Medical personnel training school of Russian doctors. Russian doctors and doctors of medicine

The first state medical school in Russia was opened in 1654 under the Pharmacy Order with funds from the state treasury. Children of archers, clergy and service people were accepted into it. The training included collecting herbs, working in a pharmacy and practicing in a regiment. In addition to pharmacy, students studied pharmacy, pharmacology, Latin, anatomy, diagnostics, diseases and methods of treating them. Their textbooks were the famous “Herbalists”, “Healing Books”, which constitute the richest heritage of Ancient Rus'. But a special place in teaching was occupied by “doctoral tales” (case histories). European experience was also used in training Russian doctors. Thus, in 1658, Epiphanius Slovenetzky translated “Anatomy” by Andrei Vesalius, the best textbook in the world, which was not yet known in many European universities.

The Pharmacy Order made high demands on the students of the Medicine School. Those accepted for study promised: “...not to harm anyone, not to drink, not to drink, and not to steal by any means...” The training lasted 5-7 years. Medical assistants assigned to foreign specialists studied from 3 to 12 years. Over the years, the number of students fluctuated from 10 to 40. The first graduation from the Medical School, due to the large shortage of regimental doctors, took place ahead of schedule in 1658. The school functioned irregularly. Over the course of 50 years, she trained about 100 Russian doctors. Most of them served in the regiments. Systematic training of medical personnel in Russia began in the 18th century. After graduating from the “School of Russian Doctors”, diplomas were awarded, which stated: “... treats puncture, cut and chopped wounds and makes plasters and ointments and other articles that are worthy of the medical profession, and this will be the medical profession.” The first doctors of the Moscow state had to deal with many diseases. Here is a list of diseases known at that time: scurvy, fever, scrofula, scab, “stone”, “scaly” (hemorrhoids), “saw” (joint diseases), “scalp” (venereal diseases), “carriage”, jaundice, erysipelas , asthma and others.

Monastic hospitals continued to be built at the monasteries. In 1635, two-story hospital wards were built at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, which have survived to this day, as well as the hospital wards of the Novo-Devichy, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries. In the Moscow state, monasteries had important defensive significance. Therefore, during enemy invasions, temporary hospitals were created on the basis of their hospital wards to treat the wounded. And, despite the fact that the Pharmacy Order did not deal with monastic medicine, in wartime the care of the sick and medical care in temporary military hospitals on the territory of the monasteries was carried out at the expense of the state. This was an important distinctive feature of Russian medicine in the 17th century. The first Russian doctors of medicine appeared in the 15th century. Among them is George from Drohobych, who received a doctorate in philosophy and medicine from the University of Bologna (modern Italy) and subsequently taught in Bologna and Krakow. His work “Prognostic judgment of the current 1483 Georgy Drohobych from Rus', Doctor of Medicine of the University of Bologna,” published in Rome, is the first printed book by a Russian author abroad. In 1512, Francis Skaryna from Polotsk received his doctorate of medicine in Padua (modern Italy). In 1696, also at the University of Padua, P.V. was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine. Postnikov; being a highly educated man, he subsequently served as the Russian ambassador to Holland. 3. Gorelova L.E. First Medical School of Russia // Russian Medical Journal. - 2011. - No. 16.

Doctors who provided medical care to the civilian population more often treated them at home or in a Russian bathhouse. Inpatient medical care was practically non-existent at that time.

Monastic hospitals continued to be built at the monasteries. In 1635, two-story hospital wards were built at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, which have survived to this day, as well as the hospital wards of the Novo-Devichy, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries. In the Moscow state, monasteries had important defensive significance. Therefore, during enemy invasions, temporary hospitals were created on the basis of hospital wards to treat the wounded. And, despite the fact that the Pharmacy Order did not deal with monastic medicine, in wartime the maintenance of patients and their treatment in temporary military hospitals on the territory of the monasteries was carried out at the expense of the state. This was a distinctive feature of Russian medicine in the 17th century.

XVII century It was also the time when the first civilian hospitals were created in Rus'. Around 1652, boyar Fyodor Mikhailovich Rtishchev organized two civil hospitals in his houses, which are considered the first properly organized civilian hospitals in Rus'. In 1682, a decree was issued on the opening of two hospitals (“shpitalen”) in Moscow for the civilian population, intended for treating the sick and teaching medicine. (In the same year, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was established in Moscow.)

