EntranceWhat is the essence of Planck's theory? Planck's quantum theory
Planck, who was her creator and how important she became for the development of modern science. The importance of the idea of quantization for the entire microworld is also shown.
Smartphone and quantum physics
The modern world around us is very different in technology from everything that was familiar a hundred years ago. All this became possible only because at the dawn of the twentieth century, scientists overcame the barrier and finally understood: matter on the smallest scale is not continuous. And this era was opened by a remarkable man - Max Planck.
Biography of Planck
One of the physical constants, a quantum equation, the scientific community in Germany, an asteroid, and a space telescope are named after him. His image was embossed on coins and printed on stamps and banknotes. What kind of person was Max Planck? He was born in the mid-nineteenth century into a poor German noble family. Among his ancestors there were many good lawyers and church ministers. M. Planck received a good education, but fellow physicists jokingly called him “self-taught.” The scientist received his basic knowledge from books.
Planck's hypothesis was born from an assumption that he derived theoretically. In his scientific career, he adhered to the principle of “science comes first.” During the First World War, Planck tried to maintain connections with foreign colleagues from Germany’s enemy countries. The arrival of the Nazis found him in the position of director of a large scientific community - and the scientist sought to protect his employees and helped those who fled the regime to go abroad. So Planck's hypothesis was not the only thing for which he was respected. However, he never openly spoke out against Hitler, apparently realizing that he would not only harm himself, but also would not be able to help those who needed it. Unfortunately, many physicists did not accept this position of M. Planck and stopped corresponding with him. He had five children, and only the youngest survived his father. The eldest son was taken away by the First World War, the middle one by the Second World War. Both daughters did not survive childbirth. At the same time, contemporaries noted that only at home Planck was himself.
Sources of quanta
Since school, the scientist has been interested in it. It says: any process occurs only with an increase in chaos and a loss of energy or mass. He was the first to formulate it exactly like that - in terms of entropy, which can only increase in a thermodynamic system. Later, it was this work that led to the formulation of the famous Planck hypothesis. He was also one of those who introduced the tradition of separating mathematics and physics, practically creating the theoretical section of the latter. Before him, all natural sciences were mixed, and experiments were carried out by individuals in laboratories that were almost no different from alchemical ones.
Quantum hypothesis
Exploring the entropy of electromagnetic waves in terms of oscillators and relying on experimental data obtained two days earlier, on October 19, 1900, Planck presented to other scientists the formula that would later be named after him. It related the energy, wavelength and temperature of radiation (in the limiting case for All the next night, his colleagues under the leadership of Rubens carried out experiments to confirm this theory. And it turned out to be correct! However, in order to theoretically substantiate the hypothesis arising from this formula and at the same time avoid mathematical complexities such as infinities, Planck had to admit that energy is not emitted in a continuous stream, as previously thought, but in separate portions (E = hν). This approach destroyed all existing ideas about a solid body. Planck's quantum hypothesis revolutionized physics.
Consequences of quantization
At first, the scientist did not realize the importance of his discovery. For some time, the formula he derived was used only as a convenient way to reduce the number of mathematical operations for calculation. At the same time, both Planck and other scientists used continuous Maxwell equations. The only thing that confused me was the constant h, which could not be given a physical meaning. Later, only Albert Einstein and Paul Ehrenfest, understanding the new phenomena of radioactivity and trying to find a mathematical basis for optical spectra, understood the importance of what Planck's hypothesis is. They say that the report at which the formula was presented for the first time opened the era of new physics. Einstein was probably the first to recognize its beginnings. So this is his merit too.
What is quantized
All states that any elementary particle can assume are discrete. A trapped electron can only be at certain levels. The excitation of an atom, like the opposite process - emission, also occurs in jumps. Any electromagnetic interactions are an exchange of quanta of the corresponding energy. Humanity has harnessed the energy of the atom only thanks to the understanding of discreteness. We hope that now readers will not have a question about what Planck’s hypothesis is, and what is its impact on the modern world, and therefore on each of the people.
