Our grammar system provides many options. System of work for studying Russian grammar

GSL is a system of language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production. In the triad that organizes the language as a whole - in its sound, lexical-phraseological and actual formal systems, these are categories and all phenomena of the formal, actually structural level of the language. Grammar refers to the entire non-sound and non-lexical organization of a language, presented in its grammatical categories (GC), grammatical units and grammatical forms (GF). Grammar in this meaning is the structural basis of language, without which words (with all their forms) and their articulations, sentences (more broadly, statements) and their articulations cannot be created.

Grammar deals with abstractions and generalizations. The nature of these generalizations is different. This could be, for example, a generalization of methods of verbal naming (in word formation), various relationships (in case meanings, in combinations of words and word forms, in the structure of sentences), situations generally expressed in language (such as, for example, the relationship between the subject and his actions or state, between an action and its object). Grammar as a system of abstract categories, representing the unity of abstract grammatical meanings and their formal expressions, is the basis without which language does not exist and does not function. Grammatical categories are in complex and close relationships with each other, having the properties of a system. GCs are opposed to each other as categories belonging to the word, and as categories belonging to the sentence.

The grammatical structure of the Russian language is defined as a multi-level system, which is organized by abstract grammatical categories in their relation not only to each other, but also to certain lexical-semantic sets and subsets.

The characteristics of a word, related to its sound transformations caused by its formal changes and its proximity, belong to the sphere of morphonology in a language. Phenomena associated with the formation of a word as a separate unit relate to word formation. All phenomena related to the syntagmatics of a word, as well as the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of language. A separate unit of grammatical structure can be considered morpheme, i.e. minimal significant part of a word or word form. Words and their forms are constructed by means of morphemes. Phenomena that relate to the formation and functioning of derivational and inflectional morphemes can be distinguished as a separate sphere within the grammar of a word - its morphemics, however, traditional is the consideration of morphemes in the systems of word formation (derivational morphemics) and morphology (inflectional morphemics).

Thus, grammar as a structure of language is a complex organization that combines word formation, morphology and syntax. These subsystems, especially morphology and syntax, are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the attribution of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the category of case, voice). The question of whether text features belong to grammar has not been resolved in science; however, there is no doubt that these laws are of a qualitatively different nature than the grammatical laws of language.

At a certain point in its development, the grammatical structure of a language is, on the one hand, a relatively stable system, organized according to strict and firm laws; on the other hand, this system is in a state of constant and active functioning, providing its means for organizing an infinite number of individual, specific words and statements. The duality of the very nature of the grammatical structure of a language - its relative stability, complex internal organization and diverse phenomena in the functioning of this organization indicate that the grammatical structure of a language articulates the properties of a stable system and the capabilities inherent in it.

In accordance with the main characteristics of the grammatical structure of a language - its formal organization and its functioning - in Russian science with the greatest certainty, starting with the works of L.V. Shcherba, a contrast is outlined between formal and functional grammar as different approaches to the study of one object. Under formal grammar is understood as a description of the grammatical structure of a language, going from form to meaning. Under functional grammar– a description that goes from meaning to the forms expressing it. All descriptive and normative grammars of the Russian language are built on the principle of formal grammar. They present systems of formal means at the level of word formation, morphology and syntax and describe the grammatical meanings contained in these formal means. At the same time, the significant side of the phenomena is described with varying degrees of detail and depth. This description is opposed by the so-called active grammars, which are based on grammatical meanings grouped in a certain way. Different approaches are possible here, but they will be based on the commonality of semantic functions of multi-level language means considered in a single system. When describing linguistic material, the direction from function to means is used as the main, determining one, in combination with the direction from means to functions. For example, one of the approaches of functional grammar may be one in which the first step is to isolate the actual functions (purposes) of language in their most generalized form (nominative, communicative, qualifying functions). Based on these purposes, we can distinguish units of functional grammar - complex semantic complexes that unite multi-level units around a semantic invariant.

Grammatical meaning

The most important and fundamental for grammar is the concept of grammatical meaning (in other words, grammeme).

Grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and having its own regular and standard expression in the language. You can say it differently - this is a formally expressed meaning.

In morphology, this is the meaning of objectivity, feature, processivity, indication, etc. (that is, general categorical meanings inherent in certain parts of speech), as well as more specific meanings of words and word forms, such as, for example, the meanings of time, person, number, gender, case, etc.

In syntax, this is the meaning of predicativeness, subject, object, qualifier, adverbial, semantics of topic-rhematic relations in a simple sentence and relationships between predicative units in a complex sentence.

Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is characterized by the following features:

1) the highest degree of abstraction. For word grammar house, city, closet- just objects; words home, city, closet, seventh, reading, his– are united by the same meaning of R.p., which is not related to the lexical meaning of these words. If the lexical meaning is individual for each word, then GL is common to entire groups and classes of words.

2) GL is not necessarily correlated with an extra-linguistic referent. Many GCs are only linguistic in nature. For example, nouns lake, pond have different generic meanings, although they are similar in lexical meaning. The optional connection of GPs with an extra-linguistic referent is evidenced by the fact that GPs of words that have the same referents do not always correspond in different languages. For example: ukr. – dah ( chol.r.) – Russian. roof(f.r.); Ukrainian – language(f.b.) – Russian. – language(m.r.) etc.; The same situation can be described in different ways: Student reading a book(GZ activity) – A book is read by a student(GZ passivity).

3) GE is characterized by the regularity of its expression. Each GC has a limited set of ways of expressing itself. For example, the meaning of the perfect form of a single action is expressed by the suffix - -Well- (knock, shout), D.p. value nouns are expressed using endings -y (table), -e(spring), -And (rye), i.e. different morphemes. In contrast to lexical meaning, which is relatively free, i.e. it can be chosen by the speaker at his discretion, the grammatical meaning is not chosen, it is given by the grammatical system if any word is chosen (for example, blizzard from a synonymous series), then it must be formalized as a noun male. using appropriate endings, i.e. his genus GZ must be objectified in a certain way. GLs are given by the language system.

4) Civil laws are characterized by mandatory. This sign is related to the previous one, i.e. with regularity.

GZ are those without which a certain class of words cannot be used. For example, a noun cannot be used without a specific gender, number, or case. The obligatory nature of the expression of GC is a universal criterion for determining grammatical phenomena, independent of the type of language.

In the civil knowledge system, knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality, their connections and relationships is objectified - through a system of concepts: thus, the concept of action (in the broad sense - as a procedural feature) is abstractly identified in the general meaning of the verb and in the system of more particular categorical meanings inherent in the verb (time, type, collateral, etc.); the concept of quantity - in the Civil Code of number (category of number, numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); various relationships of objects to other objects, actions, properties - in the civil law system, expressed by case forms and prepositions.

There are different GEs: referential (non-syntactic), reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of extra-linguistic reality, for example, the meanings of quantitative, spatial, temporal, instrument or producer of an action, and GEs are relational (syntactic), indicating the connection of word forms in phrases and sentences (conjunctive, adversative meanings conjunction constructions) or on the connection of stems with the composition of complex words (connective, word-formative meanings). A special place is occupied by GPs that reflect the speaker’s attitude to what is being discussed or to the interlocutor: subjective modality, subjective assessment, politeness, ease, etc.

It is, of course, necessary to distinguish between lexical and grammatical meanings, but one cannot assume that there is an abyss between them. In the same language, the same meaning can be conveyed both lexically and grammatically (the perfect form can be conveyed using a formative prefix, the imperfect form - using a suffix, changing suffixes, etc.; or maybe in a suppletive way: take - take, catch - catch, i.e. lexically); temporary meaning can be expressed lexically ( Yesterday I was walking home and thinking... I was walking home). With the lexical expression of the GL, we have syntagmatic convenience, because we use one word with an undivided expression of the lexical and GL (simplification, shortening of the text is observed, i.e. language economy), but at the same time a paradigmatic inconvenience arises, because the number of language code units increases. With grammatical expression, the opposite happens.

15.1 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist Dietmar Elyashevich Rosenthal: “Our grammatical system provides many options for expressing the same thought.”

The grammatical system of the Russian language offers the speaker various syntactic structures to express the same thing. They are synonymous.

For example, sentences with participial phrases and subordinate clauses are synonymous. True, it is not always possible to replace a subordinate clause with an adverbial phrase, but if it is possible, the text becomes livelier and more energetic. This is probably why such constructions are preferred by V. O. Bogomolov, with an excerpt from whose book I became acquainted. This text contained a lot of adverbial phrases and single adverbial participles. For example, in sentences 3, 5, 7, 12, 13 we encounter such constructions.

However, sometimes the writer prefers subordinate clauses: in sentences 21, 23 and some others. This makes the text more expressive and beautiful.

15.2 Write an argumentative essay. Explain how you understand the meaning of the last sentences of the text: “There is no plan,” Vitka said gloomily, without mincing words, with his characteristic directness. - And combat support too. This is irresponsibility and my oversight. I am responsible for this."