Trade relations and political rapprochement with the West, which emerged during the time of Ivan IV the Terrible and noticeably strengthened with the accession of the Romanov dynasty to the throne (1613), resulted in the invitation to the royal court of foreign doctors, pharmacists and paramedics from England, Holland, Germany and other countries . Foreign doctors at that time enjoyed great respect and honor in the Moscow state. However, the circle of people who used their services was very limited (usually the royal court). Several foreign doctors, mainly Germans, already served at the court of Boris Godunov (1598-1606).

Boris Godunov held doctors in the same esteem as noble princes and boyars. Each foreign doctor who came to serve in Russia received an estate and 30-40 serfs, had an annual salary of 200 rubles, and received 12-14 rubles monthly. and “grain provisions” (as much as is needed to feed his person, family and people), 16 carts of firewood, 4 barrels of honey and 4 barrels of beer; daily about one and a half quarts of vodka and the same amount of vinegar; every day a side of lard and from each royal dinner three or four dishes (how much a strong person can hardly carry on one dish). Every time the prescribed medicine had a good effect, the doctor received expensive gifts from the king (velvet for a caftan or 40 sables). In short, the foreign court doctors lacked nothing.

In 1654, under the Pharmacy Prikaz, the First School of Russian Doctors was opened, which trained Russian doctors. It existed at the expense of the state treasury. Children of archers, clergy and service people were accepted into it.

Teaching at the Medical School. From the very beginning, about 30 people studied there. The training lasted from 2.5 to 7, or even up to 11 years. After 2.5 years, the student received the title of physician. Teaching at the Medical School was visual and conducted at the patient’s bedside. Students studied pharmacy, pharmacy, pharmacology, Latin, anatomy, diagnostics, diseases and methods of treating them. European experience was also used in training Russian doctors. Anatomy was studied using bone preparations. In 1657, E. Slavinetsky (1609-1675) translated the abridged work of A. Vesalius “Epitome”, which became the first scientific book on anatomy in Russia.

Let us pay attention to the teaching aids of schools under the Pharmacy Order. Their textbooks were the famous “Herbalists”, “Healing Books”, which constitute the richest heritage of Ancient Rus'. But a special place in teaching was occupied by “doctoral tales” (case histories). As well as works translated from Latin and Greek by such authors as Vesalius, Galen, Aristotle “On the structure of the human body.”

After a doctor completed his studies at such a school, he, as a rule, was sent to the troops, and not only in wartime. The fact is that a little later each regiment will have a personal military doctor. Thus, along with the civil and monastic directions in medicine, there was another one - military medicine, which was not under the jurisdiction of the Pharmacy Order.

The medical practice of future Russian doctors was also strictly monitored. It took place in the regiments, and if the future doctor shied away from it, then “he would be punished without mercy.” After graduating from the “School of Russian Doctors”, diplomas were awarded, which stated: “... treats puncture, cut and chopped wounds and makes plasters and ointments and other items that are worthy of the medical profession, and this will be the medical profession.” The first doctors of the Moscow state had to deal with many diseases. Here is a list of diseases known at that time: scurvy, fever, scrofula, karosta, “stone”, “scaly” (hemorrhoids), “saw” (joint diseases), “scalp” (venereal diseases), “carriage”, jaundice, erysipelas , asthma and others.

Simultaneously with the medical school, in 1653, under the Streletsky Prikaz, a school of “bone-setting” was created with a one-year training period.

The Pharmacy Order in 1669 began to award the degree of Doctor of Medicine for the first time. Unfortunately, the school of the Apothecary Order by the end of the 17th century. ceased to exist.

Oleg Evgenievich Ryabikov was born on September 7, 1965 in the oldest city in Russia, Derbent, which has a history of development recorded in chronicles for more than 5,000 years. He was raised by his grandfather and grandmother, after whose death at the age of 11 he was transported by his parents to Bashkiria, where he graduated from both school and medical school. I gave my first massage at the age of 8, with my feet, to a neighbor at the request of my grandmother after the death of my grandfather, when I received praise and 300 grams of the “golden key” and decided to become a doctor. The final decision to treat people came during a serious illness of my grandmother and the realization of my own powerlessness and inability to help her. He was first “called a doctor” on Kunashir Island in 1986 while providing emergency assistance in a helicopter crash. I completed my primary massage school on the island. Shikotan from the good doctor Sergeev, at the same time he received his first bathing skills on the island. Tanfilyev with the senior warrant officer at the border outpost. I decided to become a massage therapist during rehabilitation after being wounded in the central naval hospital in Vladivostok, having experienced its healing and restorative capabilities. He began professional massage training in 1987 at the Kislovodsk Medical School, and continues further self-study to this day.