Planck's hypothesis about light quanta. Planck's formula Physics grade 9
Topic: Planck's hypothesis about light quanta. Planck's formula.
The purpose of the lesson: repeat the material covered on the topic “Thermal radiation. Absolutely black body" and prepare students for testing;
introduce students to Planck's Hypothesis of light quanta. Planck's formula;
promote consolidation of acquired knowledge;
learn to apply the acquired knowledge of quantum theory when solving problems;
develop the cognitive activity of schoolchildren with the help of problematic questions and historical material.
correctional and developmental:
promote the ability to identify significant and significant parameters;
improving short-term memorization and rapid reproduction of memory images.
Know: Planck's hypothesis about light quanta. Planck's formula.
Be able to: apply knowledge of quantum theory when solving problems.
Lesson type: combined lesson.
During the classes
Organizational stage /Tasks: Provide a normal working environment at the beginning of the lesson, prepare students for communication, the ability to listen and hear
Formulating lesson goals together with the student. Disclosure of the general purpose of the lesson and its plan
Stage of checking homework completion. / Tasks: Identify gaps in knowledge and methods of activity of students and determine the reasons for their occurrence
Frontal survey (5 min)
What kind of radiation is called thermal?
/The emission of electromagnetic waves by a body due to its internal energy is called thermal radiation/
Absolutely black body...
/A body that, at any temperature that does not destroy it, completely absorbs all the energy of light of any frequency incident on it, is called an absolutely black body/
What is equilibrium radiation?
Why, according to classical electrodynamics, would waves take away all the energy of thermal motion from particles?
Ultraviolet disaster...
Testing students (6 min)
Stage of assimilation of new knowledge
/Tasks: Ensure perception, comprehension and primary memorization of material
Work in groups: Discussion of issues in groups followed by their defense
The contradiction that arose between Maxwell's theory and experimental data?
The Birth of Quantum Theory; the solution proposed by M. Planck?
Planck's hypothesis
Basic properties of a photon
/The laws of electromagnetism obtained by Maxwell were unable to explain the shape of the intensity distribution curve in the spectrum of an absolutely black body. As you move away from this value, the intensity of electromagnetic radiation gradually decreases.
Maxwell's electrodynamics led to the meaningless conclusion that a heated body, continuously losing energy due to the radiation of electromagnetic waves, should cool to absolute zero, which contradicted the law of conservation of energy. According to classical theory, thermal equilibrium between matter and radiation is impossible. However, everyday experience shows that in reality there is nothing like this. A heated body does not spend all its energy emitting electromagnetic waves. /
In an effort to overcome the difficulties of the classical theory in explaining black body radiation, in the fall of 1900, having compared all the results obtained by that time, M. Planck was able to “guess” a formula that fully corresponded to the experimental curve. In order to derive this formula, he needed to sacrifice classical concepts and imagine that radiation energy consists of separate small and indivisible parts - quanta.
The birth of quantum theory begins
The solution that M. Planck proposed?
Report on M. Planck.
M. Planck points out the way out of the difficulties encountered by the theory of thermal radiation, after which a modern physical theory began to develop, called quantum physics
Investigating the issues of light emission, the German physicist M. Planck (1858-1947) puts forward the idea that the emission of light does not occur continuously, as follows from the wave theory of light, but in separate portions - quanta (from the Latin “quantum” - quantity, mass ), or, in other words, photons.
It turned out that those phenomena that are associated with the emission and absorption of light by matter can only be explained by considering that light radiation is a stream of quanta. But those phenomena that are associated with the propagation of light in any medium were fully explained only with the help of the electromagnetic theory of light.
This means that the nature of light is dual, that neither the corpuscular nor the wave theory separately can correctly describe and explain all the properties of light radiation, and that for this a new theory must be created based on the unification of the corpuscular and wave theories. Such a new theory was the quantum theory of light, created by the works of M. Planck, A. Einstein, N. Bohr and others.
