orchids and carnivorous plants, are especially popular among collectors; These plants were collected so intensively that there are almost none left in nature. Traders from Texas and Mexico dig up large quantities of cacti and send them to markets to sell to collectors and residents of the southeastern regions, who use the plants for ornamental horticulture. Half of the cacti produced are sent even further, to Europe and the Far East.

Animals and plants must certainly change as environmental conditions change. Species that fail to adapt to new conditions die out, and new ones take their place. There are no longer dinosaurs or flying reptiles on Earth, but today it is inhabited by organisms that did not exist in those ancient times. Man, meanwhile, changes everything around him with such lightning speed that animals and plants do not have enough time for evolution, which would allow them to take the place of lost species. The harsh truth of life is that a good half of all mammals that became extinct on Earth occurred in the last 50 years.

Environmental protection

There are many ways to ensure the protection of wildlife resources. One of them is the adoption of laws that ensure the protection of the species as a whole or increase the viability of individual individuals. In the USA, for example, a law has been passed on the conservation of endangered species. Representatives of different species can also be collected in zoos and botanical gardens; seed banks can be created. This allows us to hope that we will have at our disposal the entire diversity of living organisms on the planet. For many species, however, this latter approach may be impractical. The fact is that some species require special conditions or certain population sizes for reproduction, and this is not always feasible in captivity. The third approach is the alienation of individual areas of nature and the creation of nature reserves on them, which include entire ecosystems. In this case, it is possible to preserve not only those species that are clearly at risk of extinction, but also all the species associated with them in a complex food web (see Section “Discussion 5.2”).

Conservation of rare endangered species

The first laws relating to the protection of wildlife were laws on taxes on the ownership of fishing and hunting equipment, as well as laws requiring special permission to engage in hunting and fishing. The funds received from these taxes were used to purchase land to create reserves for endangered species of animals and plants. Millions of dollars were eventually raised for these causes (a fact that should be noted by those who oppose hunting). A proposal was put forward to tax gardening tools to create a similar fund for plant protection.

In 1966, the US Congress passed the Endangered Species of Mammals and Birds Conservation Act, which aims not only to protect wildlife, but also to outline the framework of the problem of the disappearance of undisturbed nature. The law provided for the compilation of lists of endangered species, indicating the number of remaining individuals, as well as their areas of distribution. In 1973, this law was significantly strengthened as a result of the adoption of a series of amendments to it. The law noted that its effect was limited only to the borders of the United States, so it could not protect species living in other parts globe. Another category of species was also identified: candidate species for registration in the Red Book. These species are not yet disappearing, but a trend towards their disappearance has already emerged. And the sooner this trend is noticed, the greater the chances of saving them. Another important amendment to the law was that a list of endangered plant species was added to the list of endangered animal species. In addition, according to the adopted amendments, federal authorities were prohibited from implementing any projects that pose a threat to the existence of a particular species and its habitat. Despite the fact that this clause of the amendment to the law did not cause any special comments, during its consideration in Congress it was precisely this that became the basis of the conflict that arose during the construction of the dam on the river. Tellico. As written, the law did not allow for the benefits of projects to be weighed against the possible consequences of species extinction.

Methods for regulating wildlife resources

There are a number of specific methods for protecting endangered species and ways to increase the abundance and diversity of species of special interest, such as game species. In some cases, animals are simply moved from their natural habitats to similar ones. natural conditions regions where they have not previously been found. This is generally done with common game species, such as Canada geese. Introduced to many regions of the country, the wild turkey now occupies an area significantly larger than what it occupied during colonial times.

If an analysis of the situation shows that a given species cannot survive without outside help even under favorable conditions, then the animals’ eggs are collected and hatched in incubators; Sometimes breeding programs are carried out in zoos. Animals raised in this way can be successfully returned to the wild in their natural habitat, although this is not possible in all cases. Sea turtles, which follow their instinct upon hatching to immediately run to the water and later return to their birthplace to lay their eggs, apparently cannot develop the ability to correctly determine the direction to where they should lay eggs when they are born in captivity. They swim to dangerous depths, after which they cannot return to a section of the beach convenient for laying eggs. But at the same time, today about half of all whooping cranes existing in nature were bred and raised in captivity.