The hero-narrator, after heavy fighting, forgot that he was ordered to set up a guard and sketch out a plan of action in the event of an enemy attack (sentence 21). This was indeed necessary, but the narrator neglected it, albeit unintentionally, and because of his forgetfulness, his friend, battalion commander Vitka, suffered. But the commander took all the blame upon himself, realizing that the brigade commander could punish him and, in any case, would scold him. The words “This is irresponsibility and my oversight. I am responsible for this,” they say that the battalion commander is an honest person who is not capable of letting a friend down; in addition, he is ready to be responsible for everything that happens in his unit. The narrator was confident in his friend, this is stated in sentence 24, he was very ashamed that his friend would suffer through his fault.

Sometimes friends have to correct each other's mistakes.

15.3 How do you understand the meaning of the word CONSCIENCE? Formulate and comment on the definition you have given. Write an essay-argument on the topic: “What is conscience?”, taking the definition you gave as the thesis.

Conscience is a feature of a person’s personality. Anyone who has a conscience will try under no circumstances to commit a bad act. If he accidentally does something bad, then his conscience torments him and forces him to correct the evil caused.

In an excerpt from the work of V. O. Bogomolov, the hero-narrator forgot to carry out the instructions of his friend the battalion commander, and because of this, the brigade commander scolded Vitka. But the friend did not betray his friend, but took the blame upon himself. The narrator was very ashamed of this.

We often come across examples of pangs of conscience in literature and life. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov” one boy, Ilyusha, succumbing to the persuasion of the evil student Rakitin, treated a stray dog ​​with a piece of bread with a pin. The dog squealed and ran away. The boy thought that Bug had died, and this tormented him terribly, he even became seriously ill. But, fortunately, it later turned out that the dog survived.

Conscience is very necessary for every person.

Conclusion

Introduction

Knowledge of grammar and its laws is mandatory for every person who speaks a particular language.Grammar is the study of words and the syntactic structure of language. The word is the main object of morphology, and the phrase, sentence and complex syntactic units are the object of the study of syntax. INmorphologyincludes the study of parts of speech. It examines the semantic and formal features of words belonging to various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words into parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of these parts of speech, studies the features of words and reveals patterns of their interaction.Syntaxas an area of ​​the grammatical structure of a language, it combines those units that directly form a message; therefore, it studies the features of constructing phrases, creating texts, the rules of formation and functioning of various structures.

Grammar is a clear organizing principle in a language.Grammatical norms are a set of grammatical rules by which our speech is structured.Knowledge of grammar is knowledge of the rules for changing words in the flow of speech, knowledge of compatibility norms, and laws of combining words into a sentence.

Grammar rulesare divided into two:morphological(formation of forms of various parts of speech) andsyntactic(formation of syntactic units). At the center of morphology is the word with its grammatical changes and grammatical characteristics, while the sphere of syntax includes those linguistic units that directly serve for communication between people and directly relate what is being communicated to reality. The patterns of use of word forms directly connect morphology with syntax. The concentration in syntax of such linguistic means, without which it is impossible to communicate, determines the relationship of syntax to morphology.

Knowledge of grammar is the foundation for correct literary speech. Speech development is a large and complex area of ​​native language methodology. Correct speech is the basis of linguistic culture.Without it, there is neither literary mastery nor the art of the living and written word. “Fluent command of the Russian language,” it is emphasized in the Main Directions of the Reform of General Education and Vocational Schools, “should become the norm for young people graduating from secondary educational institutions.” The importance of grammatical knowledge for the formation of a speech culture determines the relevance of the chosen topic. Unfortunately, students often make grammatical speech errors in written and oral answers. Sometimes it is difficult to help a child master the forms of language, teach him to use the acquired knowledge, and stimulate speech development, both grammatical and cultural. The problem of the study is the grammatical base of the literary language of primary schoolchildren.

The purpose of this work is a theoretical substantiation of the need for grammatical knowledge for the formation of a speech culture, the development of methodological recommendations and a set of exercises for the formation of grammatical knowledge in primary schoolchildren.

The subject of the study is the grammatical norms of the Russian literary language as the foundation of the culture of speech.

The object of the study is a set of exercises for the formation of grammatical knowledge in primary schoolchildren.

To achieve the goal of the work, the following tasks were set:

Study and analyze scientific, psychological, pedagogical, methodological and linguistic literature on the topic under study;

View the educational kit;

Research methods:

Observation method;

A method for practical analysis of the composition of grammatical knowledge among junior schoolchildren during Russian language lessons.

The research is based on the works of such authors as A. D. Alferov (psychological development of schoolchildren), A. A. Bondarenko (work on the formation of literary language skills in primary schoolchildren), V. V. Vinogradov (grammatical norms of the Russian literary language), I. N. Zaidman (Development of speech of junior schoolchildren), T. P. Salnikova (methods of teaching grammar in primary grades), etc.

This study was conducted on the basis of 1-4 gymnasium No. 6 in Kazan.

The work consists of an introduction, 2 chapters, a conclusion, and a list of references from 18 sources.

Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of the research topic

1.1 Language education of primary schoolchildren at the present stage

The modern four-year primary school is currently receiving increasingly favorable conditions for its development, and primary language education is acquiring an increasingly definite status in methodological science. The language education of a primary school student and his speech development are more thoroughly and justifiably merged into a single educational and cognitive process.

Modern primary language education is not limited only to the “linguistic component and includes a wide profile of speech, social, literary, general cultural, historical, personal and value aspects.” One of the aspects of this relationship is a careful attention in school education to the role of language as a means of communication, knowledge of the world around us, as well as the self-development of the student as an individual with his own interests, needs and abilities to fulfill them. Therefore, primary school is designed to lay the foundations for the competent development of children, to ensure the formation of strong skills in fluent, conscious, expressive reading, competent writing, developed speech, and cultural behavior. An important place in the implementation of the intended goals belongs to the Russian language course, “the objectives of which are to teach children to read, speak, write correctly, to enrich students’ speech, to provide basic information on language and literature, to develop attention and interest in reading books, to clarify and expand children’s ideas about the world around them, to ensure the versatile and harmonious development and education of younger schoolchildren, to involve them in the active assimilation of universal moral and cultural values.”

The goal of developing a primary school student as an individual who is fully proficient in oral and written speech, socially active and focused on self-education, required certain changes in the content and methods of teaching the Russian language in grades I-IV, and the creation of new educational literature for students. It should be noted that the language education of a schoolchild is a process and the result of cognitive activity aimed at mastering the fundamentals of language theory for the purposes of communication, speech, mental, aesthetic development, and mastering the culture of the people of the native speaker of a given language. If we characterize language education as a process, then we need to highlight learning goals, content, teaching methods, organizational forms, and methodological conditions. When characterizing language education as a result of educational and cognitive activity, it is necessary to highlight a certain level of proficiency, which is determined by a set of indicators, the readiness of students to solve practical problems (grammatical, spelling, communication, etc.) in educational situations and to apply language knowledge in the life conditions of speech. This understanding of language education, which includes language, speech, and personal development aspects, allows us to consider the language education of a schoolchild and his upbringing as a “linguistic personality” in interconnection.

Analysis of a holistic approach to the content and structure of modern primary language education allows us to identify the following components:
- language system - a set of linguistic knowledge in the form of concepts, information presented in educational programs, as well as language skills (graphic, grammatical, morphemic);
- speech activity as the implementation of language, including the processes of reading, writing, listening, speaking. This component combines speech science knowledge and skills of varying degrees of complexity, the ability to perceive and create text. This component also includes spelling and punctuation skills, correct, conscious, expressive and fluent reading skills;
- speech works that are used in the process of mastering language and speech as didactic material and represent sample texts of a certain type and style of speech;
- methods of activity that ensure the assimilation of the language system and the formation of language, speech and general cognitive skills;
- culture of speech behavior (culture of communication);
- culture of the Russian language native people.

It is impossible to know the Russian language in isolation from the knowledge of everything that has been created by the people speaking this language: “The language of every developed nation contains the results of life, feelings, thoughts of a countless number of individuals, not only of this people, but also of many others, whose language it has inherited ; and all this enormous inheritance of the spiritual life of countless people, accumulated over many millennia, is transmitted to the child in his native language! .

The complexity of the content of language education at school is due to the multifunctionality of the language. For a student, language acts not only as the most important means of communication between people, but also as an opportunity to understand the world, speech and mental development of a person, the mutual influence of people on each other, aesthetic and moral education. At the same time, language represents for the student a means of knowing himself as a social subject (he has a need to understand: who am I? Who is next to me? What can I do? What should I be? Etc.)

To answer the question: “What is the starting point when determining the content of primary language education?”, it is necessary to take into account the totality of language functions, identifying the leading ones. “It is customary to distinguish the following as the leading ones in linguistics: communicative (language is a means of communication), cognitive (language provides knowledge of the world, a person, oneself; this function is also called expressive), emotional (language is a means of expressing feelings and emotions).”

When determining the content of school teaching and its methodological orientation, the functional-semantic principle of primary language education is identified as a “fundamental factor”.

The functions of words, sentences and text as units of language and speech are presented in conjunction already in the first grade.

The textbook “Russian Language” begins with the section “Word. Offer. Text". The teacher’s task is to help schoolchildren become familiar with the basic functions of a word, sentence, text in human communication: a word names, a sentence communicates, a text communicates in more detail, describes or convinces. Gradually (from class to class) the features and functions of words, sentences and texts are clarified and deepened. The essence of the word to the name (name) is specified. Schoolchildren get an answer to the question: what does the word mean? A word is the name of objects, phenomena, qualities, characteristics of objects, etc. Students clarify for themselves that in the language each independent word means something, that is, it has its own lexical meaning. Students are given the opportunity to understand a word as a part of speech, that is, as a grammatical category with certain features and functions in speech.

