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The concept of geographic envelope. Geographical envelope of the earth

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

The geographic envelope of the Earth (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes, epigeosphere) is the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Has complex spatial differentiation. The vertical thickness of the geographic shell is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous exchange of energy and mass between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. Natural processes in the geographic shell are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographical shell, humanity arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.

The geographic envelope was first defined by P.I. Brounov back in 1910 as “the outer shell of the Earth.” This is the most complex part of our planet, where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere touch and interpenetrate. Only here is the simultaneous and stable existence of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states possible. In this shell, the absorption, transformation and accumulation of the radiant energy of the Sun occurs; only within its boundaries did the emergence and spread of life become possible, which, in turn, was a powerful factor in the further transformation and complication of the epigeosphere.

The geographic envelope is characterized by integrity, determined by the connections between its components, and uneven development in time and space.

The unevenness of development over time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodic - daily, monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) and non-rhythmic (episodic) changes inherent in this shell. As a consequence of these processes, the different ages of individual parts of the geographical envelope, the inheritance of the course of natural processes, and the preservation of relict features in existing landscapes are formed. Knowledge of the basic patterns of development of the geographical envelope allows in many cases to predict natural processes.

The doctrine of geographical systems (geosystems) is one of the main fundamental achievements of geographical science. It is still actively being developed and discussed. Because this teaching not only has a deep theoretical meaning as a key basis for the targeted accumulation and systematization of factual material in order to obtain new knowledge. Its practical significance is also great, since it is precisely this systematic approach to considering the infrastructure of geographical objects that underlies the geographic zoning of territories, without which it is impossible to identify and solve, either locally, let alone globally, any problems related to one way or another interaction man, society and nature: neither environmental, nor environmental management, nor generally optimizing the relationship between humanity and the natural environment.

The purpose of the test is to consider the geographical envelope from the perspective of modern ideas. To achieve the goal of the work, a number of tasks should be outlined and solved, the main of which will be:

1 consideration of the geographical shell as a material system;

2 consideration of the main patterns of the geographical envelope;

3 determination of the reasons for the differentiation of the geographical envelope;

4 consideration of physical-geographical zoning and determination of the system of taxonomic units in physical geography.

1. Geographic shell as a material system, its boundaries, structure and qualitative differences from other earth shells

According to S.V. Kalesnik1, the geographical shell “is not just a physical or mathematical surface, but a complex complex that has arisen and is developing under the influence of interconnected and interpenetrating processes that unfold on land, in the atmosphere, waters and the organic world.”

Defining the geographic envelope, S.V. Kalesnik emphasized: 1) its complexity, 2) multicomponentity - the natural shell consists of parts - the earth's crust, forming relief forms, water, atmosphere, soil, living organisms (bacteria, plants, animals, humans); 3) volume. “Shell” is a three-dimensional concept.

It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished primarily by the great variety of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through general (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To understand the patterns of development of this unified system is one of the most important tasks of modern geographical science.

The geographic envelope is an area of interaction between intraplanetary (endogenous) and external (exogenous) cosmic processes, which are carried out with the active participation of organic matter2.

The dynamics of the geographic shell depend entirely on the energy of the earth's interior in the zone of the outer core and asthenosphere and on the energy of the Sun. Tidal interactions of the Earth–Moon system also play a certain role.

The projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographical shell of the upper crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The current state of the geographic shell is the result of its long evolution, which began with the emergence of planet Earth.

Scientists distinguish three stages in the development of the geographical envelope: the first, the longest (about 3 billion years)3, was characterized by the existence of the simplest organisms; the second stage lasted about 600 million years and was marked by the appearance of higher forms of living organisms; the third stage is modern. It began about 40 thousand years ago. Its peculiarity is that people are increasingly beginning to influence the development of the geographical envelope, and, unfortunately, negatively (destruction of the ozone layer, etc.).

The geographic envelope is characterized by a complex composition and structure. The main material components of the geographic envelope are the rocks that make up the earth's crust (with their shape - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; In polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is significant. The main energy components are gravitational energy, internal heat of the planet, radiant energy from the Sun and energy from cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it depends on the number of components included in the combination and on their internal variations (since each component is also a very complex natural complex), and most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and interconnections, i.e., on the geographical structure.

A.A. Grigoriev placed the upper limit of the geographic envelope (GE) at an altitude of 20-26 km above sea level, in the stratosphere, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. Ultraviolet radiation, harmful to living things, is intercepted by the ozone screen.

Atmospheric ozone is formed mainly above 25 km. It enters lower layers due to turbulent mixing of air and vertical movements of air masses. O3 density is low near the earth's surface and in the troposphere. Its maximum is observed at altitudes of 20-26 km. The total ozone content X in a vertical air column ranges from 1 to 6 mm, if brought to normal pressure (1013.2 mbar) at t = 0oC. The value of X is called the reduced thickness of the ozone layer or the total amount of ozone.