In some cases, efforts to preserve and propagate rare animals are so successful that it becomes possible to allow limited hunting of them. A hundred years ago, herds of American bison were so large that you could spend hours watching just one herd pass by. Fifty years ago there were only a few hundred of them left. However, in recent years, the number of bison has increased so much that it has become possible to once again allow limited hunting for them.

Nature reserves and sanctuaries

system of reserves in the USA. At the beginning of the 20th century. In the United States, by decision of Congress, areas of undisturbed nature, or reserves, began to be alienated in order to promote the conservation of rare species. Plants are especially well preserved in nature reserves, which are created in areas where protected species grow. A few specimens of plants in a botanical garden are not at all enough to ensure the preservation and propagation of a species. The first plot of land intended to create a sanctuary for rare and endangered plant species was purchased in 1980. This was the Antioch Dunes in California, the original habitat of the now rare wallflower and evening primrose. Many species of animals also find refuge in the reserves. For example, in the Red Rocks Lake Nature Reserve (Montana), the trumpeter swan is found in abundance. WHAT SIZES SHOULD THE RESERVES BE? According to MANY experts in the field of nature conservation, nature reserves should be vast in area and measure thousands of square kilometers. Smaller reserves may be insufficient for the survival of some species, often those whose numbers have reached the most critical levels. For example, large predators such as wolves or large cats require huge spaces in order for them to feed themselves and their offspring. In addition, large nature reserves better protect protected species of animals and plants from the adverse effects of external factors, such as humans, and environmental pollutants.

Special studies carried out on the islands make it possible to judge what size parks and reserves should be. It would seem that the number of different species of animals and plants found on it depends on the size of the island. However, the results of studies of fauna on the Pacific islands conducted by ecologists Wilson (1984) and McArthur showed that doubling the island's area is not accompanied by the expected doubling of the number of species living on it. In order for the number of different species to double, an area ten times larger than the given one is required. We mention this work because parks and reserves increasingly seem to us to be veritable islands of wilderness in a sea of ​​human-disturbed environments.

According to the law of island biogeography, if 90% of natural habitats are disturbed, and only 10% of the entire territory is allocated for parks and reserves, then we will be able to preserve no more than half of the original number of species living here. It follows that if we preserve only that part of the Amazon rainforest that is currently occupied by parks and reserves, then two thirds of the half a million species of animals and plants found in these forests will disappear forever from the face of the Earth.

It should be taken into account, however, that it is not yet completely clear whether the island theory is completely applicable to parks. Although research currently being conducted in tropical forests by ecologists such as Thomas Lovejoy, an employee of the International Wildlife Foundation, suggests that such a comparison is legitimate. Lovejoy gives the example of a 10-hectare nature reserve in which all the peccaries, a widespread, pig-like animal, have become extinct. As a result of an unexpected chain reaction, ten species of frogs that needed the wet depressions in the ground that the peccaries made also disappeared after the peccaries.

Another issue that conservationists need to address is the question of what size reserves should be to preserve and maintain genetic diversity within specific species. The fact is that as the population size of each species declines, the circle of marriage partners is steadily narrowing. And as a result, genetic similarity between descendants increases, i.e. the degree of inbreeding increases. This process is unfavorable from an evolutionary point of view. A population consisting of closely related individuals containing similar sets of genes is more vulnerable to the effects of a modified environment. Since the range, or limits of variability, of traits within such a population is greatly reduced, the likelihood that individual individuals will be able to demonstrate greater resistance to adverse effects or diseases compared to the bulk of organisms is practically reduced to zero. In addition, there is a very high probability that climate change, outbreaks of infection, or competition from a new species could lead to the death of the entire population.

And yet, research conducted as part of the wildlife breeding program has shown that the mortality rate of cubs of rare species, such as cheetahs, which are characterized by little genetic variability, is always higher, both in natural conditions and in zoos. This is obviously explained by the large number of birth defects caused by inbreeding (mating of closely related individuals). The limited size of the reserve, within which only small populations of species (especially large mammals) can live, inevitably leads to such genetic homogeneity of populations.

Taking all these factors into account, the United Nations Educational and Scientific Organization (UNESCO) began to develop a program to create “biosphere” or “ecological” reserves, which would constitute a network of protected reference areas of the main ecosystems of the globe. Each reserve must be large enough in area to ensure the existence of all species of living organisms living within its boundaries, protect them from the adverse effects of external factors, and maintain the required level of genetic diversity. Only in this case, the living conditions in the reserves will allow animals not only to successfully grow and reproduce, but also to evolve; In addition, nature reserves will serve as a kind of standard of nature, in comparison with which it is possible to determine the extent of human impact on the environment.