...The oak broom, the Master of the Forest, is folded with Good and placed in my hand. I skillfully brush the body with a broom and heat so that it sweats and never hurts, I’ll cover it with fire, I’ll douse it with water, I’ll apply sheets to the body, I’ll tell you the instructions about how to keep your body young, healthy, and always ready for a good bath...

Seven brooms of the Doctor

I owe the birth of the integrated technology “7 brooms” to the old method of bathing craft, called the “multi-armed bathhouse attendant”. The technique was seen and tested in a bathhouse in the Urals.

As many masters of the bath craft as there are in Rus', there are also soaring techniques. Each broom is placed in a different hand and moves differently. If it’s a simple bathhouse comb, then everyone is a master, but if a GOOD bathhouse comb is needed, then such a master is rare, you won’t find it in every volost…..
(District doctor Sava. Paramedic 1st rank.)

Step 1.
Warm up

Gradual, preheating and initial mechanical effects, which have a conscious direction, reduce the tension of tissues of any location, of any origin. The body “refuses” tension, trembling, tissue immobility, a feeling of relaxation appears and this entails the need for further actions, in-depth mechanical action, additional stretching of muscles, ligaments, joints.

The comfort of the procedure is ensured by slow, gradual heating, with a suppressed stage of spasticity and a pronounced phase of vasodilation. A person feels a “blessed” penetrating warmth. An external sign of vasodilation (correct reaction) is skin hyperemia (redness), the pulse increases, and blood pressure decreases! (blood redistribution occurs). We need exactly this reaction; it is our desire to bring the greatest benefit to the body. We increase metabolism and accelerate blood flow.

Tasks of the preparatory stage:

A. Opening of pores and obtaining primary effusion.
B. Initial increase in blood and lymph flow.
B. Preparatory activation of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

There are a large number of types of execution; we will consider the “week” technique (seven).

Attributes:

- 7 brooms (prepared using the “light broom” technology);
- grass hat;
- use of 3 fir brooms;
- herbal decoction 500-600 ml.

All movements are performed from a light touch to moving the broom 15-20 cm from the body. The guest sits on a shelf on two brooms with their handles placed to the sides. Hands on knees. Feet in a hot herbal decoction on a broom bed, covered with a broom.
- The steamer faces the guest, grasping the broom with an “open” hand. After 7 times of circular air mixing, place your arms above your head.
- HOT RAIN: Brooms are dipped into a herbal decoction and gently shaken onto the guest’s body with light touches, from top to bottom 7 times, as if compressing the air around the body.

- STRENGTHENING THE SPIRIT (STRENGTHENING HEAT): 7 points of attention, 7 points of fixation 7 times. (shoulders, liver, kidneys, knees) when performing this technique, the broom makes an exciting circular movement, pumping heated air deep, followed by pressing the hot broom to the fixation points.
- GLOW (OR LIGHT DISTRIBUTION): Sliding down and up along the lateral and anterior-posterior surfaces of the body 7 times.
- CREATION OF THE RIDGE (STRENGTHENING THE SPINE): 7 movements from the sacrum to the neck, 7 horizontal and 7 vertical broom approaches with a light massage - stroking with brooms along and across to the sides of the spine. With light pats and short compresses.
- GLOW (WITH RUBBING AND FIXING): If there is a feeling of incompleteness, it is possible to carry out a powerful technique of pumping hot air; brooms capture hot air and pump it into a certain place (stomach, shoulder joints, kidneys, hip joints, groin, knees).
- BALANCING: The steamer, holding the handles of the brooms on which the guest is sitting, makes counter-oscillatory movements of small amplitude, balancing and restoring the myofascial structures of the body.
- IRRIGATION and RUBBING: Produced with herbal infusion (decoction or steam).

Step 2.
Peeling swaddling (prolonged peeling) is performed outside the steam room (massage treatment room, dressing room).

On the work table there is a linen cloth soaked in herbal infusion or a plastic sheet for wrapping, with brooms laid out on top. We can talk endlessly about the power of herbal swaddling-wraps, since the strength and depth of the effect of oils and herbal compositions applied to a preheated body with pores cleaned by effusion, the procedure has no analogues.

Layout of brooms:

- One under the head;
- Two in the lumbar region;
- Two in the shin area.

