Causes of the 30 Years' War in Europe. The Thirty Years' War - a new word in the history of armed conflicts

One of the most important events of the 17th century was the 30 Years' War of 1618-1648. Almost all European countries took part in it, and it left behind millions of human victims. The decisive point in this war was set by a treaty called the Peace of Westphalia. Its results were of utmost importance for all subsequent European history. It was concluded on October 15 and 24, 1648, after lengthy negotiations that lasted since 1644 and could not satisfy the conditions of all participants.

1648

He united the Munster and Osnabrück peace treaties, concluded that year in Westphalia. Negotiations were held in the city of Münster with representatives of Catholicism, and in Osnabrück with the Protestant side. Sometimes the treaty concluded on January 30 of the same year by Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which ended the Eighty Years' War, is also included in the Peace of Westphalia, since researchers consider the struggle between these states to be part of the Thirty Years' War.

What were the combined treaties?

The Treaty of Osnabrück was an agreement made between Sweden and its allies.

The Roman Empire signed the Munster agreement with France and those countries that supported it (these included Holland, Venice, Savoy, Hungary). It was these two states that took such an active part in the fate of a large part of Europe because in the third and most important, turning point period of the Thirty Years' War, they contributed to the weakening of the Roman forces, which contributed to their fragmentation in the future. The Peace of Westphalia mainly denoted provisions that determined territorial changes, political structure and religious characteristics in the Holy Roman Empire.

Results of the 30 Years' War

How did the confrontation between the countries end? Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Also, according to this document, the countries that won the Thirty Years' War - France and Sweden - were appointed guarantors of peace. These powerful powers controlled the validity of the signed treaty, and without their consent they could not change a single article in it. Thus, all of Europe was reliably protected from any global changes, which could entail a threat to the security of many countries. And since, thanks to the German emperor, he was powerless, the rest of the strong powers could not be afraid of his influence. The Peace of Westphalia contributed to significant territorial redrawings, primarily in favor of the victorious powers of France and Sweden.

One of these dramatic changes on the map was that, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces. This state, having begun its war of liberation against Catholic Spain as a rebellion, received international recognition in 1648.

What did the countries that won the war get?

According to the decision taken at the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the empire paid Sweden an indemnity amounting to 5 million thalers. In addition, it received the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania (together with Stettin), the city of Wismar, the Bishopric of Verden and the Archbishopric of Bremen (the city of Bremen itself was not included there).

Sweden also inherited the mouths of many navigable rivers in Northern Germany. Having received the German principalities at his disposal, the King of Sweden had the opportunity to send deputies to the Imperial Diet.

The signing of the Peace of Westphalia made it possible for France to receive the Habsburg possessions located in Alsace, although without the city of Strasbourg, as well as sovereignty over several bishoprics in Lorraine. New possessions after the signing of the treaty and the increased influence of the country helped it subsequently take the position of hegemon in Europe.

The German principalities of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Brunswick-Lüneburg and Brandenburg, which supported the victorious countries, also received benefits - they were able to expand their possessions as a result of the annexation of secularized bishoprics and monasteries. As a result of this treaty, Lusatia was annexed to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate became part of Bavaria. The Elector of Brandegburg also received vast lands into his possession, on which Prussia was later formed.

What did this world bring to the Germans?

The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia were such that the German emperor lost a significant amount of his former rights. At the same time, the German princes became independent from the Roman ruler and were able to pursue independent foreign and domestic policies. For example, they could participate in making decisions regarding the outbreak of war and the conclusion of peace, their department was responsible for determining the amount of taxes, and the adoption of laws in the Roman Empire largely depended on them.

Appanage princes could also enter into treaties with other states. The only thing that was not available to them was concluding alliances with other powers against the ruler of the Roman Empire. In modern terms, after the signing of this treaty, the appanage German princes became subjects of international law and could take an active part in the political life of Europe. The strengthening of their positions contributed to the formation of the federal structure of modern Germany.

Religious life after 1648

As for the religious sphere, as a result of the Peace of Westphalia in Germany, Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans were equal in rights, and it was also legalized in the 20s of the 17th century. From now on, the electors could not determine for their subjects their religious affiliation. In addition, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of Holland. Let us remember that the liberation movement in this country began with a protest against Catholic Spain. In essence, this treaty legitimized the political fragmentation of Germany, ending the imperial history of this power.

Thus, the Peace of Westphalia significantly strengthened the power of France, ridding it of its main rival, Spain, which claimed the first role among all European states.

Another important function of this treaty, which historians talk about: it was the basis for all subsequent European agreements until the 18th century, when the French Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Northern Netherlands. The Swiss Union has also received international legal recognition.

Significance of the Peace of Westphalia

Thus, this treaty is called the event that marked the beginning of the modern world order, which provides for the presence of nation-states in the world and the operation of certain principles of international law. The principle of political balance probably developed precisely as a result of the emergence of the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. The tradition of solving complex territorial, legal, religious problems in relations between two or more states with the help of the intervention of other strong and influential European powers has appeared since then.

The significance of the 30 Years' War for the formation of the current legal system

The concept of “Westphalian system”, which refers to the field of world law and appeared after 1648, means ensuring the sovereignty of any state on its legal territory. Until the 19th century, the norms of the treaty and the terms of the Peace of Westphalia largely determined the laws

After the appearance of the agreement, the rights of reformed Christianity with traditional Roman Catholic Christianity were especially strengthened, which is important from the point of view of cultural studies. True, many scientists find certain shortcomings in the provisions under which the inhabitants of Germany were supposed to live after the signing of the treaty. Thus, they were forced to profess the religion chosen by the ruler, that is, in essence, there was no freedom of religion yet. But, despite all its shortcomings, the Peace of Westphalia was indeed the first (and successful) attempt to create a system of international law.