Below the boundary of the ozone screen, air movement is observed due to the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean. The lower boundary of the geographic shell, according to Grigoriev, passes where tectonic forces cease to act, that is, at a depth of 100-120 km from the surface of the lithosphere, along the upper part of the subcrustal layer, which greatly influences the formation of the relief.

S.V. Kalesnik places the upper limit of G.O. just like A.A. Grigoriev, at the level of the ozone screen, and the lower one - at the level of occurrence of the foci of ordinary earthquakes, that is, at a depth of no more than 40-45 km and no less than 15-20 km. This depth is the so-called zone of hypergenesis (Greek hyper- above, above, genesis- origin). This is a zone of sedimentary rocks that arise during the process of weathering, alteration of igneous and metamorphic rocks of primary origin.

The views of D. L. Armand differ from these ideas about the boundaries of civil defense. D.L. Armand's geographical sphere includes the troposphere, hydrosphere and the entire earth's crust (silicate sphere of geochemists), located under the oceans at a depth of 8-18 km and under high mountains at a depth of 49-77 km. In addition to the geographical sphere itself, D.L. Armand proposes to distinguish between the “Great Geographical Sphere”, including in it the stratosphere, extending to a height of up to 80 km above the ocean, and the eclogite sphere or sima, that is, the entire thickness of the lithosphere, with the lower horizon of which (700-1000 km) are associated with deep-focus earthquakes.

Obviously, with the views of D.L. Armand cannot agree. This interpretation of civil defense does not correspond to the content of this concept. It is difficult to see in this conglomerate of spheres - from the stratosphere to the eclogite sphere - a single complex, a new system with its own special, individual qualities. The subject of physical geography becomes vague, devoid of specific content, and physical geography itself, as a science, loses its boundaries, merging with other geosciences.

Qualitative differences between the geographical shell and other shells of the Earth: the geographical shell is formed under the influence of both terrestrial and cosmic processes; exceptionally rich in various types of free energy; the substance is present in all states of aggregation; the degree of aggregation of matter is extremely diverse - from free elementary particles through atoms, ions, molecules to chemical compounds and complex biological bodies; concentration of heat flowing from the Sun; the presence of human society.

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2. The circulation of matter and energy in the geographic envelope

Due to the contradictory interaction of GO components, a multiplicity of systems arises. For example, precipitation is a climatic process, the runoff of precipitation is a hydrological process, and transpiration of moisture by plants is a biological process. This example clearly shows the transition of one process to another. And all together this is an example of a large water cycle in nature. The geographical envelope, its unity, integrity exists thanks to the extremely intense circulation of substances and the energy associated with it. Gyres can be considered as extremely diverse forms of interaction between components (atmosphere - volcanism). The efficiency of cycles in nature is colossal, since they ensure the repetition of the same processes and phenomena, high overall efficiency with a limited volume of the initial substance participating in these processes. Examples: large and small water cycle; atmospheric circulation; sea currents; rock cycles; biological cycles.

The cycles vary in degree of complexity: some are reduced primarily to circular mechanical movements, others are accompanied by a change in the state of aggregation of matter, and others are accompanied by chemical transformation.

Assessing the cycle by its initial and final links, we see that the substance that has entered the cycle often experiences restructuring in the intermediate links. Therefore, the idea of a cycle is included in the concept of the interchange of matter and energy.

All gyres are not gyres in the strict sense of the word. They are not completely closed, and the final stage of the cycle is not at all identical to its initial stage.

By absorbing solar energy, a green plant assimilates molecules of carbon dioxide and water. As a result of such assimilation, organic matter is formed and free oxygen is simultaneously released.

The gap between the final and initial stages of the cycle forms a vector of directed change, that is, development.

The basis of all cycles in nature is the migration and redistribution of chemical elements. The ability of elements to migrate depends on their mobility.

The order of air migration is known: hydrogen > oxygen > carbon > nitrogen. It shows how quickly atoms of elements can form chemical compounds. O2 is exclusively active, so the migration of most other elements depends on it.

The degree of mobility of water migrants is not always explained by their own properties. Other reasons are also significant. The migration ability of elements is weakened by their absorption by organisms during biogenic accumulation, absorption by soil colloids, that is, the processes of adsorption (Latin - absorption) and precipitation. The migration ability is enhanced by the processes of mineralization of organic compounds, dissolution and desorption (the reverse process of adsorption).

3. Basic patterns of the geographical shell: unity and integrity of the system, rhythm of phenomena, zonality, azonality

The law, as V.I. Lenin wrote, is a relationship between entities. The essence of geographical phenomena has a different nature than the essence, for example, of social or chemical objects, therefore the relations between geographical objects act as specific laws of the geographical form of movement.

The geographical form of movement is a specific interaction between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, on the basis of which the entire diversity of natural complexes is formed and exists.

So, integrity of the geographical envelope- the most important pattern on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management is based. Taking this pattern into account makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in the others); give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.