Planck's hypothesis
According to quantum theory, light is emitted by atoms and molecules of matter in an excited state. Approximately 10 -8 s after excitation, the atom enters a more stable state, emitting the released energy in the form of a photon into the environment. The energy of a quantum depends on the change in the energy of the atom during the transition to a more stable state and is expressed by Planck’s formula: , where is the frequency of oscillations in the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the atom, h is Planck’s constant, equal to . Thus, the energy of a quantum is proportional to the frequency of electromagnetic radiation or, in a vacuum, inversely proportional to the wavelength. Consequently, the shorter the wavelength of light in a vacuum, the greater the energy of its quanta, and vice versa.
Thus, light radiation in some cases has pronounced wave properties, and in others – corpuscular properties (wave-corpuscle dualism).
Experience has established that a photon exists only in the process of movement and always has a speed equal to . When stopping, the photon disappears, i.e. it has no rest mass. This shows the difference between photons and electrons, protons and other particles of matter.
Light is emitted and absorbed by matter not continuously, but in separate portions - quanta.
Moreover, the energy of such a quantum was determined by the value E = h·ν, h – Planck’s constant.
According to modern data, h = 6.626·10 -34 J·s.
However, at that time there was no direct experimental evidence of the existence of radiation quanta. As a result, Planck's idea was perceived by most physicists as a “clever trick” that had no serious scientific basis.
After Planck's discovery, a new, most modern and profound physical theory began to develop - quantum theory. Its development has not been completed to this day.
The hypotheses of M. Planck and A. Einstein not only radically changed all classical ideas about electromagnetic radiation as a purely wave process, but also made it possible to predict the existence of a fundamentally new elementary particle. This particle of electromagnetic radiation, called a photon (from the Greek word meaning “light”), actually exists in nature, which was soon confirmed in numerous experiments.
Planck concludes: the laws of classical physics are completely inapplicable to the phenomena of the microworld!!!
How was Planck's constant determined?
From the experience of thermal radiation energy distribution in the spectrum h = 6.63 10 –34 J s
When were the quantum properties of matter first discovered?
The quantum properties of matter were first discovered during the study of radiation and absorption of light by Hertz and Stoletov.
But this is the topic of our next lesson.
Planck's hypothesis - 1900 – atoms emit electromagnetic energy
E = h ν in portions - quanta
Quantum physics PHOTON
E = h ν 4. m 0 = 0 ( peace, i.e. she's not at rest)
q = 0 5. p = mc = h/ λ E =mc 2
υ = c = 3*10 8 m/c m f = hν/c 2
Real microparticle, electromagnetic radiation consists of them
List the basic properties of the photon
1) Is a particle of an electromagnetic field. Easily appears and disappears easily
2) There is no rest mass (m0 = 0 – there are no stationary photons)
3) Moves at the speed of light
4) It is impossible to stop a photon
5) The photon is not divided into parts. It is emitted, reflected, refracted, absorbed only entirely
6) the photon impulse is directed along the light beam, indicating the connection between the corpuscular and wave properties of light
р – particle momentum; λ – wavelength; ν – frequency; these are the characteristics of the wave
A photon is an ultrarelativistic particle; in a vacuum, the speed of light is υ = c = 3 10 8 m/s
The photon mass should be considered as a field mass due to the fact that the electromagnetic field has energy. It is impossible to measure the mass of a photon.
How and why light is emitted and absorbed by matter not continuously, but in separate portions - quanta.
Summing up intermediate results.
The stage of checking the understanding and consolidation of new material by students of new material
/ Tasks: Establish the correctness and awareness of the studied material. Ensure that students retain in their memory the knowledge and methods of action that they need to independently work on new material
Group work
Group assignments (problem solving)
Develop criteria for evaluating work performance
Summing up intermediate results.
Information to students about homework, instructions on how to complete it
/Tasks: Provide an understanding of the goals, content and methods of performing the task
Homework: § 48, (exercise no. 38)
Lesson summary stage
/Tasks: Provide quality feedback to the class and individual students.
Our lesson is over. I think that it was not in vain for you, and you will remember the important things that were said in class today.
The contradiction that arose between Maxwell's theory and experimental data?
Discussion of the issue in a group followed by defense
The Birth of Quantum Theory; the solution proposed by M. Planck?