In addition to laws requiring the creation of nature reserves, stricter laws are needed to limit the use of pesticides near protected areas where game animals or rare species of animals and plants live and breed.

Global economic aspects of conservation of endangered species of animals and plants

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“Center for the Protection and Reproduction of Fauna and Flora” is a non-profit organization designed, in accordance with its statutory activities, to carry out:

Environmental activities aimed at preserving all diversity biological forms, species and groups of wild animals,

Introduction of ecological culture through direct contact with wild animals,

Protection and conservation of wild animals and their habitats,

Rational management of hunting in assigned (leased) territories,

Keeping records of hunting fauna, conducting land assessments, acclimatization of wild species of animals and birds,

Cultivating charity and compassion for the environment.

The hunting area is located 520 km from Moscow and 200 km from Kostroma.

Main types of hunts:

Spring hunt for capercaillie and black grouse on leks, woodcock, snipe, great snipe on draft, hazel grouse, quail, waterfowl hunting - duck:

Hunting periods are from mid-April to mid-May.
Cost of trophies: capercaillie – 8000 rubles. black grouse – 3000 rub.

Brown bear hunting:

Hunting periods are from August 15 to November 1.
Hunting methods; in oat fields, from towers and storage sheds, the shooting distance is 50-150 meters.
Cost of trophies: from 40,000 to 60,000 rubles.
Accompanying hunting for upland and waterfowl is included in the cost of service.

Hare hunting with hounds:

Hunting periods are from September 15 to December 1.
The cost of hunting is included in the cost of service and amounts to 4,000 rubles. per day per person.

Moose hunting:

Hunting periods are from November 1 to December 31.
Hunting method: penned with dogs, trailing.
Cost - from 15,000 rubles. up to 35,000 rub. depending on the size of the trophy.

Lynx hunting:

The cost of the trophy is 40,000 rubles. Huntsman service per day from the moment of arrival until the extraction of the trophy is 1000 rubles per day per person (hunter). Recommended number of hunting days: 3-5 days

Price list for additional services.

Escort by a huntsman - 800 rub.

Accommodation services for vacationers:

Number of seats - 5
- cost of accommodation - 900 rub./s.
- additional services (refrigerator, telephone, etc.) - 100 rubles.
-sauna - 300 rub./per person

Transport services (GAZ-66, UAZ, snowmobile, G.T.S.): GTS flight - 1500 rub.

GAZ-66	UAZ	snowmobile
1 hour - 300 rub.	1 hour - 250 rub.	1 hour - 250 rub.
1 day - 1500 rub.	1 day - 1000 rub.	1 day - 1000 rub.
1 km. - 30 rub.	1 km. - 20 rub.	1 km. - 60 rub.

refilling fuel oil at the expense of the client.

Provision of huts and towers (per person) from 100 to 300 rub./day
Providing hunting dogs for hunting game, hare, wild boar, bear, elk and other wild animals:

1 day 1 dog - 300 rub.
2 or more - 500 rub.

Services for primary processing of trophies (skinning, carcass cutting) :

Bear - 1500 rub.
Elk - 300 rub.
Boar - 300 rub.
Lynx, fox, marten - 150 rubles.
Otter, beaver - 250 rub.
Raccoon, badger - 150 rub.
Capercaillie, black grouse - 100 rubles.
Ducks, waders, hazel grouse - 50 rub.

HUNTING TOUR TO ECOLOGICAL PLACES OF THE KOSTROMA REGION

An ecological hunting route with a length of about 40 kilometers, designed for a group of three to four people, which should include at least two experienced hunters who want to experience complete hunting harmony with nature, enjoy hunting on foot different kinds animals and birds living in the deep Kostroma forests, admire the most beautiful places in the pine forests, taiga ridges rising along the banks of the Idol and Neya rivers, feast on the forest gifts of nature, and, of course, get great pleasure from the extraction of magnificent trophies.

Accommodation: in a village house (comfortable, warm, refrigerator, TV, telephone, Russian bathhouse, asphalt travel, parking for cars) all the conditions for a good life and relaxation.

There is another accommodation option available; hunting lodge 11 kilometers from settlement in the taiga, can accommodate 3-5 people, stove heating, everything is available for recreation and hunting.