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Thirty Years' War(1618-1648) - the first military conflict in the history of Europe, which affected, to one degree or another, almost all European countries (including Russia), with the exception of Switzerland. The war began as religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then developed into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe. The last significant religious war in Europe, gave birth to the Westphalian system international relations.

Scheme (course, periods) of the war:

1. Czech period 1618-1625

2. Danish period 1625-1629

3. Swedish period 1630-1635

4. Franco-Swedish period 1635-1648

5. Other conflicts at the same time

6. Peace of Westphalia. (Internet)

Causes of the war

1). Internal reasons. Strengthening the Counter-Reformation in Germany (note: Reformation is a religious, broad-based political movement aimed at reforming the Catholic Church in the 16th century).

2). 1608 - 1609 - the creation of two military-political unions (camps): the Evangelical Union and the Catholic League. Result: the threat of a military conflict between two opposing camps in Germany and the threat of interference in German affairs from other states (external threat)

3). The struggle took place under religious banners, but the interests were not religious, but material, political calculations, class ambitions

4). External reasons. Renewed confrontation between the coalitions: the Spanish-Austrian Habsburgs and France. Both forces claimed hegemony in Europe

5). England pursued a controversial policy on the eve of the war and collaborated with the anti-Habsburg coalition

6). Russia, Poland, the Ottomans did not take part in the war, but had an influence. Russia contributed to the success of the Protestants by pinning down the forces of Poland. The Ottomans fought with Persia (Iran) and did not fight on two fronts; they were for France.

7). 1618 - an uprising in Czech Prague of Protestant subjects against Emperor Ferdinand II (1619 - 1637) due to the dominance of foreign officials in the government of Prague appointed by the Habsburgs - this is the impetus for war.

Stage No. 1. Czech War period (1618 - 1623)

1. Czech troops began to fight the Habsburgs. The Czech Republic refused the Czech crown to Habsburg. The Czech forces and the Protestant mercenaries from Germany were divided - this is their weakness, and the Catholics (Catholic League of Germany) achieved unity.

2. 1620 - defeat of the Czech troops by the combined forces of the Catholic League and the Imperial Army

3. The result of the battle: - The Czech Republic was flooded with Jesuits, - only Catholic worship, - everything else was prohibited, - the national shrines of the Czechs were desecrated, - the Inquisition expelled all Protestants from the Czech Republic, - torture and execution of participants in the uprising, - craft and trade were dealt a blow, - confiscation of lands and their transfer to German Catholics, the emergence of new magnates, the Czech Republic is deprived of all previous privileges.

Stage No. 2. Danish war period (1625 - 1629)

1. The Danish king Christian IV feared for the fate of his possessions, which included secularized Catholic church lands, and also, in case of victories, wanted to annex more conquered lands. He secures financial subsidies from England and Holland and recruits a mercenary army. North German princes join Christian 4

2. By 1630 - Emperor Ferdinand 2 creates a huge army of mercenaries (up to 100 thousand people) through extortion and devastation of cities and villages

3. After battles with the Danish king, F2 emerges victorious and Christian 4 asks for peace

4. 1629 - conclusion of peace in Lübeck. Bottom line: Denmark retained its territories, but no longer interferes in German affairs F2

5. The result of the entire war: - F2 dealt a powerful blow to the Protestants, - had a strong army, - through his vassal (Wallenstein) began to build a fleet in the North (Baltic) to control the sea routes, - dissatisfaction of the Protestants with imperial policy and the results of the war, - discord in the Habsburg camp, a sharp disruption of the political balance in Germany.

Stage No. 3. Swedish war period (1630 - 1635)

1. 1630 - the Swedish king Gustav Adolf lands in Pomerania, enlisting support from France. The army is homogeneous, consisting of personally free peasant countrymen + mercenaries with high moral and combat qualities. Used firearms and light cannons and cavalry

2. 1631 - the battle near Leipzig is a turning point in the war. The path to Central and Southern Germany is open

3. Ferdinand II recruits an army. The Swedish army becomes mercenary and robs everyone in its path; combat-ready units died in the first battles

4. 1632 - second battle near Leipzig. The Swedes won, but their king Gustav Adolf died, F2 goes to the Czech Republic

5. 1634 - the Swedish army loses its former power, military discipline and is defeated by F2

6. 1635 - conclusion of peace. North German Protestants joined the peace. The political situation is favorable for the Habsburgs. F2's negotiation tactics with the enemy are designed to create a split within the enemy.

Stage No. 4. Franco-Swedish war period (1635 - 1648)

1. Great depletion of the parties due to many years of war in people and finances. Nature of the war: maneuverability, small battles, skirmishes, several times large battles

2. Early 1640s - success with the French

3. 1642 - the Swedes won the battle of Breitenfeld, went into Germany, France - captured Alsace

4. 1646 - the Swedes defeated F2 in Southern Bohemia

5. Ferdinand III (1637 - 1657) understands that the war is lost and strives for peace negotiations + partisan movement within Germany against the emperor. While peace negotiations are ongoing, a senseless war continues.