The steamer performs active rubbing with a pre-prepared herbal composition.

The selection of composition for rubbing, cleansing, nutrition and toning is selected taking into account:

- DOSHES (uses the warm or cold properties of plants and oils);
- Condition of the client’s skin and health (moisturizing, relaxing or toning properties of the products used are taken into account);
- The wishes of the guest (the individual characteristics of the client’s body, ability to heat tolerance, pain sensitivity threshold are taken into account);
- Set goals and objectives;
- Topics of the prescribed procedure: detox, relaxation, anti-stress.

We perform rubbing, peeling and applying the composition according to the following scheme:
- back (taking into account the massage lines recommended by the school of Russian classical massage);
- legs (from hip to foot) (based on the principle of drainage technologies);
- arms (from shoulders to hands).

The active tool is a broom and the steamer's hand. We use only longitudinal slides of the broom to avoid causing injury to the skin.

After turning the guest onto his back, we use the following scheme: chest, stomach, legs (along the massage lines of a classic massage). Before swaddling, we place one of the brooms on the chest and the other on the stomach with the handles facing each other. The duration of the wrap is 20-25 minutes.

During the wrap, it is possible to perform massage actions on the scalp and face. Auriculo-massage and soft techniques for releasing C0-C1 are indicated.

Step 3.
“Steaming” is carried out in a steam room. Carry out without first rinsing the guest’s body after swaddling.

Under the influence of the heat of the bath, the blood vessels dilate (the lumen almost doubles), and accordingly, blood and lymph circulation accelerates. Well-heated blood flows to the skin, irrigates it and nourishes it (about 40% of the reserve blood comes to the skin). This outflow of blood to the periphery facilitates the work of the heart, training the cardiovascular system, blood pressure decreases, the minute volume of the heart increases to 150%, and the pulse to 120-140 beats per minute.

Chills often occur during the procedure. This is not a pathological, but a completely normal reaction, the blood heats up, heats the internal organs, the body turns on the third stage of reflexes, through the nerve endings of the blood vessels of the brain.

Soaring is carried out “on top of swaddling”, i.e. the composition used for peeling swaddling is not washed off, but is additionally “riveted” into the body, enhancing its activity by increasing the temperature and physical influences.

Layout of brooms:
- Two brooms “wrap” the head: one under the head, the second on the head.
- Three brooms under the lumbosacral region: the first broom under the sacrum, handle down, two brooms under the buttocks, handles to the sides.
- Two “active” brooms are in the hands of the steamer.

Guest's starting position: lying on his back. We use brooms to treat all parts of the body. We use classic soaring techniques - stroking, pulling, poultice, patting with traction. We focus on the abdomen: in the liver area. Next we move on to the special soaring technique:

"7 swats"
The essence of the technique is to segment the body into conventional zones and quadrants, observing the main points of thermal fixation. The steamer makes 6 active movements with brooms, and on the seventh movement makes a short-term compress on the fixation point.
Before turning the guest onto his stomach, the steamer uses the handles of the brooms to balance the pelvis using separation techniques on the myofascial structures.
Then we turn the guest over onto his stomach.

Layout of brooms:
- Two brooms on the head (thermal protective function);
- Two brooms under the stomach (balance-calming);
- One broom on the crotch (thermal protection).

We carry out the techniques of classic soaring or LAD soaring (sauna chess), heating according to the scheme - from the right leg to the left shoulder, from the left leg to the right shoulder. Focusing on the soaring on the feet, calf muscles and spine.

After warming up, use herbal infusion or water to cool the back of the head, hands and feet of the guest, then help him sit down and slowly lead him out of the steam room.

Step 4.
Recovery. Performed outside the steam room.

After a preliminary, warm or cool bath (depending on the severity of the dosha and state of health), an oil composition is applied to the guest’s body. As a general continuation and enhancement of the effect of herbal peeling swaddling, the composition is determined before the start of the procedure, taking into account the individual characteristics of the guest’s body, skin type and assigned tasks.

The guest chooses the resting position himself. The position should be comfortable for relaxation and proper rest of the guest and the work of the steamer.

In the classic version of the technique, “spiky felt boots” are put on the guest’s feet. Hay is placed in felt boots and put on the feet for 15-20 minutes. The feet are first rubbed with an oil-turpentine-kerosene mixture.