Directions to the place Gaz-66, GTS.

Cultural program.

Kostroma is part of the group of cities of the Golden Ring of Russia (Ipatiev Monastery, Museum of Wooden Architecture, birthplace of Ivan Susanin).

Along the route; Sergiev Posad, Pereslavl Zalessky, Rostov Veliky, Yaroslavl, Kostroma

Flora and fauna (flora and fauna) live in the environment of our planet. Flora (Novolat. flora, from Latin Flora - the ancient Roman goddess of flowers and spring blossoms) is a historically established set of plant species that grow in a certain area or grew on it in past geological eras. Fauna (Novolat. fauna, from Latin Fauna - the ancient Roman goddess of forests and fields, patroness of animals) is a historically established set of animal species living in a certain territory.

The International Plant Protection Convention of December 6, 1951 is dedicated to the protection of flora (a new revised text was approved by the FAO Conference at the 29th session in November 1997). Its main goal is to ensure international cooperation in the fight against plant pests, preventing their spread and introducing zones that are in danger into the flora or fauna. The Convention defines terms such as pest, acclimatization, quarantine pest, plants, plant products, etc. A pest is any species, genus or biotype of plants, animals or pathogenic agents capable of causing harm to plants or plant products; acclimatization is the preservation of a pest in the area for the expected future after its introduction; A quarantine pest is a pest of potential economic importance to an area which is therefore endangered, in which it is not yet present or is present but not very widespread and is the subject of official control.

The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling of December 2, 1946 is devoted to the legal protection of fauna; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals of 1 June 1972; Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears of November 15, 1973; Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals of 23 June 1979; Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources of 20 May 1980; Agreement on the Conservation of Afro-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds of June 16, 1995; Agreement on the conservation of cetaceans of the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the adjacent waters of the Atlantic Ocean of November 24, 1996.

One of the important measures for the conservation of flora and fauna species is the protection of their habitats. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat of 2 February 1971 proclaims among its main objectives the halting of the progressive encroachment of humans on these lands, which perform ecological functions as regulators of water regimes and support the existence of characteristic flora and fauna ( especially waterfowl), as well as recognition of these lands as a resource of significant economic, cultural, scientific and recreational significance. This international document provides an interpretation of the concept of “wetlands”: these are areas of marshes (low-lying strips of the sea coast, flooded only during high tides or surges of sea water), swamps, swamps (marsh marshy places), peat bogs or reservoirs - natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, stagnant or flowing, fresh, brackish or saline, including sea waters whose depth at low tide does not exceed six meters.

The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of November 16, 1972 is devoted to the international legal protection of flora and fauna and their habitats; Convention on the Conservation of Wild Flora and Fauna and Natural Habitats in Europe of 19 September 1979; Declaration on the Conservation of Flora, Fauna and Their Habitats of January 1, 1988.

The Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage aims to create an effective system for the collective protection of cultural and natural heritage as part of the world heritage of all mankind. It provides an interpretation of the concept " natural heritage", which includes: a) natural monuments created by physical and biological formations or their groups, having significant universal value from the point of view of aesthetics or science; b) geological and physiographic formations and strictly limited zones that are the habitat of those species of animals and plants that are threatened and have significant universal value from a scientific or conservation point of view; c) natural places or strictly limited areas that have some universal value from a scientific, conservation or natural beauty point of view.

The Convention on the Conservation of Europe's Wild Flora and Fauna and Natural Habitats aims at cooperation between states to protect endangered species of flora and fauna, vulnerable species, including migratory species, and their habitats. Bona obliges states to take into account the needs of environmental protection in their planning policies for the construction and development of their territories, and to coordinate their efforts aimed at protecting animals and plants if their habitats are located in border areas.

The objectives of the Declaration on the Conservation of Flora, Fauna and Their Habitats are: 1) conservation of wildlife for the benefit of present and future generations by supporting ecological processes and systems; 2) encouraging the careful attitude of legal entities (state, public and private), as well as individual individuals, towards nature and the rational use of natural resources; 3) taking the necessary measures to prevent and reduce air, water and soil pollution; 4) preventing other damage to flora, fauna and their habitats; 5) improvement of national legislation in this area; 6) strengthening national and international systems of nature reserves and other protected areas natural areas; 7) improvement of measures for nature conservation beyond their borders.