It must be emphasized that the functions of all three units of speech are considered in their interrelation. The source material is practical speech-oriented exercises, and not information for memorization.

The cognitive function of language is realized in teaching primary schoolchildren, taking into account their capabilities and needs to know the world and themselves, and the tasks of teaching their native language as “a means of communication, a source of comprehensive development of the student, his constant growth as a socially growing personality.” Considering the cognitive aspect of teaching the native language, no less interest “is the cognitive material of the exercises in the textbook “Russian Language”, on the basis of which primary schoolchildren expand their ideas about their country, its natural resources, the history of Russia, the culture of the people, people’s lives, etc. Thus, the implementation of the cognitive function of language is ensured by the cognitive and artistic value of texts.

The emotional function of language deserves the teacher’s close attention, given its role in the development of a student as an individual who has the ability to express his attitude to the content or addressee of speech. In the implementation of the emotional function of language in textbooks “Russian Language”, the role of literary texts, analysis of their figurative expressive means, allowing the author to convey his attitude to what is happening and how it is happening, leads students to realize the role of the exact use of a word, phrase or sentence in text.

The author's attitude to the actions of the characters is perceived in its own way by students and deserves their assessment on their part. It is important to create an atmosphere of creative exploration in the lesson, taking into account the visual means in the text, in addition to the content. This function is carried out in literature, literature, rhetoric, music, and history lessons.

An important methodological condition for the assimilation and application of knowledge in practical activities is the inclusion of new knowledge into the system of already acquired ones. “This provision is one of the starting points when structuring the content of primary language education.” .

A scientifically substantiated connection of what is currently being studied with previous and subsequent ones in terms of content and the cognitive activity being formed creates favorable conditions for the development of the student as a creatively thinking individual, capable of further improvement and self-development. This relationship provides favorable conditions for a holistic system of teaching language and speech, and consequently, the development of the student.

The system-forming connections of the Russian language course are the connections between the language and speech skills being formed. This connection determines the content and structure of such systems as systems for studying morphology, syntax, morphemics, and vocabulary in grades II-IV. In the structure of each of the systems (for example, the system for studying nouns, verbs, the morphemic composition of words) and the microsystem (spelling of unstressed case endings of nouns, unstressed vowels in the roots of words, etc.).

From class to class, each of the microsystems becomes more complex, taking into account specific knowledge on each of the topics studied, connections with other topics of the course, as well as between the language and speech skills being formed and methods of cognitive activity.

Let's turn to the content of some sections of the course and see how the material of each section becomes more complicated from II to IV grade. Studying the section “Word”. Parts of speech" is aimed at developing the concepts of "noun", "adjective", "verb", "pronoun", "adverb" and developing the ability to use them in coherent speech.

In the second grade, from the general concept of “word” as the name of an object, a sign of an object, an action of an object, students move on to becoming familiar with some grammatical features of each of these groups of words. In grade III, the starting point is the concept of “parts of speech”, which is based on the study of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and familiarization with pronouns, adverbs, and numerals. At the same time, parts of speech are compared with each other, what is common to all is established, students’ understanding of their functions in speech is deepened, and they are accurately used in the text in accordance with the purpose of the statement. Thus, “the functional-semantic approach to the study of parts of speech is leading.”

As a component in the section “Word. Parts of speech" includes material on vocabulary: synonyms and antonyms, polysemy of words, the use of words in literal and figurative senses.

The gradual complication from class to class of not only linguistic information, but also actions with it is also characteristic of the study of “Word Composition”: Grade II - familiarization with the features of cognate words, with the concept of “root”, Grade III - formation of concepts: “prefix”, “suffix”, “ending”, as well as the formation of root and prefix spelling skills; Grade IV - deepening knowledge about the word-formation role of prefixes and suffixes in the process of studying parts of speech, developing skills in spelling unstressed reliable endings of nouns and adjectives, personal endings of verbs. Much attention is paid to students' awareness of the sequence of actions as constituent components - the process of writing a word (in order to solve a spelling problem).

Thus, in each class, language is studied as a holistic phenomenon, i.e., taking into account the interconnection and functions of all subsystems of the language: phonetics and graphics, vocabulary, grammar, morphemics, spelling, punctuation. This is the uniqueness of the primary language education course.

The rationale for the content of language education is presented in the author’s program “Russian Language Program for a Four-Year Primary School” of 2001. The program consists of two parts: “Consistent Note” and “Training Content. “Phonetics, vocabulary, morphemics, grammar. Spelling. Development of speech." The program emphasizes that the tasks of teaching schoolchildren their native language are determined by the role that language plays in the life of society and every person, being the most important means of understanding the world around us, people’s communication and their mutual influence on each other. Students have a need to learn the properties of their native language in order to be able to accurately and freely express their thoughts, understand their interlocutor, enrich their thoughts, understand their interlocutor, enrich themselves with what is already associated with the people who are native speakers of this language.

Of particular importance for the general and speech development of children is the knowledge of language as one of the aspects of the culture of the people. The language is closely connected in its development with oral folk art and literature. Elementary ideas about the role of language in the life of society and in the life of every person, about the development of language in connection with the development of society are very important for the formation of “scientific views of schoolchildren. Familiarizing students with the totality of information about a language is not an end in itself for teaching a language, but an opportunity to introduce children to the history of the language, to the culture of the Russian people; this is a natural way to develop interest in their native language and the need to learn it.” This goal setting determines the language teaching methodology. It is creative in nature and provides freedom to the teacher and students. The teacher is free to choose additional topics and the scope of the issue, to choose organizational forms of teaching (lesson, extracurricular activity, individual independent work, watching a film or excursion).

In order to improve speech culture, the program provides for familiarization with some accessible norms of the literary language. These norms determine, firstly, the correct pronunciation of words (orthoepic norms), secondly, the correct construction of sentences and the use of grammatical forms of words in phrases (grammatical norms), thirdly, the correct use of words, taking into account their semantic (meaning) compatibility (rules of word usage).

Familiarization with the norms of the literary language and figurative means of speech brought real results if one systematically analyzed sample texts in Russian language lessons and reading lessons, developed a linguistic sense, and paid attention to the correct use of words, phrases and phraseological units. It is useful to observe the stylistically precise use of words in the author’s texts, depending on the purpose of the statement, and carry out an analysis, establishing why this particular word, and not its synonym, is appropriate; It is necessary to develop in students an interest in fiction, works of different genres as works of art, and a desire to learn them by heart or close to the text.

Work on the norms of the literary language is practical and carried out throughout the academic year. In connection with the study of various topics in the Russian language course, extracurricular activities on the subject, writing summaries and essays, literature lessons. It is necessary to teach children to correct each other’s speech errors and to use various dictionaries in case of difficulty. This is a natural way to master the literary norms of the Russian language.

Currently, the methodological problem remains the further improvement of primary “speech-based language education, taking into account the developing potential of the educational set.” .

1.2 Speech culture as the basis for mastering the grammatical norms of a literary language

The concept of “culture of speech” arose at the beginning of the 20th century. as a kind of language policy, the content of which was the struggle for the purity of the Russian language. Not only famous linguists (G. O. Vinokur, K. S. Gorbachevich, Yu. N. Karaulov, D. E. Rosenthal, E. V. Yazovitsky and others) participated in this educational activity, but also teachers, writers, actors . In the middle of the 20th century. The educational radio and television programs “In the World of Words”, “Baby Monitor”, and the television almanac “Russian Speech” were very popular.

In the 20th century speech culture was understood as “mastery of the norms of oral and written literary language, as well as the ability to use linguistic means in different communication conditions in accordance with the goals and content of speech... The concept of “speech culture” includes two stages of mastering a literary language: correctness of speech and speech mastery " .

In the modern understanding, speech culture is a field of linguistics that considers conscious speech activity to create purposeful and appropriate ethically correct statements in given communication conditions. The culture of speech is interpreted as a doctrine about the content and style of effective and exemplary speech, its basic communicative qualities.

The concept of “communicative qualities of speech” is currently considered as those properties of speech that help organize effective communication and ensure harmonious interaction between interlocutors. The list of communicative qualities of speech includes relevance, accessibility, richness, purity, accuracy, logic, expressiveness, and correctness.

Appropriateness of speech from a communicative point of view, it is the main basic quality of speech. Successful speech is appropriate, meeting the goals and conditions of communication through an adequate choice of the general communication strategy (speech style, genre of utterance) and specific linguistic means (lexical, syntactic, non-verbal, intonation, etc.) for the implementation of the chosen strategy.

Availability presupposes the construction of speech in which the level of complexity of the utterance corresponds to the level of understanding of the addressee (listener, reader). This quality is interpreted as a requirement to comply with the principle of cooperation, which presupposes the author’s acceptance of the position of a facilitator.