The geographic envelope is also characterized by another characteristic pattern - rhythm of development, those. recurrence of certain phenomena over time. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-century and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as is known, is determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, air pressure and humidity, cloudiness, and wind strength; in the phenomena of ebb and flow in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.

The annual rhythm is the result of the movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. These are the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. It is interesting that different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial zone.

Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than the daily and annual rhythms.

A characteristic feature of differentiation (spatial heterogeneity, separation) of GOs is zoning (a form of spatial pattern of location), that is, a natural change in all geographical components and complexes along latitude, from the equator to the poles. The main reasons for zonality are the spherical shape of the Earth, the position of the Earth relative to the Sun, and the incidence of solar rays on the Earth's surface at an angle, gradually decreasing on both sides of the equator.

Belts (the highest levels of latitudinal physiographic division) are divided into radiation or solar radiation and thermal or climatic, geographical. The radiation belt is determined by the amount of incoming solar radiation, which naturally decreases from low to high latitudes.

For the formation of thermal (geographic) belts, not only the amount of incoming solar radiation is important, but also the properties of the atmosphere (absorption, reflection, dispersal of radiant energy), the albedo of the green surface, and heat transfer by sea and air currents. Therefore, the boundaries of thermal belts cannot be combined with parallels. - 13 climatic or thermal zones.

A geographic zone is a collection of landscapes within one geographic zone.

The boundaries of geographic zones are determined by the ratio of heat and moisture. This ratio depends on the amount of radiation, as well as the amount of moisture in the form of precipitation and runoff, which is only partially related to latitude. That is why the zones do not form continuous stripes, and their extension along parallels is more a special case than a general law.

Discovery of V.V. Dokuchaev (“Russian Chernozem”, 1883) of geographical zones as integral natural complexes was one of the largest events in the history of geographical science. After this, for half a century, geographers were engaged in concretizing this law: they clarified the boundaries, identified sectors (that is, deviations of the boundaries from the theoretical ones), etc.

In the geographic envelope, in addition to zonal processes associated with the distribution of solar heat on the earth's surface, azonal processes, depending on the processes occurring inside the Earth, are of great importance. Their sources are: the energy of radioactive decay, mainly of uranium and thorium, the energy of gravitational differentiation generated in the process of reducing the radius of the Earth during the rotation of the Earth, the energy of tidal friction, the energy of interatomic bonds of minerals.

Azonal influences on the geographic envelope are manifested in the formation of high-altitude geographic zones, in mountains that violate latitudinal geographic zoning, and in the division of geographic zones into sectors, and zones into provinces.

The formation of sectoriality and provinciality in landscapes is explained by three reasons: a) the distribution of land and sea, b) the topography of the green surface, c) the composition of rocks.

The distribution of land and sea affects the azonality of GO processes through the degree of continental climate. There are many methods for determining the degree of continental climate. Most scientists define this degree through the annual amplitude of average monthly air temperatures.

The influence of relief, unevenness of the earth's surface and the composition of rocks on landscapes is well known and understandable: at the same latitude in the mountains and on the plain there are forests and steppes; Moraine and karst landscapes are known, their origin being related to the composition of rocks.

4. Differentiation of the geographical envelope. Geographical zones and natural areas

The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographic zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in the general characteristics of atmospheric circulation. On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:

equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres;

subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere;

subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere.

Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean. The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.

Within geographical zones, according to the ratio of heat and moisture, they are distinguished natural areas. The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. For example, in the subarctic zone these are tundra and forest-tundra zones; in the temperate zone - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), zones of forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.

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It should be borne in mind that due to the heterogeneity of the relief and the earth's surface, the proximity and distance from the ocean (and, consequently, the heterogeneity of moisture), the natural zones of various regions of the continents do not always have a latitudinal extent. Sometimes they have an almost meridional direction. The natural zones that stretch latitudinally across the entire continent are also heterogeneous. They are usually divided into three segments, corresponding to the central inland and two oceanic sectors. Latitudinal, or horizontal, zoning is best expressed on large plains.

Due to the diversity of conditions created by relief, water, climate and life, the landscape sphere is spatially differentiated more strongly than in the external and internal geospheres (except for the upper part of the earth's crust), where matter in horizontal directions is characterized by relative uniformity.

The uneven development of the geographical envelope in space is expressed primarily in the manifestations of horizontal zoning and altitudinal zonality. Local features (exposure conditions, the barrier role of ridges, the degree of distance from the oceans, the specific development of the organic world in a particular region of the world) complicate the structure of the geographical envelope and contribute to the formation of azonal, intrazonal, provincial differences and lead to the uniqueness of both individual regions and their combinations.

5. Altitudinal zones of mountains in different geographical zones

Altitudinal zone landscapes are caused by climate change with altitude: a decrease in temperature by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of rise and an increase in precipitation up to a certain altitude (up to 2-3 km)5. The change of belts in the mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. However, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitude zones depends on the height of the mountains and the characteristics of their geographical location. The higher the mountains and the closer they are located to the equator, the richer their range (set) of altitude zones. The range of altitude zones in the mountains is also determined by the location of the mountain system relative to the ocean. In the mountains located near the ocean, a set of forest belts predominates; Inland (arid) sectors of continents are characterized by treeless high-altitude zones.