Among the bilateral acts on the protection of flora and fauna, one can highlight agreements between Ukraine and Bulgaria, Russia, the Czech Republic, and Mongolia.

1.4.3. Classification of ecosystems.

1.4.4.Evolution and sustainability of ecosystems.

2.Biosphere and man

2.1.Structure and evolution of the biosphere

2.1.1.Composition and boundaries of the biosphere.

2.1.2.Circulation of elements in the biosphere.

2.1.3.Evolution of the biosphere.

2.2. Man in the biosphere

2.3.Human ecology

2.3.1. The environment of human life and the forms of his adaptation to them.

2.3.2.Adaptive types and races.

2.4. Main directions of anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere

2.4.1. Modern human impacts on the biosphere.

2.4.2. General characteristics of the negative impacts of human economic activity on ps.

3. Current environmental problems of humanity in the biosphere

3.1.The problem of population growth

3.2.The problem of urbanization

3.3.Global consequences of air pollution

3.4.Danger of nuclear disasters and radioactive contamination

3.5. The problem of natural resource depletion

3.6. Regional environmental problems of the Tver region

3.7. Forecasting and assessment of environmental risk.

4. Protection of the biosphere

4.1.Ecological principles of nature conservation and rational environmental management

4.2. Concept of environmental safety and sustainable development of the Russian Federation

4.3. Environmental monitoring in the biosphere, the Russian Federation and its regions

4.4. International cooperation on wasp conservation

4.5. Basic forms and methods of protecting the natural environment and solving environmental problems

5.Protection of biosphere components

5.1.Protection of the atmosphere from material pollution

5.1.3. Standardization of air pollution.

5.1.4. Monitoring the state of cleanliness of the atmosphere.

5.1.5.Atmospheric air protection.

5.1.6. Dispersion of emissions in the atmosphere.

5.1.7 Methods for cleaning emissions.

5.2.Protection of the aquatic environment from material pollution

5.2.1. Ecological characteristics of the aquatic environment.

5.2.2.Water use and its types.

5.2.4. Standardization of water quality.

5.2.5. Control of water quality and regulation of the discharge of waste into water bodies and sewers of the city.

5.2.6. Main directions of protection of the aquatic environment.

5.2.7.Methods of cleaning St.

5.2.8. Recycling water supply of enterprises

5.3. Soil and land protection

5.3.1. Ecological significance of soils.

5.3.2. Anthropogenic impacts on soils.

5.3.3. Combating soil and land damage and land reclamation.

5.4. Protection of flora and fauna

5.4.1. Protection of flora.

5.4.2. Protection of wildlife (fauna).

5.5. Subsoil protection

5.6. Protection of fire safety equipment from radioactive contamination

5.6.1. The most important parameters and their units of measurement.

5.6.3. Hygienic regulation of technogenic exposure of people.

5.6.4. Radiation control (rk) in the Russian Federation.

5.6.5. Protection against AI.

5.6.6. Principles of providing the population of the Republic of Belarus.

5.7. Protection of fire alarm systems from energy pollution

5.7.1. Protection of the population from acoustic pollution.

5.7.2. Protection of the population from vibrations.

5.7.3. Protection of the population from non-ionizing electromagnetic pollution.

5.7.3.1. Protection of the population from the effects of industrial frequency pollution.

5.7.3.2. Protection of the population from the effects of radiotechnical objects (RTF).

5.7.4. Protection of ops from thermal pollution stz).

6. Fundamentals of environmental economics

6.1. The relationship between human society and nature, options for its solution

6.2. Environmental assessment of economic and other activities

6.3. Assessment of damage from hazardous waste pollution

6.4. Economic mechanism of environmental management in the Russian Federation

6.5 Economic incentives for environmental activities and environmental funds in the Russian Federation

7. Fundamentals of environmental law and nature conservation management in the Russian Federation

7.2. Responsibility for environmental violations

7.3. Nature conservation management in the Russian Federation

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Appendix 1. Acceptance of abbreviations in the training manual

Sample questions for testing in the discipline "Ecology"

1. The most important scientific concepts and principles of ecology 9

2. Biosphere and man 28

3. Current environmental problems of humanity in the biosphere 50

4. Protection of the biosphere 69

5. Protection of biosphere components 83

6. Fundamentals of environmental economics 157

7. Fundamentals of environmental law and nature conservation management in the Russian Federation 171

5.4. Protection of flora and fauna

5.4.1. Protection of flora.

Flora is one of the two main forms of life on Earth. In any ecosystem and in the biosphere as a whole, plants play the role of producers and create the bulk of the biomass, annually absorbing about 160 billion tons of CO 2 and releasing about 100 billion tons of O 2 into the atmosphere. It is plants that form the unique composition of the atmosphere of our planet (see Table 2.1).