Discussion of the issue in a group followed by defense
Planck's hypothesis
Discussion of the issue in a group followed by defense
Basic properties of a photon
The physics revolution coincided with the beginning of the 20th century. By the end of the 19th century, scientists believed that the construction of a physical picture of the world was almost complete and the next generations of scientists would only have to clarify the numbers after the decimal places in physical constants.
Lord Kelvin(Fig. 1): “There is a clear sky above physics, all the laws of physics have already been discovered, only two clouds remain.”
Rice. 1. Lord Kelvin
Kelvin considered the first such cloud to be the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum at a constant speed without any medium. Five years later, Einstein's theory of relativity appeared. This theory forced us to change our understanding of the space and time in which we live.
The second cloud, according to Kelvin, is the spectrum of radiation from heated bodies. If the body has a high temperature, then it can become a source of visible radiation. The difficulty was that theoretical physics could not explain the emission spectrum of a heated body. At the beginning of the twentieth century, this difficulty was overcome, the thermal radiation of heated bodies received its explanation, and from this explanation a new field of physics emerged - quantum mechanics.
English scientists Rayleigh and Jeans made an attempt to combine the laws of thermal radiation into one. This law was very well confirmed by experimental data, but it corresponded only to the middle part of the emission spectrum for yellow and green rays. When there was a shift towards blue, violet and ultraviolet rays, this law was violated.
From the Rayleigh-Jeans law it follows that the shorter the wavelength, the greater the intensity of thermal radiation should be(Fig. 2). Nothing like this has ever been observed experimentally. And when moving to short waves, the intensity should have grown completely unlimited, but this does not happen.
Rice. 2. Rayleigh-Jeans law
No, and there cannot be any unlimited increase in wave intensity. If any physical law leads to the word “unlimited”, this is its failure.
Physicists called this situation ultraviolet disaster.
At the end of the 19th century, physicists could not imagine that this was not a catastrophe of a particular law of radiation, but a catastrophe of a branch of classical physics.
Since 1896, Max Planck (Fig. 3) became interested in the problems of thermal radiation of bodies. Any body containing heat emits electromagnetic radiation. If the body is hot enough, then this radiation becomes visible.
Rice. 3. Max Planck
As the temperature rises, the body becomes red hot, then orange-yellow, and finally white (Fig. 4–6).
Rice. 4. Color of blackbody radiation
Rice. 5. Color of blackbody radiation
Rice. 6. Color of blackbody radiation
Maxwell's repeatedly tested laws of electromagnetism do not apply to short waves. This is surprising, since these laws perfectly describe the propagation of radio waves by an antenna.
It was on the basis of these laws that the existence of electromagnetic waves was predicted.
Maxwell's electrodynamics led to a meaningless conclusion: the heated body, as a result of constant radiation of electromagnetic waves, had to cool to zero.
From the point of view of classical physics, thermal equilibrium between matter and radiation cannot exist. It has been proven experimentally that a heated body does not spend all its energy emitting electromagnetic waves.
In 1900, Max Planck put forward the quantum hypothesis.
Planck's hypothesis:
A heated body emits and absorbs light not continuously, but in certain finite portions of energy - quanta (quantum (from Latin quantum) - quantity).
The energy of each portion is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
universal plank (h ) – constant universal quantity.
The energy of quanta of different colors has different meanings (Fig. 7).
For example:
Rice. 7. Quantum energy
The energy of the light flux is determined by the frequency of radiation and the number of quanta in the flux.
The new theory explained the experimental data.
Max Planck's formula allows one to determine various characteristics of electromagnetic study quanta.
Let's solve the problem (Fig. 8–10):
Rice. 8. Task 1
The maximum wavelength of visible light corresponds to the color red (760 nm).
Rice. 9. Solution to problem 1
Substituting the numbers into the formula, we get the result:
Rice. 10. Solution to problem 1
Let's solve one more problem (Fig. 11–12):
Rice. 11. Problem 2
Rice. 12. Solution to problem 2
To determine the type to which radiation should be classified, you will need an electromagnetic scale (Fig. 13):
Rice. 13. Electromagnetic scale
Problem answer: X-ray radiation.