Richness of language and speech in general, it denotes the abundance of various means of language and speech at the addressee’s disposal. The Russian language is extremely rich; it is rightfully considered one of the most multifaceted languages ​​in the world. However, the richness of the speech of a particular person speaking Russian is determined not so much by the richness of the Russian language, but by what share of the total linguistic wealth a particular person can use, taking into account personal savings. The richness of speech is a quality that indicates a certain level of speech mastery, performs an aesthetic function in speech, and is an indicator of its high level.

Accuracy - the quality of speech, which adequately reflects reality, is clearly indicated by the word and intonation of what the author wanted to say. A prerequisite for achieving accuracy of speech is knowledge of the subject of speech (what I am talking about, writing), but this condition is not sufficient. Accuracy also depends on the speaker’s (writer’s) ability to choose words and syntactic structures that characterize the subject of speech.

Logicality of speech - its quality, indicating the compliance of the statement with the laws of logic. The logic of speech means consistency, structural correctness and harmony, coherence of the statement, something that facilitates the easy understanding of the statement by listeners.

Expressive is a speech in which the author’s attitude to the subject and (or) form of speech corresponds to the communicative situation, and the speech as a whole is assessed as effective. The main condition for expressiveness is that the author of the speech has his own thoughts, feelings, and position, which ensures the originality of the speech and its creative nature.

Correct speech is interpreted as the first stage of its culture, a mandatory primary quality of any speech, consisting in compliance with the norms of the literary language (pronunciation, word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic), which are enshrined in linguistic dictionaries and reference books.

Standard of literary language - This is a generally accepted version of pronunciation, grammar, and word usage. The norm is established and supported by the language practice of cultural people. Codification (fixation) of a norm is a feature of a literary language, but language is a living phenomenon, it is constantly changing, which leads to a change in the norm. As a result, the following arise: a mandatory norm dictating the only correct use; a variable norm that allows for the possibility of free choice of an option from two acceptable in a modern literary language.

In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:

a) norms common to oral and written speech (lexical, word-formation, grammatical, stylistic);

b) norms of oral speech (pronunciation norms, stress, intonation norms);

c) special norms of written speech (standards of spelling and punctuation).

A junior schoolchild, subject to the positive influence of the speech environment, under the influence of teaching the Russian language and literary reading, can master the norms of the language, master the correctness of speech as the first stage of its culture. It is unlikely that a junior schoolchild will achieve speech mastery as the second stage of speech culture, the totality of communicative qualities of speech. However, this work should be carried out with the aim of developing students’ linguistic sense and accumulating positive speech experience.

Any violation of current language norms is interpreted as a speech error.

Knowledge of the classification of speech errors provides the teacher with freedom in constructing work to prevent, correct, and overcome them. Methodological science presents a description of various approaches to constructing a classification of speech errors (T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, M. R. Lvov, S. N. Tseitlin, P. G. Cheremisin and others).

The classification of students' speech errors, built on the basis of distinguishing the structure of the language (its structure, system of linguistic units) and the functioning of linguistic units, has become widespread. The developers of this classification, V. I. Kaninos and M. S. Soloveichik, proceeded from the idea that schoolchildren’s mistakes in using language means are due to two reasons: 1) ignorance of the language system, the structure of language units; 2) inability to use linguistic units when constructing one’s own statement, ignorance of the peculiarities of the functioning of linguistic units.

This explains the grouping of all speech disorders of students into two main groups. The first includes violations of the norms of the literary language, i.e. there is a violation of correct speech; in the second - violations of the communicative expediency of speech, its relevance, accessibility, richness, purity, accuracy, logic, expressiveness.

Violations of literary language norms are namedgrammatical errors, since it is in grammar that the structure of language units is considered: words, phrases and sentences. Four subgroups of grammatical errors have been identified.

INfirst subgroup includes errors in word formation that occur within different morphemes (root, suffix, prefix)(fidgety, shot, tangerine harvest). The examples given indicate the inability of students to correctly “fill” these models in accordance with the existing distribution in the language.

Insecond subgroup errors in the formation of the word form include:

a) in the formation of forms of gender, number and case of nouns(was with my sister, a lot of girls, clean towels). As a rule, these errors are classified as gross, since they demonstrate a deviation from the method of changing certain groups of words legalized in the language system;

b) in the formation of verb forms with alternation of consonants in the root(driving, lying down, flowing). These errors are often introduced into the speech of schoolchildren from the speech environment;

c) in the formation of forms of personal pronouns(to her, for him, after them).

INthird subgroup includes errors in the construction of phrases. Among them:

a) coordination violations(foggy morning, on fluffy branches). The main reason for such errors is the difficulties experienced by children in determining the gender of nouns;

b) control disorders(touch the birch tree, I rejoice at the beauty, I came from the store). Expressing various kinds of relationships using cases and prepositions makes it difficult for students, since their level of abstract thinking is insufficient.

INfourth subgroup includes errors in sentence construction. These are:

a) violation of the connection between subject and predicate(The kids went to the river. My grandmother and I walked by the sea). The reason for such errors lies in the peculiarities of children's thinking, concrete and figurative;

b) errors in the construction of sentences with participial and participial phrases(After drinking cold milk, my throat hurt. While doing homework, I ran out of notebooks). These errors are classified as gross only in secondary school, where participles and gerunds are studied;

c) in constructing sentences with homogeneous members(There are many trees and apple trees in the garden. The students and girls went to the holiday.) Association as homogeneous members of generic and specific, as well as intersecting concepts; an unsuccessful combination of them with each other is not so much a grammatical as a logical error;

d) in constructing complex sentences(Lena stroked the cat Musya. She laughed; The first snow fell. It melted) .

Speech shortcomings are less severe speech disorders; they reveal the child’s inability to use a lexical or grammatical unit of language, taking into account the content, context, conditions and tasks of communication. Speech defects represent violations of communicative expediency and characterize speech as inaccurate, inexpressive, inappropriate, illogical, etc.

M. S. Soloveichik identifies the following subgroups of speech defects.

1. Incorrect use of the word:The wonderful holiday shocked us. The word “shock” exists in the Russian language, but its meaning does not correspond to the content that the author tried to put into it.

2. Poor choice of word, violation of lexical compatibility:Thanks to the fire, the forest burned down. The author’s idea is clear, but the idea is expressed poorly, ineptly, without taking into account the generally accepted compatibility of these words.

3. Poor use of pronouns:The master has finished renovating the house. He is good. Such statements are quite frequent in oral speech, which is explained by its spontaneous nature, but in writing such shortcomings are a manifestation of negligence, a thoughtless attitude to the choice of means.

4. Bad word order:The bug helped people dig with its paws and muzzle. This defect interferes with a quick and complete understanding of the content of the statement, obscures, and often distorts the meaning intended by the author in the sentence.

5. Mixing verb types and tenses:The guys are building a slide and making a snow woman. The combination of verb forms used is incorrect not in general, but in this context.

6. Using an extra word (pleonasm):young youth; very beautiful; the month of August. The redundancy in students' use of linguistic means when expressing thoughts is, as a rule, explained by a misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.

7. The use of nearby or closely related words (tautology):Old men are sitting on a bench. Intrusive repetition of a root in closely spaced words is a manifestation of the poverty of speech, its monotony.

8. Repeat words:Masha came to her grandmother and helped her grandmother water the flowers. The repetition of words in a text can be justified only if it serves as a means of connecting sentences and enhancing the emotionality of the statement.

9. Syntactic poverty, monotony of syntactic constructions:Spring has come. Grass appeared. Snowdrops have bloomed. The birds began to sing.

10. Violation of speaking style:Timur acts as commander. The phrase “performs duties” is appropriate only in official business speech and cannot be used in everyday speech.

This classification of speech disorders of primary schoolchildren makes it possible to distinguish gross errors (grammatical) from non-severe ones (speech shortcomings). The teacher’s ability to detect students’ speech errors and qualify them is a necessary condition for success in teaching the correct and communicatively appropriate use of language in speech.

M.R. Lvov notes that in the oral and written statements of younger schoolchildren there are oftennon-speech errors - compositional, logical, factual. Thus, compositional errors in students’ essays (stories) and presentations (retellings) consist of a discrepancy between the student’s text and the original plan and a violation of the sequence of presentation of events. The reasons for compositional errors lie in incorrectly carried out preparatory work: perhaps the stage of planning the text was skipped, or the selection of facts was carried out haphazardly, etc. Logical errors include omission of words or episodes, as well as ridiculous, paradoxical judgments of students. Factual errors consist of distortion of factual material.

Work on speech culture in a modern primary school is based ontaking into account the settingsGEF NOO. The standard names the subject results of mastering the main educational program in the subject "Russian Language". Among them:

1) the formation of a positive attitude towards correct oral and written speech as an indicator of a person’s general culture and civic position;

2) mastery of initial ideas about the norms of the Russian literary language;

3) the ability to choose adequate language means to successfully solve communicative problems.

In work on speech culture, a special place is occupied by activities aimed atprevention of speech errors students. S. N. Tseitlin recommends that teachers, firstly, “adhere to the tactics of proactive (pre-theoretical) error prevention,” since this or that language unit appears in children’s speech practice long before its theoretical study at school. In this situation, it is impossible to formulate rules for using a linguistic unit, so it is advisable to present and then consolidate in practice the correct form. Secondly, it is necessary to make full use of the developmental potential of the speech environment (the speech of others, the texts of works of art, etc.), from which students “extract the norm.” Thirdly, connections should be established between the linguistic course, the study of the functioning of linguistic units in speech and work on speech culture. Based on language theory, the teacher has the opportunity to explain to the student the mistake he made and prevent the subsequent occurrence of similar errors. Each theoretical topic of the school curriculum has certain opportunities for developing students’ speech skills, but in teaching practice these opportunities are not fully used.