The plant resource potential of the Russian Federation is quite large and diverse (polar deserts, tundras, forests, steppes). 94% of the Russian Polar Region is covered with vegetation. Crop products are the main food supply for the majority of the world's population and represent a significant part of the raw materials for industry. However, human activity has already led to the irreversible destruction of 30 thousand plant species and has endangered another 25 thousand species. Therefore, it is necessary to protect all types of vegetation (including forests and meadows), individual plant species and plant communities.

A forest is a collection of forest vegetation, land, fauna and other components of the natural environment, biologically interconnected and influencing each other in their development. Forests occupy almost 28% sushi, give 60% biologically active O 2, play a huge role in the life of the biosphere, the climate of the planet and human economic activity. There are two types of forest management - primary (wood cutting) and secondary (picking berries, mushrooms, herbs, etc.). In the Russian Federation, forest use is allowed only on the basis of a felling permit, warrant or forest license issued by forestry enterprises.

The Forest Fund (LF) of the Russian Federation amounts to 1.18 billion hectares, including 65% of the land covered with forest. The total wood supply in the forests of the Russian Federation is about 81 billion m 3. The Forest Code of the Russian Federation (1997) distinguishes the first, second and third groups of forests in the LF, and the first group of forests

The first group (19% of the LF) includes forests that perform the following functions and include the following categories of protection: water protection, protective, sanitary and hygienic, recreational, especially valuable forests, natural monuments, natural reserve forests. Only maintenance felling, sanitary felling and reforestation work are allowed in them. The second group (9% of the LF) includes forests in areas with high population density and a developed network of transport routes. Forests performing water conservation, protective, sanitary, hygienic, health and other functions of limited operational significance. They carry out final felling in ways aimed at restoring valuable tree species, preserving the natural functions of the forests of this group and allowing for the efficient and rational use of forest areas. To the third group ( 72% from LF) include forests of multi-forest areas, which are primarily of operational importance. In such forests, final felling is carried out in ways that ensure timely and rational use of forest resources.

In all groups of forests of the Russian Federation, the annual growth of wood is 880 million m 3. Deforestation is carried out in strict accordance with the estimated cutting area. It is established by Rosleskhoz separately for coniferous, soft- and hard-leaved farms, based on the principles of rational, continuous and inexhaustible use of LF. In 1995, only 25% of the estimated logging area was cut down. At the same time, 2.5 million m 3 of uncut wood was identified, 1.4 million m 3 of abandoned wood in felling areas, more than 110 thousand hectares of uncleared cutting areas, and the destruction of undergrowth of valuable tree species on an area of ​​15 thousand hectares. In addition, about 23 thousand cases of illegal logging in the amount of 450 thousand m 3 of wood and the death of forests on an area of ​​172 thousand hectares were recorded, of which 90% were coniferous plantations. The causes of forest death are damage by harmful insects (46.0%), the effects of fires (33%) and adverse weather conditions (16%). More than 40% of all plantings affected by diseases are located in the Central and Central Black Earth regions of the Russian Federation.

In the protected area of ​​the LF of the Russian Federation (94% of the total area of ​​the LF) in 1995, about 26 thousand forest fires were recorded on an area of ​​463 thousand hectares. Compared to average annual indicators over the past 5 years, the number of fires increased by 29% and their area decreased by more than 2 times. The most common were lowland fires on 325.8 thousand hectares, crown fires were noted

by 25.3 thousand hectares and underground - by 3.1 thousand hectares. The main cause of forest fires is anthropogenic factors (about 88% of all fires), and in the forests of the European territory of the Russian Federation, almost 100% of fires occur due to the fault of the local population.