6. Physico-geographical zoning as one of the most important problems of physical geography. System of taxonomic units in physical geography

Zoning as a universal method of ordering and systematizing territorial systems is widely used in geographical sciences. The objects of physical-geographical, otherwise landscape, zoning are specific (individual) geosystems at the regional level, or physical-geographical regions. A physical-geographical region is a complex system with territorial integrity and internal unity, which is determined by the common geographical location and historical development, the unity of geographical processes and the conjugacy of its component parts, i.e. subordinate geosystems of lower rank.

Physiographic regions are integral territorial massifs, expressed on the map by a single contour and having their own names; when classifying, landscapes that are territorially isolated may be included in one group (type, class, species); on the map they are often represented by broken contours.

Each physical-geographical region represents a link in a complex hierarchical system, being a structural unit of regions of higher ranks and an integration of geosystems of lower ranks.

Physico-geographical zoning has significant practical significance and is used for comprehensive accounting and assessment of natural resources, in the development of territorial development plans for the economy, large reclamation projects, etc.

Zoning guidelines focus on the system of taxonomic units. This system is preceded by a list of principles that should serve as the basis for diagnosing regions. Among them, the principles of objectivity, territorial integrity, complexity, homogeneity, genetic unity, and a combination of zonal and azonal factors are most often mentioned.

The formation of physical and geographical regions is a long process. Each region is a product of historical (paleogeographical) development, during which the interaction of various area-forming factors occurred and their ratio could repeatedly change.

We can talk about two primary and independent series of physical-geographical regions - zonal and azonal. Logical subordination between regional taxa of different ranks exists separately within each series.

All known physical-geographical zoning schemes are built on a two-row principle, since zonal and azonal units are distinguished independently.

Three main levels of zoning can be distinguished depending on its detail, i.e. from the final (bottom) stage:

1) the first level includes countries, zones and is limited to derived zones in the narrow sense of the word;

2) the second level includes, in addition to the listed stages, regions, subzones and units derived from them, ending with a subprovince;

3) the third level covers the entire system of divisions up to and including the landscape.

Conclusion

Thus, the geographic envelope should be understood as the continuous shell of the Earth, which includes the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere, which are in contact, interpenetration and interaction. Let us emphasize once again that the geographic envelope is a planetary (largest) natural complex.

Many scientists believe that the thickness of the geographic envelope is on average 55 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, it is a thin film.

The geographical envelope has the most important properties inherent only to it:

a) there is life in it (living organisms);

b) substances are in it in solid, liquid and gaseous states;

c) human society exists and develops in it;

d) it is characterized by general patterns of development.

The integrity of the geographic envelope is the interconnection and interdependence of its components. The proof of integrity is a simple fact - a change in at least one component inevitably entails a change in others.

All components of the geographic shell are connected into a single whole through the circulation of substances and energy, due to which exchange between shells (spheres) takes place. Rhythm is characteristic of living and inanimate nature. Humanity may not have fully studied the rhythm of the geographical envelope.

The issues raised in the introduction have been addressed, and the goal of the work has been achieved.

Bibliography

Grigoriev A. A. Experience in analytical characterization of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell of the globe - M.: 1997 - 687 pp.

Kalesnik S.V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. - M.: 1970- 485 p.

Parmuzin Yu.P., Karpov G.V. Dictionary of Physical Geography. - M.: Education, 2003 - 367 p.

Ryabchikov A. M. Structure and dynamics of the geosphere, its natural development and changes by man. -M.: 2001.- 564 p.

Physical geography of continents and oceans: Textbook / Ed. A.M. Ryabchikova. - M.: Higher School, 2002. - 592 p.

About 40,000 kilometers. The geographic shells of the Earth are systems of the planet where all the components inside are interconnected and defined relative to each other. There are four types of shells - atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The aggregate states of substances in them are of all types - liquid, solid and gaseous.

Shells of the Earth: atmosphere

The atmosphere is the outer shell. It contains various gases:

nitrogen - 78.08%;
oxygen - 20.95%;
argon - 0.93%;
carbon dioxide - 0.03%.

In addition to them, ozone, helium, hydrogen, and inert gases are found, but their share in the total volume is no more than 0.01%. This shell of the Earth also includes dust and water vapor.

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into 5 layers:

troposphere - height from 8 to 12 km, characterized by the presence of water vapor, the formation of precipitation, and the movement of air masses;
stratosphere - 8-55 km, contains the ozone layer, which absorbs UV radiation;
mesosphere - 55-80 km, low air density compared to the lower troposphere;
ionosphere - 80-1000 km, contains ionized oxygen atoms, free electrons and other charged gas molecules;
the upper atmosphere (scattering sphere) is more than 1000 km, molecules move at enormous speeds and can penetrate into space.