Stage No. 5. Peace of Westphalia (result)

1. This local war at the beginning, involved many states at the end, lasted 30 years, became the First war of a pan-European scale

2. 1648 - conclusion of peace in the cities of Munster (Westphalia) between Emperor F3 and France, in Osnabrück (Westphalia) between Sweden and Germany

3. Results of the war:

A). Sweden:

The lands of Eastern Pomerania (Germany) and part of the coastal cities were ceded

Swedish kings became imperial princes

Some secularized church lands were ceded

Received a large cash payment

Control of the rivers of Northern Germany

b). France:

Received Alsace, part of German territory, ceded 10 imperial cities, confirmed rights to three Lorraine bishoprics

V). Republic of the United Provinces:

Received recognition of its independence from all powers

Sovereignty issues resolved

G). Swiss Union:

Recognition of your sovereignty

Expansion of territory

d). Spain:

Continued to fight with France; peace was concluded only in 1659.

4. Consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany

5. Several religions emerged in Germany: Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinism

6. The ruin of Germany and the countries of the Habsburg Empire

7. The population has decreased several times, many villages have disappeared, the lands are overgrown with forests, mines are abandoned, Germany has slowed down in its development

8. This is the boundary of two periods in History.

causes of the Thirty Years' War 1618-1648

1. Religious reasons. There is no doubt that the beginning of the 30 Years' War is closely connected with religion. The relationship between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire changed greatly due to Ferdinand's rise to power. Ferdinand of Styria, confirmed as heir to the Czech throne on June 9, 1617, took power into his own hands with the help of the Spaniards. Along with this, he was known as the heir to the head of the Holy Roman Empire. Protestants were worried that Ferdinand pursued policies that pursued the interests of Germans and Catholics. He was entirely converted to the Catholic faith and did not take into account the interests of Protestants at all. Ferdinand provided various privileges to Catholics, limiting the rights of Protestants in every possible way. Through such actions, he turned the people against himself, and he also established increased religious control. Political reasons. Along with the discontent of ordinary Protestant residents, at the same time, actions against Ferdinand by representatives of the ruling circles began. In connection with Ferdinand's rise to power, several political figures were deprived of their positions, among whom was Heinrich Matthew Thurn, who organized a protest of ordinary people against the actions of Ferdinand. One of the individuals who contributed to the Protestant uprising against the government was Frederick V, at that time he served as Elector of the Palatinate. By the beginning of the war, the Protestants proclaimed Frederick V king among themselves. All these actions of the Protestants only intensified the already aggravated situation. Such political steps were another reason for the war. The 30-year war, which began on Czech soil, was marked by victory within three years. However, hostilities did not stop there; they continued during the Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish periods. The war, which began for religious reasons, began to acquire a purely political character over time. Denmark and Sweden, which were supposed to protect the interests of Protestants, through the war pursued the goal of correcting their socio-economic situation and strengthening their political authority. Along with this, having defeated the Habsburgs, they aimed to gain major political power in Central Europe. Economic reasons. The Habsburg dynasty, which did not take into account the interests of Protestants, was the head of the Holy Roman Empire, and the empire, located in Central Europe, possessed several strategically significant territories. The northern regions are located close to the Baltic coast. If the Habsburg dynasty became the leader of Europe, they would definitely fight for possessions on the Baltic coast. Therefore, Denmark and Sweden opposed such an imperial policy, since they put interests on the Baltic coast above all else. By defeating the Habsburg dynasty, they aimed to bring into their territory the territories of the empire of European states located near the Baltic Sea. Of course, this action was due to their economic interests. Along with this, the natural and other riches of the state generated enormous interest from foreign countries; moreover, from a simple warrior to a commander with the rank of commander, they were looking for benefits from this war. These are the main reasons for the 30 Years' War, which covered the period from 1618 to 1648. From the information provided, one can make the observation that the 30-year war began as a result of religious aggravations. However, throughout the war itself, the religious problem acquired an additional character, the main purpose of which was to pursue state interests. Defending the rights of Protestants was only the main reason for the start of the 30-year war.
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   Nikita Suryatkin Student (166) 6 months ago
   The Thirty Years' War was a military conflict for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe, lasting from 1618 to 1648 and
2. Causes of the Thirty Years' War:
   Religious tensions have flared up again
   Germany again split into two hostile factions - the Catholic League and the Evangelical Union
   Ferdinand II wanted to put an end to the Prothesant heresy
   He also sought to clarify the dominance of the Habsburgs in Europe
3. The Thirty Years' War was a military conflict for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe, which lasted from 1618 to 1648 and affected almost all European countries to one degree or another. The war began as a religious clash between the Protestants and Catholics of the empire, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg dominance in Europe. The conflict was the last major religious war in Europe and gave rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.

   The war began after the Defenestration of Prague on May 23, 1618, which marked the beginning of an uprising of the Czech estates, directed against attempts at re-Catholicization by the Czech king who belonged to the House of Habsburg. The ensuing hostilities are divided into four major periods, named after the main opponents of the emperor: Czech-Palatinate, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Two attempts to end the conflict, the Peace of Lübeck (1629) and the Peace of Prague (1635), ended unsuccessfully because they did not take into account the interests of all directly or indirectly interested parties. Only the All-European Westphalian Peace Congress (16411648) succeeded. The Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648 fixed a new balance of power between the Holy Roman Emperor and the imperial estates and determined the constitutional framework that operated in the empire until its collapse in 1806. The Republic of the United Provinces and the Swiss Confederation became independent states and seceded from the empire.

   The fighting of the Thirty Years' War took place in Central Europe, mainly in the territory of modern Germany. Both the fighting itself and the famine and epidemics it caused devastated entire regions. In southern Germany, only a third of the population survived the war. It took many areas more than a century to recover from the economic and social decline caused by the war.

4. The Thirty Years' War was a military conflict for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe, which lasted from 1618 to 1648 and affected almost all European countries to one degree or another. The war began as a religious clash between the Protestants and Catholics of the empire, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg dominance in Europe. The conflict was the last major religious war in Europe and gave rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.