M. S. Soloveichik proposedapproximate content of work on speech culture taking into account the possibility of practical mastery of the language norm when studying various grammatical and spelling material of the Russian language course. It should be emphasized that those normative rules proposed for consideration in elementary school are those that “are violated by native language speakers, are among those unconditionally accepted, and are communicatively significant, since they cover a large group of linguistic means or words, word forms, and constructions that are frequent in speech.” ".

When studying the “Sounds and Letters” section, work is provided on the norms of stress, pronunciation, and work to prevent violations of spelling norms(calls, repeat).

When studying the section “Word Composition”, work is carried out on the norms of word formation: teaching the correct formation of words using prefixes, suffixes, preventing errors likefelt, quietness, aspen tree. Attention is paid to improving the accuracy and expressiveness of speech by using the necessary prefixes and suffixes. In addition, work is provided to prevent the repetition of words with the same root.(the story tells, new news), as well as work on matching prefixes and prepositions(got to..., clung to..., clung to...).

When studying the “Parts of Speech” section, the following is provided: training in correct form formation; work to prevent errors in the forms of gender, number, case of nouns(surname, rake), personal verbs(steri, wants), personal pronouns(theirs, with her). Attention is paid to approval standards(sweet carrot), management(describe about nature) as well as - coordination of the main members(The youth gathered for the holiday). In terms of developing the communicative qualities of speech, training is carried out, firstly, in choosing a more precise word; secondly, avoiding repetition of words and inept use of pronouns(Fishermen sailed on boats. They were motorized).

Studying the “Sentence” section involves working to prevent errors in violating sentence boundaries(When it started to rain. Everyone entered the house) and on the use of homogeneous members(People and children left the school). In terms of developing the communicative qualities of speech, work is underway to enrich the syntactic structure of students’ speech.

M. S. Soloveichik proposedtypology of exercises, helping primary schoolchildren learn to formulate thoughts in accordance with the requirements of speech culture.

1. Observation of the use of language in a sample text. Exercises of this type are carried out during a lesson in reading works of fiction, in the process of teaching written reproduction of text (presentation), during dictation, and cheating.

An effective technique is to observe the use of language using material from a specially “damaged” author’s text (for example, all adjectives are missing). During the linguistic experiment, students restore missing words and become convinced of the accuracy and expressiveness of the author’s text.

2. Editing the statement from the point of view of the use of linguistic means in it. To conduct exercises of this type, it is advisable to use the material from a card index of children’s speech errors, which is compiled by the teacher in the process of checking students’ creative works. The basis for building a card index should be the classification of speech errors presented in scientific works.

3. Construction of units from given elements of a lower level: phrases and sentences from words, words from morphemes. The success of this exercise is due to the clarification of the final goal: why you need to make a proposal.

4. Transformation of structures, for example, changing the order of words, skipping them, combining two sentences into one, etc. The exercise provides training in choosing the appropriate word, adequate syntactic structure, etc.

5. Selecting words, composing phrases, coming up with sentences with a given subject of speech, to express a certain thought, etc. The peculiarity of this exercise is that students, when solving a speech problem, act independently, without relying on the language means proposed by the teacher.

T. A. Ladyzhenskaya recommends using the following effectivetechniques for memorizing norms. This is repeated repetition of the correct pronunciation of a word, its form, and word usage to develop the necessary automatism; For example:no stockings, Butno socks; in the Caucasus, Butin Crimea. Memorization is facilitated by memorizing poetic lines, where the normative version of pronunciation and word usage is supported by rhythm and rhyme, and therefore is easy to remember. It is also effective to combine words to be remembered into groups: for example, verbs in the feminine past tense with an emphasis on the ending-a (started, understood, took) .

proposed by M. R. Lvovtechnique for overcoming speech errors, admitted by students in written creative works. The system consists of the following elements:

1) correcting speech errors in students’ notebooks;

2) teacher’s comments in students’ notebooks(Change the word order and etc.);

3) frontal work on typical speech errors in an essay analysis lesson;

4) individual (or in a small group) extracurricular work on individual speech errors;

5) teaching schoolchildren to independently edit their own text.

Independent work of students in the field of improving the culture of their own speech is based on each person’s understanding of the responsibility for preserving their native language. The following measures are most effective in this regard: reading fiction as the most effective way, seeking advice from generally recognized sources of information (dictionaries, reference books, specialists in the field of philology), using Internet resources.

Chapter 2. System of work on studying the grammatical norms of the Russian literary language in elementary school

2.1 The composition of grammatical knowledge formed in primary schoolchildren during Russian language lessons

The state of the modern Russian language and its speech variety is of concern to both linguists and representatives of other sciences, people of creative professions whose direct activities are related to the sphere of communication. The decline in the level of speech culture is so obvious that many scientists, methodologists, and practical teachers insist on the need for continuous language training of young people at all levels of education (from primary to higher education). Therefore, in the process of school education, the task of teaching the Russian language as the main means of communication comes to the fore. In the “Federal State Educational Standard for Basic General Education” it plays a significant role: “The subject results of studying the subject area “Philology” should reflect: improvement of types of speech activity (listening, reading, speaking, writing), ensuring effective mastery of various academic subjects and interaction with surrounding people in situations of formal and informal interpersonal and intercultural communication; mastering... the basic norms of the literary language (spelling, lexical, grammatical, spelling, punctuation), norms of speech etiquette; gaining experience in using them in speech practice when creating oral and written statements; the desire for speech improvement."

Achieving such goals is legitimate in accordance with the principle of continuity between primary, secondary and higher schools. Thus, in the “Approximate program for the Russian language”, intended for primary grades (second generation standards), it is noted that “the language material is intended to form a scientific understanding of the system and structure of the Russian language..., as well as to contribute to the assimilation of the norms of the Russian literary language” .

Speech culture as a linguistic discipline formed over the last century, after the publication of G. O. Vinokur’s book “Culture of Language” and the founding of the Research Institute of Speech Culture.

There is no single definition of this concept. It is multi-valued and multifaceted. Often, scientists, when defining the term “speech culture,” list and reveal the characteristics of speech that ensure the successful solution of communicative tasks, taking into account a specific speech situation and communication style.

Since, according to methodologists, speech errors are an indicator of the level of speech development of a student, and a junior schoolchild in particular, as well as the simplest and most accessible basis for a teacher for assessing speech skills, then their prevention and overcoming should take a significant place in improving speech culture students.

According to S.N. Tseitlin, who developed a multi-stage classification of speech errors among students, the most common of which are morphological, i.e. shortcomings associated with the formation of morphological forms of Russian parts of speech.And this is not without reason, because... The morphological structure of language in a child’s speech activity is formed step by step, gradually, in the process of solving important communicative tasks for them. According to A.N. Gvozdev, grammatical categories are formed in a child by the age of three. By this period, children master the formation of the main significant parts of speech: nouns, verbs and later adjectives. Of course, children's word forms often differ from normative ones, i.e. existing in the language system. Compare:one sled, a lot of bricks, no rota, I draw, I eat porridge and the like. The list of such children's innovations can be continued, since the acquisition of grammar in preschool age is spontaneous and the child creates his own universal grammar, striving for the unification of word forms, mastering the most general rules of their construction, while denying deviations, exceptions, and methods of inflection atypical for the inflectional Russian language.

The orthological aspect of formation is already characteristic of the initial course of the Russian language. Primary schoolchildren learn the usual ways of forming the forms of substantive, adjective and verbal lexemes in the process of studying their main morphological categories.Naturally, when inflecting words, language norms are often violated and speech errors occur in the language of primary schoolchildren. A linguistic norm is a set of rules for the selection and use of linguistic means that regulate the correctness of the literary language.

Grammatical and morphological norms are formed during all four grades of primary school. They play an important role in the construction of phrases and sentences, which determines the communicative significance of the latter.As an analysis of the didactic material of textbooks on the Russian language by different authors shows, they do not pay much attention to orthology - the science of the norms of the modern Russian language. Exercises aimed at developing in children the normative inflection of lexemes, as a rule, are distinguished by uniformity. Basically, the tasks indicate how to decline or conjugate these lexemes. Of course, auxiliary dictionaries for the grammatical correctness of Russian speech provide undoubted help to children. But, unfortunately, they are not included in all Russian language textbooks.

In my opinion, it seems advisable to diversify orthological exercises with the following tasks:- on the transformation of a linguistic unit, i.e. replacing one word form with another;- according to cacography;- for the construction of high-level units from lower-level units, etc.

A series of lessons visited showed that cacographic and corrective exercises are especially active in the lessons. Thus, students are asked to analyze the use of word forms in the following speech situation:the buyer asks the seller to “weigh two hundred grams of cheese” . Children should determine the normativity - non-normativity of the inflection of the substantives gram and cheese encountered in the phrase. They argue, debate, and offer their own options. Sometimes dictionaries of grammatical correctness of speech come to their aid.