The atmosphere supports life on the planet because it helps keep the Earth warm. It also prevents direct sunlight from penetrating. And its precipitation influenced the soil-forming process and climate formation.

Shells of the Earth: lithosphere

This is the hard shell that makes up the earth's crust. The globe consists of several concentric layers with different thicknesses and densities. They also have a heterogeneous composition. The average density of the Earth is 5.52 g/cm 3, and in the upper layers it is 2.7. This indicates that there are heavier substances inside the planet than on the surface.

The upper lithospheric layers have a thickness of 60-120 km. They are dominated by igneous rocks - granite, gneiss, basalt. Most of them were subjected to destruction processes over millions of years, pressure, temperatures and turned into loose rocks - sand, clay, loess, etc.

Up to 1200 km there is the so-called sigmatic shell. Its main constituents are magnesium and silicon.

At depths of 1200-2900 km there is a shell called medium semi-metallic or ore. It mainly contains metals, in particular iron.

Below 2900 km is the central part of the Earth.

Hydrosphere

The composition of this shell of the Earth is represented by all the waters of the planet, be it oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, groundwater. The hydrosphere is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies 70% of the total area - 361 million km 2.

1375 million km 3 of water is concentrated in the ocean, 25 on the land surface and in glaciers, and 0.25 in lakes. According to Academician Vernadsky, large reserves of water are located deep in the earth’s crust.

On the land surface, water is involved in continuous water exchange. Evaporation occurs mainly from the surface of the ocean, where the water is salty. Due to the process of condensation in the atmosphere, the land is provided with fresh water.

Biosphere

The structure, composition and energy of this shell of the Earth are determined by the processes of activity of living organisms. Biosphere boundaries - the land surface, the soil layer, the lower atmosphere and the entire hydrosphere.

Plants distribute and accumulate solar energy in the form of various organic substances. Living organisms carry out the migration process of chemicals in the soil, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and sedimentary rocks. Thanks to animals, gas exchange and redox reactions occur in these shells. The atmosphere is also the result of the activity of living organisms.

The shell is represented by biogeocenoses, which are genetically homogeneous areas of the Earth with one type of vegetation cover and inhabiting animals. Biogeocenoses have their own soils, topography and microclimate.

All shells of the Earth are in close continuous interaction, which is expressed as the exchange of substances and energy. Research in the field of this interaction and the identification of common principles is important for understanding the soil-forming process. The geographic envelopes of the Earth are unique systems characteristic only of our planet.

The geographic envelope is the shell of the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere mutually penetrate each other and are in close interaction (Fig. 1).

The idea of the geographic shell as the “outer sphere of the earth” was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (1852-1927) back in 1910, and the modern concept was developed by the famous geographer, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. A. Grigoriev.

Troposphere, earth's crust, hydrosphere, biosphere - these are the structural parts geographic envelope, and the substance contained in them is its Components.

Rice. 1. Scheme of the structure of the geographical shell

Despite the significant differences in the structural parts of the geographical shell, they have one common, very significant feature - the continuous process of movement of matter. However, the rate of intracomponent movement of matter in different structural parts of the geographic envelope is not the same. The highest speeds are observed in the troposphere. Even when there is no wind, there is no completely still surface air. Conventionally, the average speed of movement of matter in the troposphere can be taken as 500-700 cm/s.

In the hydrosphere, due to the higher density of water, the speed of movement of matter is lower, and here, unlike the troposphere, there is a general natural decrease in the speed of movement of water with depth. In general, the average speeds of water transfer in the World Ocean are (cm/s): on the surface - 1.38, at a depth of 100 m - 0.62, 200 m - 0.54, 500 m - 0.44, 1000 m - 0 .37, 2000 m - 0.30, 5000 m -0.25.

In the earth's crust, the process of matter transfer is so slow that special research is required to establish it. The speed of movement of matter in the earth's crust is measured in several centimeters or even millimeters per year. Thus, the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge varies from 1 cm/year in the Arctic Ocean to 6 cm/year in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The average rate of expansion of the oceanic crust is approximately 1.3 cm/year. The established vertical speed of modern tectonic movements on land is of the same order.

In all structural parts of the geographic shell, the intracomponent movement of matter occurs in two directions: horizontal and vertical. These two directions do not oppose each other, but represent different sides of the same process.

There is an active and continuous exchange of matter and energy between the structural parts of the geographic shell (Fig. 2). For example, water enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the surface of the ocean and land; solid particles enter the air envelope during volcanic eruptions or with the help of wind. Air and water, penetrating through cracks and pores deep into rock formations, enter the lithosphere. Gases from the atmosphere are constantly entering reservoirs, as well as various solid particles, which are carried away by water flows. The upper layers of the atmosphere are heated from the Earth's surface. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for breathing for all living beings. Living organisms die and form soils.