   The war began after the Defenestration of Prague on May 23, 1618, which marked the beginning of an uprising of the Czech estates, directed against attempts at re-Catholicization by the Czech king who belonged to the House of Habsburg. The ensuing hostilities are divided into four major periods, named after the main opponents of the emperor: Czech-Palatinate, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Two attempts to end the conflict, the Peace of Lübeck (1629) and the Peace of Prague (1635), ended unsuccessfully because they did not take into account the interests of all directly or indirectly interested parties. Only the All-European Westphalian Peace Congress (16411648) succeeded. The Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648 fixed a new balance of power between the Holy Roman Emperor and the imperial estates and determined the constitutional framework that operated in the empire until its collapse in 1806. The Republic of the United Provinces and the Swiss Confederation became independent states and seceded from the empire.

   The fighting of the Thirty Years' War took place in Central Europe, mainly in the territory of modern Germany. Both the fighting itself and the famine and epidemics it caused devastated entire regions. In southern Germany, only a third of the population survived the war. It took many areas more than a century to recover from the economic and social decline caused by the war.

5. Religious reasons. There is no doubt that the beginning of the 30 Years' War is closely connected with religion. The relationship between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire changed greatly due to Ferdinand's rise to power. Ferdinand of Styria, confirmed as heir to the Czech throne on June 9, 1617, took power into his own hands with the help of the Spaniards. Along with this, he was known as the heir to the head of the Holy Roman Empire. Protestants were worried that Ferdinand pursued policies that pursued the interests of Germans and Catholics. He was entirely converted to the Catholic faith and did not take into account the interests of Protestants at all. Ferdinand provided various privileges to Catholics, limiting the rights of Protestants in every possible way. Through such actions, he turned the people against himself, and he also established increased religious control. Political reasons. Along with the discontent of ordinary Protestant residents, at the same time, actions against Ferdinand by representatives of the ruling circles began. In connection with Ferdinand's rise to power, several political figures were deprived of their positions, among whom was Heinrich Matthew Thurn, who organized a protest of ordinary people against the actions of Ferdinand. One of the individuals who contributed to the Protestant uprising against the government was Frederick V, at that time he served as Elector of the Palatinate. By the beginning of the war, the Protestants proclaimed Frederick V king among themselves. All these actions of the Protestants only intensified the already aggravated situation. Such political steps were another reason for the war. The 30-year war, which began on Czech soil, was marked by victory within three years. However, hostilities did not stop there; they continued during the Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish periods. The war, which began for religious reasons, began to acquire a purely political character over time. Denmark and Sweden, which were supposed to protect the interests of Protestants, through the war pursued the goal of correcting their socio-economic situation and strengthening their political authority. Along with this, having defeated the Habsburgs, they aimed to gain major political power in Central Europe. Economic reasons. The Habsburg dynasty, which did not take into account the interests of Protestants, was the head of the Holy Roman Empire, and the empire, located in Central Europe, possessed several strategically significant territories. The northern regions are located close to the Baltic coast. If the Habsburg dynasty became the leader of Europe, they would definitely fight for possessions on the Baltic coast. Therefore, Denmark and Sweden opposed such an imperial policy, since they put interests on the Baltic coast above all else. By defeating the Habsburg dynasty, they aimed to bring into their territory the territories of the empire of European states located near the Baltic Sea. Of course, this action was due to their economic interests. Along with this, the natural and other riches of the state generated enormous interest from foreign countries; moreover, from a simple warrior to a commander with the rank of commander, they were looking for benefits from this war. These are the main reasons for the 30 Years' War, which covered the period from 1618 to 1648. From the information provided, one can make the observation that the 30-year war began as a result of religious aggravations. However, throughout the war itself, the religious problem acquired an additional character, the main purpose of which was to pursue state interests. Defending the rights of Protestants was only the main reason for the start of the 30-year war.
6. The 30 Years' War began as a result of religious aggravations. However, throughout the war itself, the religious problem acquired an additional character, the main purpose of which was to pursue state interests. Defending the rights of Protestants was only the main reason for the start of the 30-year war. In our opinion, the war, which dragged on for 30 years, was the result of a deep political and economic crisis. The war ended on October 24, 1648 with the adoption of a peace agreement in the cities of Münster and Osnabrück. This agreement went down in history as the Peace of Westphalia

Features of international relations in the 17th century.

In the 16th century In Europe, several main centers of contradictions have emerged between leading countries. The main reasons for the contradictions between European powers:

1. The desire to seize political leadership or prevent a rival from doing so.

2. Dynastic claims of European monarchs through “ marriage diplomacy"and wars.

3. The struggle for a trade monopoly, for the capture of new markets for raw materials and goods, for participation in colonial exploitation.

4. Confessional confrontation between orthodox Catholicism and directions of Protestantism.

Main contradictions XVII century:

1. Confrontation kingdom of spain in the 16th century, and in the 17th century. Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation under the control of the Habsburg dynasty, on the one hand, and France, on the other hand, i.e. Franco-Habsburg confrontation.

2. The clash of interests of Spain and England in the colonial issue. This contradiction resulted in undeclared Anglo-Spanish naval war, which actively developed in the last quarter of the 16th century.

3. The struggle of Sweden, Denmark, North German cities, the Republic of the United Provinces, Poland and the Moscow State for dominance in the northern sea routes (in the North Sea and, most importantly, in the Baltic).