Thus, the orthological aspect of children's speech is dynamic and mobile: in the preschool period it is spontaneous, and at school age it is associated with the assimilation and awareness of the morphological norms of the modern Russian language, which depends on the degree of formation of grammatical and morphological concepts in children.

2.2 System of exercises for teaching grammatical norms of the Russian literary language in primary school

When teaching grammatical norms, it is advisable to use a special system of exercises that allows this work to be carried out most effectively. This system may include the following groups: I. Exercises for students to understand grammatical norms. II. Exercises to develop the ability to correctly form grammatical forms and structures. III. Exercises to find, classify and correct grammatical errors. IV. Exercises to understand the expressive capabilities of linguistic phenomena and their stylistic coloring.

In terms of studying linguistic theory, special attention should be paid to the noun, as one of the complex parts of speech that plays an important role in the organization of text space. This grammatical class of words has a large number of forms, the use of which in speech causes difficulties associated both with the semantics of nouns and with their formation, with their use during the production of a statement.

The most common grammatical errors are related to the incorrect use of gender, number and case forms of nouns, the choice of a controlled and coordinated word in the structure of a phrase, violations in the coordination of the main members of a sentence, etc. .

Therefore, in order to improve the speech culture of junior schoolchildren in the process of mastering the grammatical norms of the Russian language when studying a noun, it is necessary to develop the following skills: the ability to form forms of gender, number, case of a noun and use them in speech; the ability to choose the correct case, prepositional-case form of the controlled word; the ability to coordinate the definition with the word being defined in a phrase; the ability to coordinate the main parts of a sentence.

I made an attempt to develop a system of exercises aimed at developing these skills. The selection of language material for tasks was carried out taking into account the principle of accessibility of this vocabulary for children of primary school age.

Despite the fact that the noun is studied as an autonomous topic in the Russian language course in primary school, in my opinion, it is necessary to address difficult cases of using words of a given grammatical class when mastering other sections of the discipline. In lessons, it is advisable to use frontal, group, and individual work using visual aids; test tasks can be used to organize knowledge control. An important condition for the effectiveness of work to improve the speech culture of junior schoolchildren is its systematic nature.

As part of this work, we will consider some of the exercises.

Thus, in the course of studying the category of gender of a noun, in order to develop the ability to form gender forms and use them in speech, students can be offered the following tasks:

1. Select and write down the corresponding feminine nouns for masculine nouns (where possible).

U teacher, orderly, champion, massage therapist, secretary, student, lawyer, foreman, doctor, physician, general, defender, director, soloist .

2. Determine the gender of nouns. Make up phrases by selecting appropriate adjectives.

Tulle, pony, grandson, kangaroo, girl, shampoo, milkmaid, wife, sconce, hare, lioness, taxi, ice cream, eagle, jury, tractor driver, piano, interview, artist, knife, canal, cabbage, plate, coat, path, lady, ticket, nightingale, coffee, lawyer, bell, judge, shoulder strap.

There are students in the class who finish their assignments earlier than others. Such children can be offered tasks in the form of a verbal lotto. Here the students no longer write (the hand rests). Card option: “Seat the residents on floors.” Here the set includes 1 card with a picture of a house (see Fig. 1), which has 3 floors (neuter, masculine, feminine) and 30 word cards. Children distribute, that is, lay out the cards according to the corresponding floors (genus), orally selecting adjectives.

Figure 1. Model of a house for completing the task “Disperse the residents by floor”

Words for cards: log, madam, kangaroo, stick, scoop, pagon, dahlia, lilac, shoe, sconce, potato, policy, taxi, corn, teacher, physicist, obstetrician, saleswoman, hat, shampoo, maestro, coat, tornado, cockatoo, pilot, vase, linoleum, food, fountain.

The following group of tasks can be used when studying the number category of a noun. They are aimed at developing the ability to form plural and singular forms and use them in speech.

1. Put these nouns into the genitive plural form.

Author, apricot, choice, director, shoe, wedding, apple tree, heron, boat, doctor, Georgian, Ossetian, palm, mirror, shorts, speaker, vacation, officer, port, professor, editor, watchman, tractor, paramedic, pastel, driver, fable, pomegranate, splashes, eggplant, banana, nanny, tomato, kitchen, anchor.

2. Form the singular form, nominative case, from these nouns.

Twins, boots, pasta, Turkmens, trousers, splashes, hectares, eyebrows, felt boots, mittens, troops, hair, Cossacks, Romanians, quotes, skates, skis, socks, firewood, vegetables, gloves, parents, bran, nurseries, memoirs, sneakers, shoes, mustaches, ears, everyday life, holidays, beads, fruit, stockings.

Considering that children love to complete tasks in a playful way, you can use the “Magic Basket” exercise. Students are shown a basket and must fill it with the nouns that are written on the cards. The basket should only contain cards with those nouns that have singular forms. and many more h.

Words for cards: Trousers, pearl, wafer, orange, pasta, seed, bill, manger, firewood, cornice, milk, pencil, linen, gold, cabbage soup, cream, song, road, vacation, twilight, chess, ketchup, hide and seek, time, radio, sand, oil, chair, flame, drop, pencil.

To develop the ability to choose the correct case form of a controlled word in a phrase, to coordinate the main members of a sentence, the following tasks can be suggested:

1. Open the brackets and put the nouns in the correct case form.

Classes at (home). There is a flag hanging on (the house). We read about fruit (garden). We walked in (the garden). Meet at (bridge). We talked about (the bridge). There is a glass (of tea) on the table. Drink (tea). Pour (sugar) into a glass.

2. Combine the following nouns using prepositionsaccording to, thanks to, despite .

Help, command, desire, advice, ability to work, intentions of enemies, interests of schoolchildren.

3. Make up phrases with the following nouns, using prepositions that make sense(with, on, from, to):

…south – ...south, ...coast – ... coast, ... Kyiv – ... Kyiv, ... city – ...city, ...table – ... table, ... bed - ... bed, ... street – ...streets, ...school – ...schools, ...garden – ...garden, ...tree – ... tree.

An effective technique that allows you to study and consolidate words that cause difficulties for younger schoolchildren in the formation of forms of gender, number, and case is the use of reference tables-helpers. The teacher can place them in the grammar corner “Learning to speak and write correctly.” To compile tables, reference materials are used on difficult cases of using nouns. Low-performing children should be offered reminder tables that include material that is relevant to the topic currently being studied (for example, the correct forms of words that cause difficulties, etc.).

Thus, the systematic and targeted use of tasks of this nature will contribute to the development of memory and attention of children, will contribute to the formation of interest in language among younger schoolchildren, the activation of mental activity, which in general will be effective for improving the speech culture of younger schoolchildren in the process of studying the grammatical norms of Russian literary language.

Conclusion

This work is devoted to teaching the Russian literary language in primary school. The importance of grammatical knowledge for the formation of a child’s correct cultural speech allows us to call the chosen topic relevant. The purpose of the work was to find a theoretical justification for the need for grammatical knowledge for the formation of a speech culture. Achieving this goal became possible through the study and analysis of scientific, psychological, pedagogical, methodological and linguistic literature on the topic under study. After studying the educational and methodological set and attending a series of classes in grades 1-4, I developed a set of exercises for developing grammatical knowledge in primary schoolchildren (in particular when learning nouns). Attending classes also provided an opportunity to formulate pedagogical recommendations for teaching grammar in lower grades. Thus, we can say that the objectives of the study have been achieved and the objectives have been completed.

List of used literature

Alferov A.D. Psychology of development of schoolchildren, Rostov-on-Don, 2000

Blinov G.I. Practical and laboratory classes on Russian language methods, M., 1986

Bondarenko A.A. Formation of literary pronunciation skills in primary schoolchildren, M., 1990

Velichko L.I. Speech. Speech. Rech., M., 1983

Vinogradov V.V. Russian language: grammatical doctrine of the word, M., 1986

Drinyaeva O.A. Linguistic theories in the initial course of the Russian language. – Tambov, 2005.

Zaidman I.N. Speech development and psychological and pedagogical correction of younger schoolchildren // Elementary school, No. 6, 2003

Kapinos V.I., Sergeeva N.N., Soloveichik M.S. Speech development: theory and practice of teaching, M., 1994

Kubasova O.V. Russian language in primary school: a collection of methodological tasks, M., 1995

Lvov M.R. Speech of younger schoolchildren and ways of its development, M., 1974

Salnikova T.P. Methods of teaching grammar, spelling and speech development, M., 2001

End of form

Soloveichik M.S. Russian language in primary school: theory and practice of teaching, M., 1994

Tseytlin S.N. Language and the child: linguistics of children's speech, M., 2000

Shapar V. Dictionary of a practical psychologist, M., 2004

Shcherba L.V. Teaching foreign languages ​​in secondary school // General issues of methodology, M., 1974

Shcherba L.V. Difficulties of Russian language syntax for Russian students // Electronic version of the magazine “Russian Language”. 2003. No. 20. URL:.

Federal state educational standard for primary general education. URL: http://standart.edu.ru.

Grammar (ancient Greek. γραμματική from γράμμα ‘letter’) as a science is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language and all the grammatical patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagmas, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.

Main aspects of the topic

* Grammar as a sign level.