Therefore, the task of rational use of forests and their protection is important and relevant. It is solved by the principle of limiting annual cuttings to annual growth and fighting forest fires, protecting the forest from pests and diseases. Thus, Rosleskhoz, together with the local executive authorities, actively protects forests from fires, the most dangerous enemy of forests, through forestry enterprises and forest districts. To this end, along with educational work and control, they carry out measures to prevent fires, quickly detect them and limit their spread. A network of fire barriers is organized in forests: wide gaps (clearings), mineralized strips, reservoirs (ditches) along railways, highways and logging roads and in other places that are dangerous in terms of fire. To quickly detect a fire in the forest, towers are built; They use airplanes and helicopters, which also quickly deliver fire paratroopers in full equipment to fires. They work with ground fire departments and the public to extinguish forest fires. For this purpose, powerful fire-fighting tankers, motor pumps, all-terrain vehicles, bulldozers, tillage implements and backpack sprayers are used.

To combat pests (insects and rodents) and forest diseases, preventive and exterminatory measures are used. The former are aimed at preventing the mass reproduction of pests (especially after a fire) and preventing diseases, and the latter are aimed at their destruction. More often it is necessary to fight in the forest with all available methods and means in a complex (integral method).

Preventive measures include surveillance of the appearance of pests and diseases in the forest (the sooner they are detected, the more successful the fight), quarantine service (prevents the importation of new pests or pests that have limited distribution in the Russian Federation, and pathogens with seeds, seedlings and other cargo) and forestry activities (selection of healthy seed and planting material, cultivation of plantings resistant to pests and diseases, removal of weakened and diseased trees and windbreaks, etc.).

To exterminate pests and pathogens of trees, the following methods are used: physical-mechanical - light traps -

Other measures for the rational use, reproduction, conservation and protection of forests are set out in the Forestry Code of the Russian Federation and legislative acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The second important type of vegetation is meadows or natural hayfields and pastures (the latter, in addition to natural ones, also include artificial - cultivated land with grassy vegetation). They play a significant role in agricultural production; their plant communities take a large part in the formation of biomass, CO 2 binding and 0 2 release. Forests and pastures reliably protect the soil from wind and water erosion, but they themselves need care. It is necessary to ensure rational use of pastures, improve the species composition of meadow plants, create irrigated pastures, etc. Irrational use of pastures can lead to severe environmental consequences, as was the case, for example, in the Sahara and Buryatia ( pasture soil erosion, death of animals and hunger among the population).

Although the plant world is extremely rich and diverse (over 500 thousand species are known), nevertheless, more than 10% of species have either died or are under threat of death as a result of human activity. To preserve the gene pool of plants, save and propagate rare and exceptionally rare species, nature reserves and sanctuaries have been created, and “Red Books” have been published in the Russian Federation and its constituent entities, which include more than 500 plant species.

Flora protection. When starting to protect flora, we must start with the simplest, and at the same time obvious and accessible - promoting and implementing the protection of the most common plants. They are the ones that are plucked en masse for bouquets and “just like that” by all and sundry, starting with little children frolicking in city squares and destroying various wild flowers under the supervision of adults.

Few people think about the harmful consequences of the first steps of a young creature on the path of communication with living nature. Meanwhile, the disdainful attitude towards her begins with these flowers, plucked without purpose and immediately abandoned, which so decorated the small square, cramped by stone houses and asphalt sidewalks.

The success of protecting plants and all living nature depends to a large extent on the support of the public and, above all, Komsomol organizations. Thus, student “green patrols” have proven themselves to be excellent. The regular campaigns that they are increasingly conducting to protect Christmas trees during the New Year's Eve are commendable. However, this activity of “green patrols” must necessarily be accompanied by a significant improvement in the work of forestry enterprises and stores, which are obliged to supply the population with specially grown and prepared Christmas trees in an organized manner.

No less damage is caused to flowering bird cherry trees and young green birch trees in the spring months. Unfortunately, much less attention is paid to their protection, and in many cities and villages nothing is done at all in this regard. We're not even talking about the fact that in the summer, almost everywhere, a mass of flowering forest and meadow herbaceous plants are plucked by vacationers, ostensibly for the sake of bouquets for the home, but usually most people throw them away.

One should keep in mind the unusually increased “recreational pressure” on wildlife, as masses of vacationers flock to forests and parks. Thanks to the continuous increase in the number of cars and motorcycles, mushroom pickers, berry pickers and other “nature lovers” penetrate into increasingly remote areas, search and trample all the nooks and crannies.

In view of the above, an explanation of the tasks of nature conservation and a careful attitude towards it has acquired exceptional relevance. It goes without saying that the main burden of care for the protection of flora should fall on the shoulders of state and administrative bodies, but assistance from the public is mandatory. The initiative of the Moscow City Council, which banned the collection of 40 species of flowering plants in the Moscow region, is very timely. However, this decision must be widely explained and publicized so that it achieves its goal and does not remain on paper.