4. The struggle of the Netherlands for independence against Spain (1566–1609).

5. Rivalry between the first colonial empires - Portugal and Spain.

6. Rivalry between France and England both in European affairs and in the struggle for colonies.

7. Rivalry of the Austrian Empire and other European states with the Ottoman Empire.

Thirty Years' War 1618-1648

The system of international relations of modern times was largely shaped by the results Thirty Years' War 1618-1648 d. In the Thirty Years' War, two opposing blocs collided:

1) Habsburg-coalition of Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Catholic League of German Principalities;

2)anti-Habsburg– Sweden, France, Denmark, Holland, Evangelical Union of German Principalities.

Goals and interests of the warring parties:

1) Habsburg bloc-creation of a world Catholic empire under the leadership of the Habsburgs, destruction of Protestantism, strengthening of imperial power in the German principalities, weakened during the Reformation.

2)anti-Habsburg bloc- resist the strengthening of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.

There are four periods in the history of the Thirty Years' War:

1) 1618–1624 – Czech;

2) 1625–1629 – Danish;

3) 1630–1635 – Swedish;

4) 1635–1648 - French-Swedish.

In the first three periods, the advantage was on the side of the Habsburg bloc. The last period led to the defeat of the empire and its allies.

Reasons for the end of the war:

1. Mutual exhaustion of the warring parties.

2. Absolute devastation of the population of Germany, where the main military operations took place.

3. The impossibility of providing life support to armies due to the previous reason.

4. Growing social tension in the warring countries themselves.

Peace of Westphalia was signed on October 24, 1648 simultaneously in Münster (between France and the Empire) and Osnabrück (between the Empire and Sweden, the emperor and the Protestant princes) and became one of the foundations of the state structure of the Holy Roman Empire.

Consequences of the Thirty Years' War:

1. Sweden significantly increased its international status, becoming European power. Having received the most important harbors on the coast of the North and Baltic Seas, it generally achieved its goal domination over the Baltic.

2. France increased its influence in European affairs. French requirement " natural boundaries” began to come true.

3. The time of Habsburg hegemony in Europe ended, the collapse of both the intentions to create a single supranational Christian empire and the Catholic dictatorship of Spain became obvious. But the Austrian monarchy itself did not lose in the war and the German princes did not lose.

4. The political fragmentation of Germany was consolidated for 200 years.

5.Electorate of Brandenburg(center Prussia) became one of the most influential principalities in Germany.

6. By finally establishing independence from Spain, Holland created the conditions for economic growth, the struggle for colonies and a change in its political weight in European affairs.

7. The century-long period of acute confessional confrontation in Europe has ended. The religious factor has ceased to play a significant role in international relations.

Main features of the Westphalian system of international relations:

1. The main actor in international relations becomes a sovereign state.

2. The main motive for the behavior of a sovereign state is its own security.

3. The main means of achieving national security is politics of balance of power, political equilibrium.

4. Initially coalition were formed according to confessional principle during the rise of France in the 17th century, especially during the reign of Louis XIV, the coalitions were anti-French in nature, and then after the end of the war for spanish inheritance(1701–1714) a system of short-term and rapidly changing alliances emerged, consisting of states pursuing their own goals.

Thus, the system of international relations was fundamentally Eurocentric.

Strengthening foreign policy contradictions in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was caused, on the one hand, by the aggravation of intra-German contradictions, and on the other, by the confrontation of European powers. Beginning as an intra-imperial conflict, it turned into the first European war in history.

The most acute foreign policy contradiction in the West at that time was the confrontation between France and the Habsburg monarchies. France, which by the beginning of the 17th century had become into the strongest absolutist state in Western Europe, sought to establish its hegemony in the system of states surrounding it. Standing in its way were the Habsburg monarchies - Austrian and Spanish, which usually acted in concert against France, although there were well-known contradictions between them, in particular over Northern Italy.

France sought by all means to maintain the balance established in Germany after the Augsburg religious peace in order to prevent the strengthening of the Habsburg position. She provided patronage to the Protestant princes and tried to disintegrate the coalition of Catholic forces and win over to her side one of the strongest Catholic princes - the Duke of Bavaria. In addition, France had territorial claims to the empire; it intended to annex Alsace and the Lorraine regions. France had a conflict with Spain over the Southern Netherlands and Northern Italy. Joint Spanish-Austrian actions on the Rhine at the beginning of the war significantly aggravated the contradictions between France and Spain.

England joined the anti-Habsburg coalition. But her position was contradictory. On the one hand, she fought against the penetration of the Habsburgs into the Lower Rhine and the northern sea routes, and on the other hand, she did not want to allow the Habsburgs’ opponents, Holland, Denmark and Sweden, to strengthen their positions in this area. England also sought to prevent the complete victory of the supporters of the anti-Habsburg coalition on the continent. She was at odds with France over influence in the Middle East. Thus, England maneuvered between two coalitions, equally afraid of victory on both sides - Catholics and Protestants.

At first, Denmark, which owned the German regions of Schleswig and Holstein (Holstein), stood on the side of the Protestant forces; The Danish king was the prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Denmark considered itself the successor of the Hansa in the North and Baltic Seas and sought to prevent the Habsburgs from strengthening their position in this area. But her interests collided here with Swedish aggression.

Sweden, which by that time had become the strongest militarily state in Northern Europe, fought to turn the Baltic Sea into its “inner lake”. She subjugated Finland, captured Livonia from Poland and, taking advantage of the weakening of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, achieved the annexation of the Ladoga region and the mouths of the Narva and Neva rivers through the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617. The implementation of Sweden's plans was hampered by the protracted war with Poland, an ally of the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs tried in every possible way to prevent the conclusion of peace between Sweden and Poland in order to prevent Sweden from entering the Thirty Years' War.

Holland, recently freed from the power of the Spanish Habsburgs, again entered into war with Spain in 1621. She was an active ally of German Protestants and Denmark in the Thirty Years' War. Holland's goal was to oust Spain in the Spanish Netherlands, weaken the Habsburgs and ensure the dominance of its merchant fleet on the old Hanseatic routes.