After Planck's discovery, a new and most modern physical theory began to develop - quantum theory. Its development continues today.
The world around us today is radically different in technology from everything that was familiar in society a hundred years ago. All this became possible only because at the dawn of the twentieth century, researchers were able to overcome the barrier and finally realize: any element on the smallest scale does not act continuously. And this unique era was opened by a talented scientist, Max Planck, with his hypothesis.
Figure 1. Planck's quantum hypothesis. Author24 - online exchange of student work
The following physicists are named after:
- one of the physical theories
- scientific community in Germany,
- quantum Equation,
- asteroid,
- crater on the Moon,
- modern space telescope.
Planck's image was printed on banknotes and embossed on coins. Such an outstanding personality was able to conquer society with his assumptions and become a recognizable scientist during his lifetime.
Max Planck was born in the mid-nineteenth century into an ordinary poor German family. His ancestors were church ministers and good lawyers. The physicist received a fairly good higher education, but fellow researchers jokingly called him “self-taught.” He gained key knowledge by obtaining information from books.
Formation of Planck's theory
Planck's hypothesis was born from concepts that he originally derived theoretically. In his scientific works he tried to describe the principle “science is most important”, and during the First World War the scientist did not lose important connections with foreign colleagues from small countries in Germany. The unexpected arrival of the Nazis found Planck in his position as the head of a large scientific group - and the researcher sought to protect his colleagues, helped his employees go abroad and escape from the regime.
So Planck's quantum theory was not the only thing for which he was respected. It is worth noting that the scientist never expressed his opinion regarding Hitler’s actions, obviously realizing that he could harm not only himself, but also those who needed his help. Unfortunately, many representatives of the scientific world did not accept this position of Planck and completely stopped correspondence with him. He had five children, and only the youngest was able to outlive his father. At the same time, contemporaries emphasize that only at home the physicist was himself - a sincere and fair person.
Since his youth, the scientist has been involved in the study of the principles of thermodynamics, which state that any physical process proceeds exclusively with an increase in chaos and a decrease in mass or mass.
Note 1
Planck is the first to correctly formulate the definition of a thermodynamic system (in terms of entropy, which can only be observed in this concept).
Later, it was this scientific work that led to the creation of the famous Planck hypothesis. He was also able to separate physics and mathematics, developing a comprehensive mathematical section. Before the talented physicist, all natural sciences had mixed roots, and experiments were carried out at the elementary level by individuals in laboratories.
Quantum hypothesis
By exploring the entropy of electric and magnetic waves in terms of oscillators and drawing on scientific evidence, Planck presented the public and other scientists with a universal formula that would later be named after its creator.
The new equation related:
- wavelength;
- energy and saturation of the electromagnetic field;
- the temperature of light radiation, which was intended largely for completely black matter.
After the official presentation of this formula, Planck's colleagues, under the leadership of Rubens, carried out experiments for several days to scientifically confirm this theory. As a result, it turned out to be absolutely correct, but in order to substantiate the hypothesis theoretically arising from this equation and at the same time avoid mathematical difficulties, the scientist had to admit that electromagnetic energy is emitted in separate portions, and not in a continuous flow, as previously thought. This method finally destroyed all existing ideas about the solid physical body. Planck's quantum theory made a real revolution in physics.
Contemporaries believe that initially the researcher did not realize the significance of his discovery. For some time, the hypothesis he presented was used only as a convenient solution to reduce the number of mathematical formulas for calculation. At the same time, Planck, like his colleagues, used continuous Maxwell’s equations in their work.
The only thing that confused the researchers was the constant $h$, which could not obtain a physical meaning. Only later, Paul Ehrenfest and Albert Einstein, carefully studying new phenomena of radioactivity and studying the mathematical justification for optical spectra, were able to understand the full importance of Planck's theory. It is known that the scientific report, in which the formula for quantizing energy was first announced, opened the age of new physics.