Rare, small-numbered and endangered plant species require special attention. They are found everywhere, but especially where the population density is high, industry is highly developed, and nature is urbanized. First of all, it is necessary to identify these species and compile a “Red Book”, like the one published by the Botanical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, edited by Academician A. L. Takhtadzhyan. The mentioned book includes about 620 species. However, throughout the country and its individual regions, at least 4 thousand species, i.e., about 20% of the total composition of the flora of flowering and vascular spore plants, need protection to one degree or another.

The degree of threat to many plant species varies greatly from region to region. So, if in one region a given species is very rare, in another it is not yet rare. For example, wolf bast is quite common in the deciduous forests of the Central Black Earth belt, but in Leningrad and other relatively northern regions it must be protected. Representatives of orchids are becoming increasingly rare. Above we gave an example with Alpine edelweiss, which in a number of European countries had to be taken under legal protection.

Certain types of plants may be under threat not only because of their beauty and great attractiveness, but also because at the same time, like, for example, lily of the valley, they belong to the medicinal category and are intensively harvested by collectors of raw materials. In such cases, it is necessary to plan harvesting, or even better, to move on to growing such plants on plantations.

Cap mushrooms need protection, especially in the most densely populated areas of the country. Mushroom picking has acquired such proportions that the time has come to somehow limit the activities of mushroom pickers and thereby preserve supplies of edible mushrooms, and at the same time protect forest vegetation and animals that suffer greatly from the “disturbance factor.”

Sometimes the depletion of flora occurs due to specific reasons. For example, in the park of the Biological Institute of Leningrad University in Old Peterhof, one of these factors is student practice in botany. Herbarization of the same species year after year in a limited area of ​​the park and its surroundings has led to a noticeable decrease in the number and even the disappearance of some herbaceous plants.

For proper organization of flora protection great importance has a detailed study of it and identification of species or populations that primarily need strict state security. Unfortunately, the compilation of such a list has only just begun. The species included belong to one of five categories established by the Commission on Rare and Endangered Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Its Resources. The species categories mentioned are:
0 - apparently extinct: not found in nature for a number of years, but perhaps surviving in some inaccessible places or preserved in culture;
1 - endangered: in immediate danger of extinction. Their further existence is impossible without special protection measures;
2 - rare: not directly threatened with extinction, but occurring either in such small numbers or in such limited and specialized habitats that they can quickly disappear;
3 - declining: numbers are declining and range is shrinking over a period of time, either due to natural causes, or due to human intervention, or both;
4 - Uncertain: Possibly endangered, but not well understood.

It would probably be most appropriate to entrust the management and coordination of flora protection activities to the Commission on Endangered and Rare Plant Species of the All-Union Botanical Society. In particular, as the compilers of the cited “Red Book” advise, it is advisable to carry out the following actions:
1) strictly streamline and limit the herbarization of plants as much as possible, reserving the right to it only for botanists;
2) regularly check the actual state of populations of rare and endangered species;
3) scientifically substantiate and develop a set of measures for the conservation and restoration of populations of rare and endangered species;
4) in relation to economically valuable species, justify optimal standards for the exploitation of natural populations;
5) provide consultations to administrative bodies regarding the organization of new reserves, the introduction of licenses for the procurement of medicinal and technical raw materials, etc.

There are areas in the Soviet Union that are distinguished by a flora that is especially valuable scientifically and culturally, where, for example, tertiary relicts have been preserved, that is, species that survived the era of the great glaciation and have survived to this day. These are some of the chalk mountains of the Central Black Earth region. The famous geobotanist B. M. Kozo-Polyansky at one time aptly called these areas “The Country of Living Fossils.” Special reserves are needed here. One of them, called “Galichya Mountain,” was created in the Lipetsk region and transferred under the supervision of the biological faculty of Voronezh University. An equally important task is the preservation of the remnants of the flora of the virgin steppes. There are so few of them left that they are of exceptional value.

When listing the urgent tasks of protecting flora, it should be borne in mind that they are not limited to the preservation of known cultural and scientific values. At the same time, we must not forget that protected plants represent an important gene pool, which may be very useful in the future for breeding new species and forms of plants, breeding surviving ones, etc.