Türkiye was directly or indirectly involved in the military conflict between European states. Although the Turkish danger threatened many European countries, it was most directed against Austria. Naturally, the opponents of the Habsburgs sought an alliance with the Ottoman Empire. Türkiye sought to use the outbreak of war to strengthen its positions in the Balkans. She was ready to contribute in every possible way to the defeat of the Habsburgs.

Russia did not directly participate in the military conflict that broke out, but both warring camps had to take its position into account. For Russia, the main task of foreign policy was the fight against Polish aggression. Therefore, quite naturally, she was interested in the defeat of Poland's ally - the Habsburg monarchy. In this situation, contradictions with Sweden receded into the background.

Thus, the vast majority of European states directly or indirectly opposed the Austrian Habsburgs. Only the Spanish Habsburgs remained their reliable allies. This ultimately predetermined the inevitable defeat of the Habsburg Empire.

The uprising in the Czech Republic and the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. After the creation of two military-political groups - the Protestant Union and the Catholic League (1608-1609) - preparation for warin Germany has entered a decisive phase. However, deep contradictions emerged in both camps, which did not give them the opportunity to immediately enter into a military conflict. In the Catholic camp, enmity manifested itself between the head of the league, Maximilian of Bavaria, and Emperor Ferdinand of Habsburg. The Bavarian Duke himself laid claim to the imperial crown and did not want to help strengthen his competitor. No less acute contradictions were found in the Protestant camp, where the interests of Lutheran and Calvinist princes collided and conflicts arose over separate possessions. European powers skillfully took advantage of intra-German contradictions, recruiting supporters in both camps.

The beginning of the war was the uprising in the Czech Republic against the rule of the Habsburgs. Since 1526, the Czech Republic was part of the Habsburg power. The Czech nobles were promised to preserve the old liberties: the national diet, which enjoyed the formal right to elect a king, regional class assemblies, the inviolability of the Hussite religion, self-government of cities, etc. But these promises were broken already in the second half of the 16th century. Under Rudolf II, who patronized the Catholic reaction, an attack on the rights of Czech Protestants began. This intensified the noble opposition in the Czech Republic, which began to merge with the Protestant camp in the empire. To prevent this, Rudolf II made concessions and confirmed the “Charter of Majesty,” which granted freedom of Hussite religion and allowed the election of defensors (defenders) to protect it. Taking advantage of this, the Czech nobles began to create their own armed forces under the command of Count Thurn.

Matthew, who replaced Rudolf II on the throne, relied on the Germans and pursued a policy hostile to the Czech nobility. He declared his heir Ferdinand of Styria, a friend of the Jesuits and an ardent opponent of the Protestants, who openly declared that he would never recognize the Letters of Majesty. This caused widespread unrest. An armed crowd of Prague residents occupied the town hall and demanded reprisals against the Habsburg henchmen. According to the old Czech custom, a defenestration was carried out: two of the Habsburg “deputies” were thrown out of the windows of the town hall (May 1618). This was the beginning of open war.

The Czech Sejm elected a government of 30 directors who took control of power in Bohemia and Moravia. The government strengthened the national troops and expelled the Jesuits from the country. It was announced that Ferdinand would be deprived of power over the Czech Republic. Military operations began. Czech troops under the command of Count Thurn inflicted several defeats on the Habsburg army and reached the outskirts of Vienna. But this was a temporary success. The Habsburgs had military allies in the Catholic League, while the Czechs were essentially alone. RukovoThe leaders of the Czech uprising did not call the masses to arms, hoping for military assistance from German Protestants. The Czech Sejm, hoping to receive support for the Protestant union, elected Frederick of the Palatinate as king. But this did not improve the situation at all. Frederick of the Palatinate did not have sufficient military forces, and he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Catholic League, essentially agreeing with the impending reprisal against the Czech Republic.

Under such conditions, on November 8, 1620, the decisive battle of White Mountain (near Prague) took place, in which the Czech army was defeated. Bohemia, Moravia and other areas of the former Czech Kingdom were occupied by the troops of Ferdinand II (1619-1637). Mass repressions began against all participants in the uprising. The property of those executed and those who fled from the Czech Republic passed to Catholics, most of them Germans. The Hussite religion was prohibited.

The defeat of the Czech Republic was followed by a rampant Catholic reaction throughout Germany. Frederick of the Palatinate, nicknamed the “winter king” of the Czech Republic (he held the royal title for only a few winter months), was subjected to imperial disgrace. The Palatinate was occupied by Spanish troops, the title of Elector, taken from Frederick, was transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria. Military operations in Germany continued. Catholic troops advanced to the northwest. In the Czech Republic and Austria, mass protests by peasants began, directed against military robberies and the rampant feudal reaction.

Danish war period (1625-1629). The advance of Catholic troops to the north caused alarm in Denmark, Holland and England. At the end of 1625, with the assistance of France, Denmark, Holland and England entered into a military alliance against the Habsburgs. The Danish king Christian IV received subsidies from England and Holland and pledged to start a war against the Catholic camp in Germany. The Danish intervention, carried out under the guise of military assistance to fellow Protestants, pursued aggressive goals - the separation of the northern regions from Germany.

The Danish offensive, supported by Protestant forces in Germany, was initially successful, which was greatly facilitated by discord in the Catholic camp. The emperor was afraid of the excessive strengthening of the league and did not provide material assistance to its troops. The discord among the Catholic forces was facilitated by French diplomacy, which pursued the goal of separating Bavaria from Austria. In this situation, Ferdinand II decided to create his own army, independent of the Catholic League. He accepted the plan proposed by Albrecht Wallenstein.