In a spa setting, foot massage is performed. The massage can have several options, but Asian foot reflex massage techniques remain preferred. Before the massage, the guest is invited to drink 100-150 ml of hot drink. Classic teas, sbitneys or freshly prepared infusions can be used, taking into account the focus of the program, the client’s tastes and specific indications.

Step 5.
In the steam room.

The main part of the procedure. This step is aimed at working with muscles, deep ligaments and joints, the techniques and manipulations used are performed on deeply heated and relaxed tissues, which makes them atraumatic, and the gradual impact on the tissues allows you to achieve the greatest therapeutic and health effects.

Guest's starting position: lying on his stomach.

Layout of brooms:
- two under the stomach in its upper part, arms to the sides;
- two under the lower third of the thigh;
- one broom, from among those active in applying the herbal composition, under the head.

Technique.
Trituration. Active stroking and rubbing with brooms from the feet to the neck, along the midlines up and down the lateral surfaces of the body. After warming up the brooms in the upper layers of the steam room, the steamer applies the brooms to the fixation points with a clamp and a press.

Fixation points:
- sacroiliac joints and buttocks;
- kidney area;
- area of ​​the lower chest;
- area of ​​the descending portion of the trapezius muscle;
- ears.

Also, at this stage, stretching is performed. Manipulations are carried out step by step on the fascia, muscles and joints. The number of manipulations depends on the experience of the master, the fitness level of the guest, the need for use and the temperature regime of the steam room. Harmonization or balancing is carried out step by step, using the handles of laid out brooms, without changing the vector and without displacing the broom, according to the principle of myofascial separation techniques.

After turning the guest on his back, we perform an activation-compress on the area:
- knees;
- the abdomen at three points: the middle between the umbilical ring and the womb, the umbilical ring, the middle between the umbilical ring and the xiphoid process;
- area of ​​the pectoralis major muscle and shoulder joint;
- face and ears.

N The beginning of the 17th century was marked in domestic medicine by the establishment of the Pharmacy Order - a central government agency in which all management of the medical profession was concentrated. The question of the time of the emergence of the Pharmacy Order is controversial, because medical historians suggest that it existed from the end of the 16th century, when positions such as “pharmacy boyar”, “clerk of the Pharmacy Order” and others were already encountered.

Initially, the purpose of the new Order was to monitor the treatment of the Tsar and his family, the activities of invited foreign doctors, and especially the medications prescribed to the Tsar - “to protect his sovereign health.” The functions of the Order also included control over the activities of the first pharmacy, opened by Ivan IV in 1581, which also had a “pro-tsar” purpose. However, the official activities of the Pharmacy Prikaz began to unfold in 1620, when, in fact, approaches to the creation of Russian medicine were first outlined and the question arose about medical practice covering all segments of the population.

A document from 1673 speaks of the apothecary practice of medical students: “... order them (the students) to be with the herbalists in collecting herbs and flowers, and roots all summer and until frost, without interruption.”

In addition to pharmacy, students studied pharmacy, pharmacology, Latin, anatomy, diagnostics, diseases and methods of treating them. Their textbooks were the famous “Herbalists”, “Healing Books”, which constitute the richest heritage of Ancient Rus'. But a special place in teaching was occupied by “doctoral tales” (case histories). European experience was also used in training Russian doctors. Thus, in 1658, Epiphanius Slovenetzky translated “Anatomy” by Andrei Vesalius, the best textbook in the world, which was not yet known in many European universities.

The medical practice of future Russian doctors was also strictly monitored. It took place in the regiments, and if the future doctor shied away from it, then “he would be punished without mercy.” Doctors who completed their education and refused to go to the service assigned to them were severely punished: “Stenka Oshurka, because he didn’t go to the service... beat the batogs mercilessly and therefore send him to our service immediately with a bailiff.”

After graduating from the “School of Russian Doctors”, diplomas were awarded, which stated: “... treats puncture, cut and chopped wounds and makes plasters and ointments and other articles that are worthy of the medical profession, and this will be the medical profession.” The first doctors of the Moscow state had to deal with many diseases. Here is a list of diseases known at that time: scurvy, fever, scrofula, karosta, “stone”, “scaly” (hemorrhoids), “saw” (joint diseases), “scalp” (venereal diseases), “carriage”, jaundice, erysipelas , asthma and others.

In 1654, during the plague epidemic and the war with Poland, a medical school was created under the Pharmacy Order, into which “streltsy children” were recruited. The school taught the basics of anatomy, physiology, surgery, therapy, medicine, “banners of infirmities” (symptomatology), etc. Those who graduated were assigned by doctors to regiments “to treat military men.”