*Grammatical meaning. Its signs.

* Morphological level of the grammatical system.

* Syntactic level of the grammatical system.

Basic theoretical principles

Grammar concepts

Grammatical structure (grammatical system, grammar; from Greek. γράμμα ‘record’) is a set of laws of a language that regulate the correct construction of significant speech segments (words, statements, texts).

The most important units of grammar (grammatical units) are morpheme, word, syntagma, sentence and text. All these units are characterized by a certain grammatical meaning and a certain grammatical form.

Grammatical meaning– meaning expressed by an inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator).

Grammatical category– a closed system of mutually exclusive and opposed grammatical meanings (grammemes), which specifies the division of a vast set of word forms (or a small set of high-frequency word forms with an abstract type of meaning) into non-overlapping classes, the difference between which significantly affects the degree of grammatical correctness of the text.

Grammatical form- a linguistic sign in which the grammatical meaning is expressed in one way or another (regularly, standardly). In various languages, means of expressing grammatical meanings can be zero and non-zero affixes, non-positional alternations of phonemes (internal inflections), stress patterns, reduplication, function words, word order, intonation. In isolating and related languages, the main way of expressing the grammatical meanings of words is their syntactic compatibility.

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

Each grammatical opposition must be expressed.

The opposition between the grammatical forms of a word is expressed by special affixes (suffixes, endings, etc.) or other grammatical means.

The opposition of grammatical classes of words can be expressed not by some individual morphemes (or other indicators), but by a system of forms. For example, for animate nouns the accusative case coincides with the genitive, and for inanimate nouns it coincides with the nominative. Consequently, the meaning of animacy is expressed not by any specific endings, but by a certain ratio of case endings. The grammatical opposition between perfective and imperfective verbs is expressed in a system of tense forms: thus, in the indicative mood, imperfective verbs have three tense forms ( I am writing – I wrote – I will write), and perfective verbs have only two ( I'll write–wrote).

Grammatical paradigmatics and syntagmatics

Within grammar (as well as within other subsystems of language) paradigmatics and syntagmatics are distinguished.

Grammatical paradigmatics covers the similarities and differences of grammatical units, their combination, on the one hand, into grammatical paradigms based on grammatical oppositions with lexical identity (for example, table, table, table, table, etc.), and on the other hand, into grammatical classes based grammatical similarities with lexical differences (for example, table, house, city, person, etc.).

Grammatical syntagmatics covers general patterns of compatibility of grammatical units with each other as part of larger units of a higher level - morphemes as part of a word, words as part of a syntagma, syntagmas as part of a sentence, sentences as part of a text, that is, the rules for combining grammatical units into grammatical structures and, accordingly, rules for the grammatical division of these structures into parts (components).

Tasks

1. Prepare answers to test tasks:

1 . A generalized abstract meaning characteristic of a whole class of words, which has its own regular and standard expression, is:

b) grammatical form;

c) grammatical method;

d) grammatical meaning.

2. A two-dimensional linguistic phenomenon that has a plane of expression and a plane of content:

b) grammatical form;

c) grammatical method;

d) grammatical meaning.

2. Give examples of analytical, synthetic, mixed and suppletive ways of expressing grammatical meaning.

form of control

Oral questioning in practical classes.

Test questions.

Individual interview for consultation.

Questions for self-control

1. Does every language have a grammatical system?

2. Does the grammatical system follow rules?

3. What is the difference between the concepts “grammatical form” and “grammatical category”?

4. Does the phenomenon of suppletivism have anything to do with grammar?

5. What are the means of expressing grammatical meaning?

6. Generalized grammatical meaning - is it the exception or the norm?

7. Why do different languages ​​have different grammatical systems?

8. On what basis are parts of speech identified?

Literature

Main

1. Girutsky A. A. General linguistics: Textbook. manual for university students / A. A. Girutsky. – . – Mn, 2001.

Additional

1. Tiraspolsky G.I. System of language and consistency in language / G.I. Tiraspolsky // Philol. Sciences. – 1999. – No. 6.

2. Uyomov L. I. System approach and general theory of systems / L. I. Uyomov. – M., 1978.

Glossary of basic definitions of the discipline

"Russian language and culture of speech"

Abbreviation- (Italian abbreviatura from Latin brevis - short). A compound word formed from initial letters, sounds or other initial elements of a phrase.

Paragraph- (German absetzen - move away). 1) Red line. 2) A segment of written or printed text from one red line to another.

Abstract (vocabulary)- (lat. abstractus - remote, abstract). A set of words with an abstract meaning of quality, property, state.

Active (dictionary)- (Latin activus - effective). Words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses (contrasted with a passive dictionary).
Accent- (lat. accentus - emphasis). Emphasis.

Allegory- (Greek allegoria - allegory). A trope consisting of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image.
Analogy- (Greek analogia - correspondence). Assimilation caused by the influence of some elements of language on other elements associated with them.

Antithesis- (Greek antithesis - opposition). A stylistic figure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, and images.
Antonym- (Greek anti - against + oniva - name). Words with opposite meanings.
Argo- (French argot - jargon). The language of individual social groups, artificially created for the purpose of linguistic isolation.

Argument- (lat. argumentum). A logical argument that serves as the basis of proof.

Archaism– outdated words and expressions.

Barbarism- (Greek barbarismos). Foreign word or expression.

Verbal (means)- (lat. verbum - verb). Verbal, linguistic means of communication as opposed to non-verbal, non-linguistic, non-verbal.

Vulgarisms- (lat. vulgaris - common people, rude). Rude words and expressions that are outside the norms of literary language.

Hyperbola- (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration). A figurative expression containing an exaggeration of the properties, signs, qualities of an object or phenomenon.

Hypothesis- (Greek . hipothesis - basis, assumption). A scientific hypothesis put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory.

Talk- a variety of a national language used in a limited area (see “dialect”, “adverb”).

Gradation- (Latin gradatio - gradual increase). - A stylistic figure consisting of such an arrangement of parts of a statement (words, sentence segments), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotional-expressive meaning, due to which an increase (weakening) of the impression they make is created.

Grammar- (Greek gramma - written sign). 1) A branch of linguistics that studies forms of inflection, the structure of words, phrases and sentences. 2) The grammatical structure of the language. 3) A set of rules for inflection, their combination into phrases and sentences.

Deductive (method)- (Latin deductio - removal). A method of proof consisting in moving from the general to the particular (opposed to induction).

Defective (verbs)- (lat. defectus - flaw, deficiency, shortcoming). Verbs with incomplete conjugation, i.e. not having separate personal forms for phonetic or semantic reasons.

Hyphen- (Latin divisio - division). A connecting line between parts of a compound word when written semi-continuously or between words that are in the relationship of the word being defined and the appendix to it, etc.

Dialect, dialectisms- (Greek dialektos - dialect, adverb). A variety of a national language used by a relatively limited number of people connected by territorial, social, and professional communities. Words from various dialects.

Dialogue- (Greek dialogos - conversation). A form of speech in which there is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons.

Jargon– the language of certain social groups.

Idiomatic (expression)- (Greek idioma - a peculiar expression). The same as a phraseological unit, phraseological unit.

Inversion- (Latin inversio - rearrangement, turning over). Changing the usual word order.

Inductive (method)- (Latin inductio - removal). A method of proof consisting in moving from the particular to the general.

Interactive (function)- (Latin inter - between, inside + actio - action). A communication function that ensures the organization of human interaction.

Intonation- (lat. intonare - pronounce loudly). Rhythmic and melodic side of speech.
Irony- (Greek eironeia - mockery). A trope consisting of using a word in the opposite sense.

Historicism- words characteristic of a certain time.

Kinetic (speech)- (Greek kinetikos - related to movement). Nonverbal means of communication in the form of expressive movements of various parts of the human body (facial expressions, gaze, posture, gait, gestures).

Book (vocabulary)- words and expressions associated with bookish styles of speech and used in scientific literature, journalism, and official business documents.

Communicative (function)- (lat. communicatio - message, communication). The function of communication is to transmit information.

Contact (communication)- (lat. contactus - contact). Communication between communicants located in close proximity to each other.

Context- (Latin contextus - close connection, connection). A semantically complete segment of text that makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of an individual word or sentence included in it.

A culture of speech– 1) A branch of philology that studies the speech life of society in a certain era. 2) The qualities of literate speech that make it exemplary in a given historical period in a given linguistic community.

Vocabulary- (Greek lexikos - verbal, dictionary). 1) The vocabulary of the language. 2) A set of words related to the field of their use (bookish, scientific, professional, exotic, outdated, etc.). 3) A set of words associated with their origin (original Russian, international, borrowed, etc.). 4) One of the stylistic layers in the vocabulary of a language (neutral, sublime, poetic, etc.).

Linguistics- (Latin lingva - language) the science of language.

Literary language- a normalized language that serves the diverse cultural needs of the people.

Litotes- (Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness). Trope, understatement.

Logical stress- highlighting one of the words of a sentence in the pronunciation to enhance its semantic load.

Metaphor- (Greek metaphora - transfer). Trope, hidden comparison, figurative designation based on similarity.

Metonymy- (Greek metonymia - renaming). Trope, a figurative designation based on a material connection between objects.