Uses of Planck's theory
Note 2
Thanks to Planck's law, the public received a powerful argument in favor of the so-called Big Bang hypothesis, which explains the expansion and emergence of the Universe as a result of a powerful explosion with extremely high temperatures.
It is believed that in the early stages of its formation, our Universe was completely filled with a certain radiation, the spectral property of which should coincide with the radiation of a black body.
Since then, the world has only expanded and then cooled to its current temperature. That is, the radiation that is currently propagating in the Universe should be similar in composition to the alpha radiation of black matter with a certain temperature. In 1965, Wilson discovered this radiation at a magnetic wavelength of 7.35 cm, which constantly falls on our planet with the same energy in absolutely all directions. It soon became clear that this phenomenon could only be emitted by a black body that arose after the Big Bang. The final measurement indicators indicate that the temperature of this substance today is 2.7 K.
The application of the theory of thermal and electromagnetic radiation can explain the processes that would accompany a nuclear explosion (the so-called “atomic winter”). A powerful explosion will raise colossal masses of soot and dust into the upper layers of the air. As the closest thing to a black body, soot completely absorbs almost all solar radiation, heats up to the maximum limit, and then emits radiation in both directions.
As a result, only half of the radiation that comes from the Sun hits the Earth, since the second half will be directed in the opposite direction from the planet. According to scientists' calculations, the average temperature of the Earth will decrease by 50 K (this is a temperature below the freezing point of water).
Physics is the most mysterious of all sciences. Physics gives us an understanding of the world around us. The laws of physics are absolute and apply to everyone without exception, regardless of person or social status.
This article is intended for persons over 18 years of age
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Fundamental discoveries in the field of quantum physics
Isaac Newton, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein and many others are the great guides of humanity in the wonderful world of physics, who, like prophets, revealed to humanity the greatest secrets of the universe and the possibilities of controlling physical phenomena. Their bright heads cut through the darkness of ignorance of the unreasonable majority and, like a guiding star, showed the way to humanity in the darkness of the night. One of such guides in the world of physics was Max Planck, the father of quantum physics.
Max Planck is not only the founder of quantum physics, but also the author of the world famous quantum theory. Quantum theory is the most important component of quantum physics. In simple words, this theory describes the movement, behavior and interaction of microparticles. The founder of quantum physics also brought us many other scientific works that became the cornerstones of modern physics:
- theory of thermal radiation;
- special theory of relativity;
- research in thermodynamics;
- research in the field of optics.
Quantum physics' theories about the behavior and interactions of microparticles became the basis for condensed matter physics, particle physics, and high-energy physics. Quantum theory explains to us the essence of many phenomena in our world - from the functioning of electronic computers to the structure and behavior of celestial bodies. Max Planck, the creator of this theory, thanks to his discovery, allowed us to comprehend the true essence of many things at the level of elementary particles. But the creation of this theory is far from the only merit of the scientist. He became the first to discover the fundamental law of the Universe - the law of conservation of energy. Max Planck's contribution to science is difficult to overestimate. In short, his discoveries are invaluable for physics, chemistry, history, methodology and philosophy.
Quantum field theory
In a nutshell, quantum field theory is a theory for describing microparticles, as well as their behavior in space, interaction with each other and interconversion. This theory studies the behavior of quantum systems within the so-called degrees of freedom. This beautiful and romantic name doesn’t really mean anything to many of us. For dummies, degrees of freedom are the number of independent coordinates that are needed to indicate the motion of a mechanical system. In simple terms, degrees of freedom are characteristics of motion. Interesting discoveries in the field of interaction of elementary particles were made by Steven Weinberg. He discovered the so-called neutral current - the principle of interaction between quarks and leptons, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1979.
Max Planck's quantum theory
In the nineties of the eighteenth century, the German physicist Max Planck began studying thermal radiation and eventually obtained a formula for the distribution of energy. The quantum hypothesis, which was born in the course of these studies, laid the foundation for quantum physics, as well as quantum field theory, discovered in 1900. Planck's quantum theory is that in thermal radiation the energy produced is not emitted and absorbed constantly, but episodically, quantumly. The year 1900, thanks to this discovery made by Max Planck, became the year of the birth of quantum mechanics. It is also worth mentioning Planck's formula. In short, its essence is as follows - it is based on the relationship between body temperature and its radiation.