Simultaneously with the medical school, a school of “bone-setting” was created under the Pharmacy Order with a one-year training period. The Pharmacy Order in 1669 began to award the degree of Doctor of Medicine for the first time. Unfortunately, the school of the Apothecary Order by the end of the 17th century. ceased to exist.

Among the reforms carried out by Peter I, the reform of medicine occupied one of the leading places. His decrees concerned the recording of birth and death rates - the introduction of special metric books, the opening of houses “to preserve shameful babies” with the punishment of those parents who would be caught “in the killing of those babies, and they themselves would be executed by death for such evil deeds.” Decrees were also issued on the supervision of food products in markets, on the behavior of sellers in markets: “They would wear a white uniform and observe cleanliness in everything.” An extremely interesting decree on the improvement of Moscow, which read: “... Along the large streets and alleys, so that there is no droppings and carrion (of animals) anywhere, not in anyone’s yard, but it would be clean everywhere... And if... who he will throw all kinds of droppings and carrion along the main streets and alleys, ... those people will be punished for this, they will be beaten with a whip, and a fine will be taken against them "...

But the main concern of Peter I remained the creation of national medical education. For the army, navy, and many other government needs, a large number of doctors were needed. The problem of training doctors was solved in Russia in the 18th century. by creating hospital schools - the first higher medical educational institutions in Russia, the likes of which no other country had at that time.

It should be noted that Peter I himself was well versed in medicine. He took a course at Leiden University, where he became acquainted with the best hospitals, anatomical museums, and outstanding doctors. In Holland, he acquired the famous anatomical collection of “monsters” (born with developmental defects), which became the basis of the first anatomical museum in Russia - the “Kunstkamera”. From all countries they collected rarities and “monsters”, ancient books, etc. into the “Kunstkamera”. Peter spared no expense on this. At the same time, a Public Library was created, the backbone of which consisted of books from the Pharmacy Order. In 1719, the Kunstkamera and the Public Library were opened. The speech of Peter I on this occasion is interesting: “I also order not only to let everyone in here for free, but if someone comes with a company to look at rarities, then to treat them at my expense with a cup of coffee, a glass of vodka or something else in these very rooms.” .

The most important link in the reforms was the founding of the Moscow hospital and the medical school attached to it. The decree of Peter I, signed on May 25, 1706, prescribed: “Beyond the Yauza River against the German Settlement in a decent place... to build a hospital,” where “the sick could be treated and doctors could be trained.” The Moscow military hospital, at which a hospital school was also organized, has survived to the present day - this is now the Main Military Hospital named after. N.N. Burdenko. In 1707, the construction of the hospital was completed, the first patients were admitted to it, and a hospital school, the first higher medical educational institution, began to function. Thus, 1707 is the year of the beginning of domestic higher medical education. Despite such simple names as “school”, “medical-surgical school”, the training in them was not inferior to that in European universities.

In hospital schools, training was practical: students directly participated in the treatment of patients and dissected corpses. “The anatomical dissection should be carried out in a room designated for this purpose in the hospital, and especially if there are strange diseases, they should not be allowed to pass without an anatomical action, and what is unforgettable is ordered to be drawn by a draftsman.”

Subsequently, anatomical dissections were continued in anatomical theaters opened in hospital schools. According to foreign newspapers, not only the tsar and dignitaries, but even women from high society were present at the autopsies.

Little by little, awareness of the need for anatomical education is spreading in the provinces. From the city of Shuya, from the kissers Fomin and Trifonov, a petition was sent to Peter to send a doctor to examine the “dead body” found on the ice of the Teza River and take it to a wretched house (city morgue), from where the corpses were taken for public autopsies in Moscow.

The mandatory involvement of medical doctors to autopsy corpses in cases of violent death was determined by the Military Regulations of Peter I in 1716. With the issuance of the decree of 1746, training on corpses became mandatory. Future doctors had the opportunity to acquire skills in performing autopsies, and the explanations of “doctors” and “operators” were supposed to expand understanding of the essence of diseases and causes of death.

In hospital schools, they completely moved away from the method of teaching in European universities, which retained the features of medieval scholasticism: book and verbal education, memorization of texts, “debates” on memorized texts. In hospital schools, preparation of medicines was introduced into the duties of students. The “materia medica” was also taught on a large scale - a course that included pharmacognosy, pharmacology, pharmacy, and later botany. Classes in these disciplines were held in hospital wards and in botanical gardens.