Rice. 2. Diagram of connections in the geographic shell system

The vertical boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly expressed, so scientists define them differently. A. A. Grigoriev, like most scientists, drew the upper boundary of the geographic envelope in the stratosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration that blocks ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Below this layer, air movements associated with the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean are observed; above, atmospheric movements of this nature disappear. The greatest controversy among scientists is the lower limit of the geographical envelope.

Most often it is carried out at the base of the earth's crust, i.e. at a depth of 8-10 km under the oceans and 40-70 km under the continents. Thus, the total thickness of the geographic envelope is about 30 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, it is a thin film.

Geographical envelope- this is an integral, continuous shell of the Earth, the environment of human activity, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere come into contact, mutually penetrate each other and interact with each other (Fig. 1). All spheres of the geographic envelope continuously exchange matter and energy with each other, forming an integral and balanced natural system.

The geographical envelope does not have clear boundaries, so scientists draw them in different ways. The upper boundary is combined with the boundary of the troposphere (8-18 km) or with the ozone screen (25-30 km). The lower boundary is taken to be the boundary of the earth's crust (from 5 km under the oceans to 70 km under the mountainous structures of the continents) or the lower boundary of its sedimentary layer (up to 5 km). Matter in the geographic envelope is in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous. This is of great importance for the development of life and the ongoing natural processes on Earth.

The main sources of development of all processes occurring in the geographic shell are solar energy and the internal energy of the Earth. Experiencing the geographical envelope and the influence of space. Only in it are conditions created for the development of organic life.

Basic patterns of the geographical envelope

The geographical shell is characterized by the following general patterns of its development: integrity, rhythm, circulation of substances and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge of the general patterns of development of the geographical shell allows a person to use natural resources more carefully without causing damage to the environment.

Integrity- this is the unity of the geographical envelope, the interconnection and interdependence of its natural components (rocks, water, air, soils, plants, animals). The interaction and interpenetration of all natural components of the geographical envelope connects them into a single whole. Thanks to these processes, natural balance is maintained. A change in one component of nature inevitably entails a change in other components and the geographic environment as a whole. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographical shell is of great practical importance. If human economic activity does not take into account this pattern of the geographical shell, then destructive processes will occur in it.

A preliminary thorough study of the area that is exposed to human impact is required. For example, after draining a swamp, the groundwater level decreases. As a result, the soil, microclimate, vegetation, and fauna change, i.e., the natural balance of the territory is disrupted.

Understanding the integrity of the geographical envelope allows us to anticipate possible changes in nature and give a geographical forecast of the results of human impact on nature.

Rhythm- this is the repeatability of certain natural phenomena at certain time intervals, or rhythms. In nature, all processes and phenomena are subject to rhythms. There are rhythms of different durations: daily (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intracentury (associated with changes in solar activity - 11, 22 years, etc.), centuries-old (centennial) and covering millennia and many millions of years. Their duration can reach 150-240 million years. Associated with them, for example, are periods of active formation of mountains and relative calm of the earth's crust, cooling and warming of the climate.

The most famous is the 11-year rhythm of solar activity, which is determined by the number of spots visible on the surface of the Sun. An increase in solar activity is accompanied by an increase in the number of sunspots and the flow of solar energy to the Earth (“solar wind”). This causes magnetic storms on Earth, affects the weather and climate, and human health.

Cycle of matter and energy- the most important mechanism for the development of natural processes of the geographical shell, thanks to which the exchange of substances and energy occurs between its component parts. There are various circulations (cycles) of substances and energy: the water cycle (hydrological cycle), air circulation in the atmosphere (atmospheric circulation), circulation in the lithosphere (geological cycle), etc.

The circulation of substances also occurs in the lithosphere. Magma flows to the surface and forms igneous rocks. Under the influence of solar energy, water and temperatures, they are destroyed and turned into sedimentary rocks. Submerging to great depths, sedimentary rocks experience high temperatures and pressure and transform into metamorphic rocks. At very high temperatures, rocks melt and they return to their original state (magma).

The cycles are not closed, they are constantly under the influence of external and internal forces, there are qualitative changes in substances and energy, the development of all components of nature and the geographical envelope as a whole. This helps maintain balance in nature and restore it. For example, with slight contamination, water can purify itself.

The main regularity of the geographic envelope is the manifestation of geographic zonality. Geographical zoning- the basic law of the distribution of natural complexes on the Earth’s surface, which manifests itself in the form of latitudinal zoning (consecutive change of geographical zones and natural zones). Latitudinal zonation- a natural change in natural conditions on the Earth’s surface from the equator to the poles, associated with a change in the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays. A single and integral geographical envelope is heterogeneous at different latitudes. Due to the uneven distribution of solar heat with latitude on the globe, not only climate, but also soil-forming processes, vegetation, fauna, and the hydrological regime of rivers and lakes naturally change from the equator to the poles.

The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones. They, as a rule, extend in the latitudinal direction, replacing each other on land and in the ocean from the equator to the poles and are repeated in both hemispheres: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic, arctic and antarctic. Geographical zones differ from each other in air masses, climate, soils, vegetation, and wildlife.