Multi-Union- a syntactic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, thereby emphasizing the role of each of them, creating unity of enumeration, and enhancing the expressiveness of speech.

Monologue- (Greek monos - one + logos - word). Speech belonging to one person.
Morpheme- (Greek morphe - form). A significant part of a word, further indivisible.
Morphology- grammatical teaching about the word, including the teaching about the structure of the word, forms of inflection, ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the teaching about parts of speech and their inherent methods of word formation.

Neutral vocabulary- words that are not attached to a specific style of speech, having stylistic synonyms (book, colloquial, colloquial), against the background of which they are devoid of stylistic coloring.

Neologism– new words and expressions.

Norm- (lat. norma). A single exemplary common use of language elements in a given era by given native speakers.

Oxymoron- (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). A trope consisting of the connection of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding each other.

Personification- the simplest type of metaphor, the animation of inanimate objects.
Homonyms- (Greek homos - identical + onyma - name). Words that sound the same but have different meanings.

Onomastics- (Greek onomastikos - related to a name) A branch of lexicology that studies proper names.

Speaker- (Latin orare - to speak). One who makes speeches and has the gift of eloquence.
Spelling- (Greek orthos - correct, direct + gramma - recording). Writing that conforms to spelling rules and requires the application of those rules.

Spelling- a system of rules for spelling words and their significant parts, continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings, the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, and the transfer of words from one line to another.

Orthoepy- (Greek epos - speech). A branch of linguistics that studies the norms of literary pronunciation.

Parallelism- (Greek parallelos - walking nearby). A syntactic figure, a comparison of different pictures (most often of nature and the human soul) in similar syntactic constructions.
Paraphrase (paraphrase)- (Greek paraphrasis - descriptive phrase, description). An expression that is a descriptive representation of the meaning of another expression or word.

Pause- (Greek pausis - cessation). A temporary stop in sound that breaks the flow of speech, caused by various reasons and performing various functions.

Personification- (Latin persona - face + facio - I do). A technique for transferring human characteristics and properties onto inanimate objects and abstract concepts.

Periphrase (periphrase)- the same as paraphrase, paraphrase.

Pleonasm- (Greek pleonasmos - excess). Verbosity, an expression containing unambiguous and thereby unnecessary words.

Predicate- (lat. praedicatum - expressed). 1) A logical predicate is what is expressed in a judgment about its subject. 2) Same as grammatical predicate.

Vernacular- words, expressions, forms of word formation and inflection, features of pronunciation that are not included in the norm of literary speech.

Direct word order- the most common arrangement of correlative members of the sentence for this type of sentence.

Punctuation- (lat. punctum - point). A collection of punctuation rules.
Conversational vocabulary- words used in casual conversation.

Rhetoric- (Greek rhetorike - the art of eloquence). Theory of expressive speech, eloquence, oratory.

A rhetorical question- interrogative sentence.

Synecdoche- (Greek synekdoche - co-impliation). A type of metonymy, the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.

Synonym- (Greek synonymos - same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, but differ in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring.

Syntax- (Greek syntaxis - composition). A section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the study of phrases and the study of sentences.

Situation- (French situation - position, situation). The circumstances in which the act of speech is performed.

Comparison- a trope consisting of likening one object to another based on a common feature.

Stylistics- (Greek stylos - writing rod). A branch of linguistics that studies various styles.

Suffix- (lat. suffixus - nailed, nailed down). A service morpheme, located after the root and used to form new words or their non-syntactic forms.

Tautology- (Greek tauto - the same + logos-word) repetition of what was said in other words.
Thesis- (Greek thesis). A statement whose truth must be proven.

Text- (Latin textum - connection, connection). A work of speech (statement) reproduced in writing or in print.

Subject- with the actual division of a sentence, that part of it that contains something known, familiar and serves as the starting point (basis) for conveying something new.

Term- (Latin terminus - limit, border, boundary sign). A word or phrase that accurately denotes a concept used in science, technology, or art.

Toponymy, toponymy- (Greek topos - place + onoma, onyma - name). A branch of onomastics that studies geographical names and toponyms.

Trope- (Greek tropos - turn). A figure of speech in which a word or expression is used figuratively for the purpose of greater artistic expressiveness.

Default- a turn of phrase that consists in the fact that the author does not fully express his thought, giving the reader (listener) the opportunity to guess for himself what exactly remains unspoken.

Stable combination- the same as a phraseological unit, phraseological unit.

Philology- (Greek phileo - love + logos - teaching). A set of sciences that study the culture of a people, expressed in language and literary creativity.

Forms of speech- varieties of speech that differ in external means of expression (oral and written forms of speech).

Phrase- (Greek phrasis - turnover, expression). The smallest independent unit of speech, acting as a unit of communication (in this meaning it coincides with the term “sentence”).

Phraseological unit, phraseological unit, phraseological turn- a lexically indivisible, stable in its composition and structure, complete in meaning, phrase, reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit.

Functional styles- styles distinguished in accordance with the main functions of language associated with a particular field of human activity.

Ellipsis- (Greek ellipsis - prolapse, omission). Omission of an element of an utterance that is easily reconstructed in a given context or situation.

Elative (elative)- (lat. elatus - raised, sublime) Homonymous with the superlative degree of the adjective, denoting an unrelated degree of quality.

Epithet- (Greek epitheton - application). Artistic, figurative definition, type of trope.
Epiphora- (Greek epi - after + phoros - bearing). A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora, consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel series (verse, stanza, sentence, etc.).

Etymology -(Greek etymon - truth). 1) A branch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of individual words and morphemes. 2) Origin and history of individual words and morphemes.

Language- a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serves as the most important means of communication between people.

Grammar is a system. A system is such a unity, each element of which is connected with others and depends on them. This is exactly how grammar works.

Each grammatical form exists in a language not on its own, but necessarily together with other forms to which it is contrasted in meaning. For example, there cannot be a singular form without a plural form. How to prove this? Let's imagine a language in which there is no plural form. In this language, any set of objects must be designated in the same way as one object (after all, there is no plural form). And if so, then there is no singular form in this language, because there are no differences in the designation of one and many objects. Without contrasting singular and plural forms, there is no grammatical number at all.

So, in order to express some grammatical meaning in a language, at least two forms opposed to each other are needed. But there may be more; for example, Russian has six main case forms (see Case).

The meaning of a grammatical form depends on the meaning of other forms to which it is contrasted. For example, in Russian the plural form is opposed only to the singular form and denotes more than one subject. And in Slovenian (one of the South Slavic languages), where there is also a form of the dual number, specifically to designate two objects, the plural form already designates more than two objects, and not more than one.

Both the grammatical forms of one word (for example, the case forms of a noun, the tense forms of a verb) and the grammatical classes of words are contrasted with each other: animate nouns are contrasted with inanimate ones, perfective verbs are contrasted with imperfective verbs, etc.

Each grammatical opposition must be expressed.

The opposition between the grammatical forms of a word is expressed by special affixes (suffixes, endings, etc.) or other grammatical means (see Grammar methods).

The opposition of grammatical classes of words can be expressed not by some individual morphemes (or other indicators), but by a system of forms. For example, for animate nouns the accusative case coincides with the genitive, and for inanimate nouns - with the nominative. Consequently, the meaning of animacy is expressed not by any specific endings, but by a certain ratio of case endings. The grammatical opposition between perfective and imperfective verbs is expressed in the system of tense forms: thus, in the indicative mood, imperfective verbs have three forms of tense (I am writing - I wrote - I will write), while perfective verbs have only two (I will write - I wrote).

Thus, the relations of grammatical classes ultimately come down to the opposition of forms. This also applies to the main grammatical classes (parts of speech), which are opposed to each other according to the most general, abstract grammatical meanings (see Parts of speech).

There are grammatical forms not only in morphology, but also in syntax. And there they are also interdependent and opposed to each other. Only these are no longer the forms of the words themselves, but the forms of their connection (see Subordination and Composition) and the forms of the sentence (for example, personal and impersonal sentences).

The grammar of each language is a system, but these systems are structured differently. The grammatical categories of different languages ​​are different, that is, those general meanings by which grammatical forms are opposed to each other. Thus, the category of animation - inanimateness and the category of aspect, which exist in the Russian language, are unknown to many languages, for example English, German and French. And in these languages ​​there is a category of definiteness - indeterminacy (it is expressed by two types of articles), which does not exist in the Russian language. The composition of forms within one category is also different. Thus, in languages ​​where there is a case category, the number of case forms varies from 2 (Marathi language in India) to more than 40 (some languages ​​of Dagestan). But even with the same number of forms in different languages, their meanings can be correlated differently. In addition, homogeneous grammatical categories can be distributed differently among parts of speech. Thus, in French, a verb has number forms, but an adjective does not. And in Russian, both verbs and adjectives have number.

Grammatical systems differ not only in the grammatical meanings themselves, but also in the way these meanings are expressed. If we take into account all these differences, the grammatical system of each language turns out to be deeply unique.

But, no matter how different grammatical systems may be, this does not prevent one from expressing the same thoughts in different languages. If a language does not have case forms (for example, in French), relations between objects are expressed using prepositions or word order. If the verb does not have tense forms (for example, in the African language Vai), the time of action can be indicated using other words. And so it is in everything: some linguistic means compensate for the absence of others.