One of them, created for these purposes by Peter, has survived to this day (Botanical Garden of the Russian Academy of Sciences). Peter paid great attention to the pharmaceutical business. He issued a decree on the opening of “free” (that is, private) pharmacies to serve the population under the control of the pharmacy office, which in 1707 replaced the previous Pharmacy Order.

The leadership of the first higher medical educational institution was entrusted to the life physician N. Bidloo, a Dutch doctor who received his doctorate at the University of Leiden, a very gifted man, a skilled physician and surgeon. But the most important thing was that he was wholeheartedly devoted to his hospital and school and placed in it “all his pride and all his glory.” N. Bidloo, relying on the support of Peter I, showed himself to be a capable administrator and organizer of medical care. N. Bidloo was also a talented teacher. The textbooks on anatomy and surgery he compiled were textbooks for Russian doctors for many decades. The life physician was well aware that Peter I had entrusted him with a task of national importance - the creation of Russian medical education. Selection to the hospital school was strictly controlled. Since teaching was conducted in Latin, N. Bidloo proposed selecting students from spiritual Slavic-Greek-Latin schools. Those who graduated from these schools knew languages ​​and were well prepared in many disciplines: rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, history, etc.

The length of study at that first medical school varied depending on the students' performance. As a rule, after 2-3 years of study and successfully passing exams, students were awarded the title of sub-doctor, and after another 2-3 years they passed the “general” exam and received a doctor’s diploma. The “general” exam was mainly carried out on surgery, which was given special attention in hospital schools. Clinical rounds, autopsies of corpses in the anatomical theater, and surgical operations in hospitals gave impetus to the development of Russian surgery.

Hospital schools were opened in St. Petersburg, Kronstadt, Kolyno-Voskresensk (Siberia) and other cities. In total, during their existence (before the organization of medical-surgical schools in 1786 and the opening of medical-surgical academies in Moscow and St. Petersburg), more than 3 thousand highly educated doctors were trained. Among the teachers and graduates of hospital schools were outstanding scientists who were the pride of Russian science, the founders of scientific medical schools: K. Shchepkin (anatomy), P. Shumlyansky (histology), P. Zagorsky (anatomy), N. Maksimovich-Ambodik (obstetrics) and a lot others.

Thus, the time of Peter I played a big role in the development of domestic medical education. Despite the difficult time for Russia during the reign of Anna Ioanovna and the “Bironshchina,” the training of physicians was able to survive and develop with renewed vigor under Elizaveta Petrovna in connection with the organization of Moscow University.

In the history of the Fatherland, the 16th – 17th centuries are of particular importance. In North-Eastern Rus', the Moscow state strengthened its position. Population by the end of the 16th century. was more than 7 million people, there were more than 220 cities. National legislation developed in the 17th century. Russia's orientation toward Western European values ​​is intensifying.

When studying the answers to first We recommend highlighting the following:

1. on the main directions of activity of the Moscow tsars to strengthen a unified statehood;

1.2.reflection of the practice of healing and helping the sick, charity for the crippled and infirm in national documents (“Code Code” of 1550), decisions of the Stoglavy Council - “Stoglav”)

Second The question has the following content:

2.1. two directions of empirical medicine: folk and monastic, their content;

2.2. herbalists and physicians as a reflection of folk experience. Branches of traditional healing;

2.3. in the XIV - first half of the XV centuries. 180 monasteries were founded in Russia. Hospitals were built in many of them. Pay attention to the features of treatment, incl. their role in the treatment of wounded warriors;

2.4. dwell on the experience of creating the first civil hospitals – private almshouses, “hospitals” for the population.

Rus' and Russia have never been isolated from other countries. Trade and diplomatic relations developed, and foreigners (“Germans”) were invited as specialists and teachers. This expanded the knowledge of Russian people about foreign medicine and medicines. However, trade gates often opened the way to epidemics that raged in Europe in the Middle Ages. XIV - XVI centuries in the history of Russian medicine were the most terrible in terms of their consequences from epidemics and pandemics.

IN third question, it is important to highlight the main thing from the numerous available facts and events:

3.1. general history and factors of the spread of infectious diseases in the 15th - 17th centuries;

3.2. traditional treatment and preventive measures of the population;

3.3. the first quarantine measures of the authorities, as a need for precaution and the state’s turn to the development of medical science.