Each geographical zone has its own set of natural zones. Natural area- a zonal natural complex within a geographic zone, which is characterized by common temperature conditions, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna.

In accordance with the change in climatic conditions from south to north, in latitude, natural zones also change. The change of natural zones with geographic latitude is a manifestation of the geographic law of latitudinal zoning. Climatic conditions, especially humidity and temperature amplitudes, also change with distance from the ocean into the interior of the continents. Therefore, the main reason for the formation of several natural zones within a geographical zone is the relationship between heat and moisture. (Use the atlas map to analyze the correspondence of natural zones to geographical zones.)

Each natural zone is characterized by a certain climate, type of soil, vegetation and fauna. Natural zones naturally change from the equator to the poles and from the ocean coasts to the interior of the continents following changes in climatic conditions. The nature of the relief affects the moisture regime within the natural zone and can disrupt its latitudinal extent.

Along with zonality, the most important regularity of the geographical envelope is azonality. Azonality- this is the formation of natural complexes associated with the manifestation of internal processes of the Earth, which determine the heterogeneity of the earth's surface (the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on continents, etc.). Azonality is most clearly manifested in the mountains in the form of altitudinal zonality. Altitudinal zone- natural change of natural complexes (belts) from the foot of the mountains to their peaks (see Fig. 2). Altitudinal zonality has much in common with latitudinal zonality: the change of zones when climbing mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. The first altitudinal zone always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountains are located.

The main patterns of the geographical shell are integrity, rhythm, circulation of substances and energy, zonality, azonality. Knowledge about the patterns of development of the geographical envelope is necessary for understanding the processes and phenomena occurring in nature, and anticipating the consequences of human economic activity.

Geographical envelope - covers the upper part of the earth's crust, the lower part of the atmosphere and includes the hydrosphere, soil and plant covers and fauna. Unlike other spheres of the globe (as well as from the shells of other planets), in the geographical shell of the Earth, matter is found in three states (simultaneously in liquid, solid and gaseous). The processes in it occur both due to cosmic and internal (terrestrial) energy sources. Only in it there is life.

The geographic envelope is a system: all its components are interconnected, interact and mutually determine each other. The most important thing is that this system is open: the exchange of substances and energy occurs not only between its components, but also between the shell, space and the internal parts of the Earth. In its development, the geographic shell went through 3 stages. The first of them - inorganic - began with the separation of land from the ocean and the release of the atmosphere. At the second stage, a biosphere is formed in the geographic shell, transforming all the processes occurring in it. In the third (modern) stage, human society arises in it.

It is differentiated both in latitudinal (from north to south) and longitudinal directions (from west to east).

The most significant spatial feature is its differentiation into oceanic and continental sectors. There are 6 of them in total:

3 mainland – European-African, Asian-Australian, American;

3 oceanic - Atlantic, Indian, Pacific.

The second most important feature of the geographical envelope is its zoning(regular changes in each component and all nature as a whole from the pole to the equator).

Division into belts and sectors.

Geographical zones cover the Earth in a ring, including continents and oceans. They are due to the spherical shape of the planet ® uneven distribution of solar radiation, atmospheric circulation, moisture circulation.

1) equatorial;

2) two tropical;

3) two moderate;

4) two polar.

Sectors – in each zone on land there are (western, central, eastern) sectors. In the oceans, according to the currents - western, eastern.

Zoning– within each geographical zone are formed zones based on a combination of heat and moisture (atmospheric humidification).

Natural zones - geographical zones - landscape zones.

Temperate zone: Arctic, subarctic zone, taiga, forest-steppe, steppe zone, semi-desert zone, desert.

Regionality: natural areas are divided into regions(provinces) are those parts of zones that fall into different sectors of the geographical zone. The separation is based on the exchange between the ocean, atmosphere and land.

The geographic zoning of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres is so different that it makes the geographic envelope dissymmetrical with respect to the equator. It is caused by the asymmetry of the relief. The Southern Hemisphere is oceanic, the Northern Hemisphere is continental. There is an ocean around the North Pole and a continent around the South Pole. Forest, forest-steppe, steppe and desert zones of temperate latitudes could only develop on vast land - therefore they exist only in the Northern Hemisphere, in the Southern Hemisphere they are represented only in very limited areas.

Equatorial belt– extends to 5° latitude in both hemispheres. The atmosphere is characterized by an excess heat balance. Solar heat comes in large quantities (from 100 to 160 kcal/cm2/year). High air humidity 80-95%, heavy clouds and heavy precipitation 1000-2500 mm/year. Evaporation is relatively low - 1000-1500 mm. Atmospheric humidification is excessive up to 150%. The air temperature stays within 24-26°C all months. The land's waters are abundant, there are many wetlands, the river network is dense, and the rivers are high-water. There are few lakes, which is explained by the intensity of river erosion. Equatorial vegetation is represented by hylea - powerful evergreen, moist forests of a multi-tiered structure.