A. Wallenstein (1583-1634) was a Czech nobleman who became extremely rich by buying up the confiscated lands of Czech rebels. An extraordinary commander-condottiere, hewas able to create a large army of mercenaries in the shortest possible time. His principle was: “war feeds war.” The troops were supported by plundering the population and military indemnities. The officers received high salaries, and therefore there was always an abundance of various adventurers from the nobles and declassed elements to replenish this bandit army. Having received from the emperor several districts in the Czech Republic and Swabia for the stationing of troops, Wallenstein quickly equipped and prepared an army of sixty thousand and, together with Tilly, began military operations against German Protestants and Danes. During 1627-1628. Wallenstein and Tilly defeated their opponents everywhere. Wallenstein besieged Stralsund, but was unable to capture it, encountering staunch resistance from the Danish and Swedish troops who came to their aid.

Wallenstein's army occupied all of Northern Germany and was ready to invade the Jutland Peninsula. But this was prevented by the position of European states, and especially France, which declared a decisive protest to the emperor. Within the Catholic League itself, contradictions also intensified: Catholic princes expressed obvious dissatisfaction with the actions of the power-hungry imperial commander.

Defeated Denmark was forced to make peace on the terms of restoring the status quo and refusing to interfere in German affairs (Treaty of Lübeck 1629). But this peace did not bring peace to Germany. The mercenaries of Wallenstein and Tilly continued to plunder the population of Protestant principalities and cities. Wallenstein benefited the most from the war. He received from the emperor the Duchy of Mecklenburg and the title of “Admiral of the Baltic and Oceanic Seas.” The latter emphasized the empire’s claims to seas that did not belong to it. Wallenstein set about implementing “maritime” plans with all his energy. He occupied and strengthened all the harbors in Pomerania and prepared the fleet for the start of military operations on the seas.All these activities were directed against Sweden and its plans in the Baltic Sea.

The victory over Denmark seemed to open the door for the Habsburgs to assert their influence in the north and restore the dominance of the Catholic faith everywhere. But these plans were doomed to inevitable failure. In Germany, dissatisfaction with the policies of the emperor and his commander was brewing, who openly spoke about the dangers of princely multi-power and called for an end to it.

The interests of the Protestant princes were most affected. According to the Restitutional Edict issued in 1629, the Protestants' secularized possessions were taken away. To implement this edict, Wallenstein used mercenary troops, with their help occupying the possessions of former monasteries abolished by the Reformation. In oppositionCatholic princes also visited Wallenstein. Ferdinand II was forced to agree to Wallenstein's resignation (1630).

Swedish period of war (1630-1635). Peace with Denmark was in fact only a pause in the European war that began on German territory. Neighboring states were waiting for an opportunity to enter the war and realize their aggressive plans for the empire. The Habsburg policies fueled contradictions and gave rise to the outbreak of a European war.

Sweden, having achieved a truce with Poland, began energetically preparing for the invasion of Germany. An agreement was concluded between Sweden and France: the Swedish king assumed the obligation to send his army to Germany. France was supposed to provide financial assistance. To deprive the Habsburgs of support from the papal curia, Richelieu promised to help the pope in capturing the Duchy of Urbino in Italy.

The Swedish king, acting as the savior of the Protestant princes affected by the restitution, in the summer of 1630 landed his army in Pomerania, which was relatively small in number, but had high fighting qualities. It consisted of free Swedish peasants, was well trained and armed with the most advanced weapons for that time, in particular artillery. King Gustav Adolf was an outstanding commander, skillfully used maneuverable combat tactics and won battles against a numerically superior enemy.

The offensive actions of the Swedish troops were delayed for a whole year due to the hostile position of the Brandenburg and Saxon Electors to the Swedes. Only after the commander of the Catholic troops, Tilly, captured and destroyed the Protestant city of Magdeburg, and the Swedish army began to prepare to bombard Berlin, was an agreement reached with the Elector of Brandenburg on the passage of Swedish troops. The Swedish army began active offensive operations. In September 1631, the Swedes defeated Tilly's troops at the Battle of Breitenfeld (near Leipzig) and, continuing to move deeper into Germany, reached Frankfurt am Main at the end of the year. The success of the Swedish troops was facilitated by peasant and urban uprisings in a number of regions of Germany. Gustav Adolf tried to speculate on this, declaring himself the defender of the peasants. But later the peasants turned their arms against the atrocities of the Swedish troops.

The Swedish offensive did not develop at all as Richelieu expected. Gustav Adolf sought a decisive victory and did not hesitate to violate the neutrality of the Catholic principalities allied with France, in particular Bavaria. On the territory of the latter, on the outskirts of Austria, battles broke out. The commander of the Catholic army, Tilly, died in the battles on Lech. The Habsburg position became critical. U FerdinanYes II had no choice but to turn again to Wallenstein, who now demanded complete independence in commanding the army and waging war. The emperor was forced to sign a humiliating treaty and actually transfer supreme military power into the hands of the power-hungry “Generalissimo.” Wallenstein insisted on the submission of the head of the Catholic League, Maximilian of Bavaria, refusing otherwise to liberate Bavaria from Swedish troops. In April 1632, Wallenstein, having assumed supreme command, quickly created an army of mercenaries, which included his former adventurer soldiers. France had no intention of interfering with Wallenstein's successes; Now she was most afraid of the implementation of the military-political plans of Gustav Adolf.