Since the 15th century, the authorities began to actively attract foreigners - doctors, who brought new ideas and practices related to the development of anatomy ( A. Vesalius ), new surgery ( A. Pare ), therapy ( Paracelsus ), physiology ( W. Harvey ). Medical schools in the West increasingly moved away from Christianity and monastic medicine, which did not accept scientific advances.

IN fourth In the question, pay attention to the essential phenomena and processes:

4.1. activities of Ivan III, Ivan IV (the Terrible) to create secular medicine. 1581 - establishment of the court Sovereign pharmacy – a step towards the creation of a central body for the organization of medical affairs;

4.2. expansion of the functions of the Sovereign Pharmacy at the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th centuries. Establishment around 1620 Pharmacy order and the emergence of elements of state medicine. Pharmaceutical gardens (1672);

4.3. pharmacy in the 17th century, the system of supplying medicines. Main pharmaceutical warehouses in the province;

4.4. staffing - Moscow medical school (1654) under the Pharmacy Order, its brief history and significance;

4.5. Cathedral Code of 1649 Historical problems, weaknesses in the organization of Russian medicine in the 17th century.

Last, fifth , the topic question is devoted to the beginning of the process of entry of representatives of the Slavic community into European scientific medicine:

5.1. doctors - foreigners at the court of the Russian tsars and their role in the approval of new medicine and personnel training.

5.2. doctors and doctors of medicine. The essence of activity and difference. Training of doctors in Western Europe and doctors in the Moscow State;

5.3. the first doctors of medicine from the representatives of the Eastern Slavs: Georgiy Drogobich – Kotermak (1450-1494), encyclopedist Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543), educator and pioneer printer Francisk Skaryna (1490-c.1551), doctor - translator Epiphany Slavinetsky (1609 - 1675), doctor of medicine Petr Vasilievich Postnikov (1676 – 1716).

The achievements of European medicine, the formation of a medical organization in Russia, the creation of hospitals and the beginning of the training of doctors from natural-born Russians were milestones in the development of Russian medical affairs. At the same time, there was a need to accelerate the pace and consistency of the organization of health care, to create conditions for the development of medical science and systematic training of doctors. It was not formed by the end of the 17th century. and civil health. The solution to these problems lay ahead in the 18th century.

Draw students' attention to the proposed questions for self-testing knowledge.

1. Russian folk and monastic medicine of the period of the Golden Horde and the struggle for the creation of a central state.

2. The fight against epidemics of “endemic diseases” and the first steps of state regulation of medical affairs. Sovereign's pharmacy, Pharmacy order.

3. Training in medical schools. The first doctors of medicine from “born Russians”

4. Ideas of state charity in “Stoglava”, during the reign of the Romanov dynasty in the 17th century. The first city shelters for the poor, sick, beggars and drunks. Development of nursing care.

Literary sources

1. Gritsak E.M. Popular history of medicine. – M.: Veche, 2003.

2. Romanyuk V.P., Lapotnikov V.A., Nakatis Y.I. History of nursing in Russia. – St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State Medical Academy, 1998.

3. Samoilov V.O. History of Russian medicine. – M.: Epidaurus, 1997. Chapter I. Pre-Petrine Rus'.

4. Sorokina T.S. History of medicine. Textbook. 3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Publishing house. Center "Academy", 2004. Part III, chapter 5.

Additional

1. Buzhilova A. French disease French disease in Russian. – Rodina, 2005, No. 3, p. 79-81.

2. Vlasov P.V. Abode of Mercy. - M.: Moscow. worker, 1991.

3. Mirsky M.B. etc. Order medicine is an important stage in the history of Russian healthcare. – Problems of social hygiene, health care and history of medicine, 2005, No. 5, p. 53-56.

4. Mironov S.P. and others. Kremlin medicine (from its origins to the present day). – M.: Izvestia, 1997.

5. Mirsky M.B. German doctors in medieval Rus' (XV – XVII centuries). – Problems of social hygiene, health care and history of medicine, 2003, No. 3, p. 51-53.

6. Takala I.R. Fun of Rus': History of the alcohol problem in Russia. – St. Petersburg: “Neva Magazine”, 2002.

7. Fedorova G.V., Akhtulova L.A., Shcherbakov D.V. History of hygiene. Textbook allowance /Ed. G.V. Fedorova. – Omsk: Publishing House Om GMA, 2007.

8. Yarovinsky M.Ya. Century of Moscow Medical /ed. A.M. Stochika. – M.: Medicine, 1997.