Subequatorial belts– (up to 25° N and 20° S) is characterized by variable atmospheric circulation, which manifests itself in the latitudinal migration of the equatorial baric minimum, in the subequatorial monsoons, and in the presence of dry and rainy seasons. It is associated with a pronounced seasonal rhythm of all natural processes. In the World Ocean, subequatorial belts are very clearly expressed and are marked by trade wind currents. Average monthly temperatures range from 15 to 30°C. The duration of the rainy season in subequatorial forests is from 1/3 to 2/3 of the year, in savannas - less than 1/3 of the year. The main zone of this belt is savanna (herbaceous xerophilic vegetation, dry forests, woodlands, thorny bushes, solitary growing trees). Depending on the duration of the rainy season, subequatorial forests are divided into predominantly deciduous and mixed deciduous-evergreen.

Tropical zones– (northern from 14-31 0 N and southern – 18-30 0 S) these are the latitudes of dominance of dry and hot tropical air, both on continents and on the oceans. Here trade winds originate and the eastern transfer of air masses begins. The maximum temperature reaches 58°C, the minimum falls below 0°C, and the monthly average is 12-35°C. There is already a thermal difference between the seasons. There is no permanent temporary flow, as well as local rivers and lakes. Rivers are only transit. Physical weathering and aeolian processes are intense. Wet monsoon deciduous forests, desert and semi-desert zones.

Subtropical zones- lie between tropical and temperate. A characteristic feature of the subtropical atmosphere, in addition to variable circulation, is the equality of its solar and actual temperatures. There is no excess of heat here, as in hot zones, and there is no lack of winter heat, as in temperate and cold zones. The average annual air temperature coincides with the average day on Earth (at an altitude of 2 meters) – 14°C. Summer dryness causes a general annual lack of atmospheric moisture (it is not higher than 59%). Aridity affects the entire appearance of the nature of the Middle Earth. The rivers are generally low-water, become shallow in the summer, and the level rises in the winter. There are few lakes due to the rugged terrain. Wild vegetation is represented by forest, shrub and steppe; large areas are occupied by cultivated plants.

Northern temperate zone– outside subtropical latitudes, in temperate zones, the Earth’s topography becomes asymmetrical: the Northern Hemisphere is continental, and the southern hemisphere is oceanic. Four seasons are clearly visible + a less clear fifth: spring, summer, autumn, pre-winter, winter. In January the radiation balance is negative. In the cold part of the year, the atmosphere is warmed not so much by radiation as by advective (from tropical latitudes) heat. Here, more than in any other zone, the gradients of heat and moisture and ® sectors are very clearly defined: on the continents, western-oceanic, inland and eastern-oceanic; on the oceans, western with cold currents, eastern with warm currents. The horizontal zoning of nature is equally clear. The temperate zone is divided into moderately warm and dry (on the mainland there are zones of deserts, semi-deserts, steppes, forest-steppes; in the oceanic sector there is a zone of deciduous forests); moderately cold and damp (zone of mixed forests and taiga).

South temperate zone- antipodal to the northern one. It is located almost entirely on the ocean. Characterized by intense westerly transport, cyclonic activity and continuous circumpolar cold flow of westerly winds. Floating ice - icebergs in Antarctica reach 45° S.

Northern subpolar (subarctic) belt– located on the northern periphery of Eurasia and North America. There is little solar heat. During most of the cold season, the radiation balance is negative. Summer is short. The soil is already covered by permafrost at a depth of 30 cm. Atmospheric circulation is variable: both arctic and temperate air masses penetrate. There is little precipitation - 300-100 mm, evaporation is even less, excess moisture is up to 150%. Numerous surface waters - small rivers, lakes, many swamps.

Southern subpolar belt– completely located on the ocean. The island land is scattered in it. The nature of the islands is oceanic, tundra: cool summers and moderate winters, high humidity and strong winds, sparse moss-lichen vegetation.

Polar belts– The North and South Poles are opposite in terms of relief – the first is oceanic, the second is continental, but they are climatically homogeneous. Both belts are ice. Here there is a minimum amount (for the Earth) of solar radiation, but also of ice mass. The climate of Antarctica is harsher than the Arctic.

Altitudinal zone. In mountainous countries, horizontal natural parts of the land are replaced by high-altitude zones. It is associated with a decrease in air temperature and evaporation with height, an increase in precipitation and atmospheric humidification. The altitudinal zones of any mountainous country, each ridge and even its individual slopes are qualitatively individual. Vertical zonality always begins with the horizontal zone in which the mountain system is located.

The geographic envelope of the Earth is characterized by rhythm(the movement of the Earth around its axis creates daily rhythms, the rotation of the double planet Earth-Moon = tidal waves in the hydrosphere, the biological clock of some animals). The annual revolution of the Earth around the Sun determines the seasonal rhythm of geographic shells and the change of seasons. In addition to the well-studied and obvious seasonal and daily ones, there are less obvious perennial and secular ones.