Preferring not to engage in a general battle with the Swedes, which Gustav Adolf so sought, Wallenstein exhausted the enemy in skirmishes, seizing communications and creating difficulties for the supply of his troops. He moved his army into Saxony, which forced the Swedes to withdraw from southern Germany in order to protect their northern communications. On November 16, 1632, the Swedes forced a decisive battle at Lützen, in which they gained an advantage, but lost their commander-in-chief. The death of Gustav Adolf did not allow the Swedish army to realize the victory. Wallenstein withdrew his troops to the Czech Republic.

Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who led Swedish policy after the death of the king, created a union of Protestant princes (1633), thereby abandoning previous projects for establishing a Swedish protectorate over Germany. This led to an improvement in relations between Sweden and France and subsequently to even more their close union.

Meanwhile, Wallenstein, who had an army of one hundred thousand, began to show increasing independence. He negotiated with the Lutheran princes, the Swedes and the French, not always accurately informing the emperor about their contents. Ferdinand II suspected him of treason. In February 1634, Wallenstein was removed from his post as commander and killed by bribed officers. His mercenary army was placed under the command of the Austrian Archduke.

Subsequently, hostilities unfolded in the territory between the Main and the Danube. In September 1634, Imperial Spanish troops inflicted a heavy defeat on the Swedish army at the Battle of Nördlingen and devastated the Protestant areas of Central Germany. The Protestant princes agreed to reconcile with the emperor. The Elector of Saxony concluded a peace treaty with Ferdinand in Prague, achieving the annexation of a number of territories to his possessions (1635). His example was followed by the Duke of Mecklenburg, the Elector of Brandenburg and a number of other Lutheran princes. The war finally turned from intra-imperial to European.

Franco-Swedish war period (1635-1648). In an effort to prevent the strengthening of the Habsburg position and the loss of its influence in Germany, France renewed its alliance with Sweden and began open military action. French troops simultaneously launched an offensive in Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and the Pyrenees. Soon Holland, Mantua, Savoy and Venice also intervened in the war. During this period, France played a leading role in the anti-Habsburg coalition.

Despite the fact that the largest Protestant princes of Germany went over to the side of the emperor, the opponents of the Habsburgs had the preponderance of forces. Under French control, the 180,000-strong army of Berengard of Weimar, hired with French money, fought in Germany. The opposing troops did not engage in decisive battles, but tried to wear each other down by carrying out deep raids into enemy rear areas. The war took on a protracted, debilitating character; the civilian population suffered most from it, subjected to constant violence from the rampant soldiers. One of the participants in the war describes the outrages of the Landsknechts this way: “We... raided the village, took and stole everything we could, tortured and robbed the peasants. If the poor people didn’t like it and they dared to protest... they were killed or their houses were set on fire.” The peasants went into the forests, created detachments and entered into battle with robbers - foreign and German mercenaries.

The Habsburg troops suffered one defeat after another. In the fall of 1642, in a battle near Leipzig, the Swedes defeated the imperial troops. In the spring of 1643, the French defeated the Spaniards at Rocroi. The Swedes won their biggest victory in the spring of 1645 at Jankovice (Czech Republic), where the imperial army lost only 7 thousand people killed. But the Habsburgs resisted until the victories of the French and Swedish troops created an immediate threat to Vienna.

Peace of Westphalia 1648 Consequences of the war. A peace treaty was signed in two cities in the Westphalia region: in Osna-Brück - between the emperor, Sweden and the Protestant princes - and in Munster - between the emperor and France. The Peace of Westphalia led to significant territorial changes both in the German Empire as a whole and in individual principalities.

Sweden received Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania with the city of Stettin, as well as the island of Rügen and, as an “imperial fief,” the city of Wismar, the Archbishopric of Bremen and the Bishopric of Ferden. Thus, the mouths of three large rivers - the Oder, Elbe, Weser, as well as the Baltic coast - came under Swedish control. The Swedish king acquired the rank of imperial prince and could send his representative to the Reichstag, which gave him the opportunity to intervene in the internal affairs of the empire. 522

France secured rights to bishoprics and cities

Metz, Toul and Verdun, acquired around the world. in Cateau-Cambresy, and annexed Alsace without Strasbourg and several other points that formally remained part of the empire. In addition, 10 imperial cities came under the guardianship of the French king. Holland and Switzerland were finally recognized as independent states. Some large German principalities significantly increased their territories. The Bavarian Duke received the title of Elector and the Upper Palatinate. The eighth electorate was established in favor of the Count Palatine of the Rhine.

The Peace of Westphalia finally consolidated the fragmentation of Germany. The German princes achieved recognition of their sovereign rights: to enter into alliances and enter into treaty relations with foreign states. They could pursue an independent foreign policy, but the treaty contained a clause that their actions should not harm the empire. The formula of the Augsburg religious world “whose country is his faith” was now extended to the Calvinist princes. Divided into many major and minor principalities, Germany remained a hotbed of domestic and international complications.

The Peace of Westphalia brought significant changes to international relations. The leading role passed to large national states - France, England, Sweden, and in Eastern Europe - Russia. The multinational Austrian monarchy was in decline.

The Thirty Years' War brought unprecedented ruin to Germany and the countries that were part of the Habsburg monarchy. Population decline in many areas of North-East and South-West Germany reached 50 percent or more. The Czech Republic was subjected to the greatest devastation, where out of a population of 2.5 million, no more than 700 thousand people survived. An irreparable blow was dealt to the country's productive forces. The Swedes burned and destroyed almost all ironworks, foundries and ore mines in Germany.

“When peace came, Germany found itself defeated - helpless, trampled, torn to pieces, bleeding;

and again the peasant was in the most distress." Serfdom intensified throughout Germany. In its most severe forms, it existed in the eastern Trans-Elbe regions.