Quantum mechanical theory of atomic structure
The quantum mechanical theory of atomic structure is one of the basic theories of concepts in quantum physics, and in physics in general. This theory allows us to understand the structure of all material things and lifts the veil of secrecy over what things actually consist of. And the conclusions based on this theory are quite unexpected. Let us briefly consider the structure of the atom. So, what is an atom actually made of? An atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons. The basis of an atom, its nucleus, contains almost the entire mass of the atom itself - more than 99 percent. The nucleus always has a positive charge, and this determines the chemical element of which the atom is a part. The most interesting thing about the nucleus of an atom is that it contains almost the entire mass of the atom, but at the same time occupies only one ten-thousandth of its volume. What follows from this? And the conclusion that emerges is quite unexpected. This means that there is only one ten-thousandth of the dense substance in an atom. And what takes up everything else? And everything else in the atom is an electron cloud.
An electronic cloud is not a permanent and, in fact, not even a material substance. An electron cloud is just the probability of electrons appearing in an atom. That is, the nucleus occupies only one ten thousandth in the atom, and the rest is emptiness. And if we consider that all the objects around us, from specks of dust to celestial bodies, planets and stars, are made of atoms, then it turns out that everything material is actually more than 99 percent composed of emptiness. This theory seems completely incredible, and its author, at the very least, a mistaken person, because the things that exist around have a solid consistency, have weight and can be touched. How can it consist of emptiness? Has an error crept into this theory of the structure of matter? But there is no mistake here.
All material things appear dense only due to the interaction between atoms. Things have a solid and dense consistency only due to attraction or repulsion between atoms. This ensures the density and hardness of the crystal lattice of chemical substances, from which everything material consists. But, an interesting point is that when, for example, environmental temperature conditions change, the bonds between atoms, that is, their attraction and repulsion, can weaken, which leads to a weakening of the crystal lattice and even to its destruction. This explains the change in the physical properties of substances when heated. For example, when iron is heated, it becomes liquid and can be shaped into any shape. And when ice melts, the destruction of the crystal lattice leads to a change in the state of the substance, and from solid it turns into liquid. These are clear examples of weakening bonds between atoms and, as a result, weakening or destruction of the crystal lattice, and allow the substance to become amorphous. And the reason for such mysterious metamorphoses is precisely that substances consist of only one ten-thousandth of dense matter, and the rest is emptiness.
And substances seem solid only because of strong bonds between atoms, when they weaken, the substance changes. Thus, the quantum theory of atomic structure allows us to look at the world around us in a completely different way.
The founder of atomic theory, Niels Bohr, put forward an interesting concept that electrons in an atom do not emit energy constantly, but only at the moment of transition between the trajectories of their movement. Bohr's theory helped explain many intra-atomic processes, and also made breakthroughs in the field of science such as chemistry, explaining the boundaries of the table created by Mendeleev. According to , the last element capable of existing in time and space has a serial number of one hundred thirty-seven, and elements starting from one hundred and thirty-eight cannot exist, since their existence contradicts the theory of relativity. Also, Bohr's theory explained the nature of such physical phenomena as atomic spectra.
These are the interaction spectra of free atoms that arise when energy is emitted between them. Such phenomena are characteristic of gaseous, vaporous substances and substances in the plasma state. Thus, quantum theory made a revolution in the world of physics and allowed scientists to advance not only in the field of this science, but also in the field of many related sciences: chemistry, thermodynamics, optics and philosophy. And also allowed humanity to penetrate into the secrets of the nature of things.
There is still a lot that humanity needs to turn over in its consciousness in order to realize the nature of atoms and understand the principles of their behavior and interaction. Having understood this, we will be able to understand the nature of the world around us, because everything that surrounds us, from specks of dust to the sun itself, and we ourselves, all consists of atoms, the nature of which is mysterious and amazing and conceals a lot of secrets.