Feminitives are words of the feminine gender, alternative or paired to similar concepts of the masculine gender. What are neuter words? Prepositional singular case endings for masculine nouns -е – -у(-у)

To use words correctly, you need to understand what kind they are. Is coffee, for example, neuter masculine? If it’s average, then you need to say: “My coffee is cold.” And if it’s male, “My coffee is cold.” How to avoid being branded as an illiterate person when determining the neuter gender?

What are the neuter words? Examples

The division of parts of speech by gender (feminine, neuter and masculine) is not unique to the Russian language. The ending of a word determines whether it belongs to the neuter gender. Neuter nouns are usually inanimate, although there are exceptions:

• creature,
• animal,
• monster,
• deity,
• child,
• monster,
• person (official).

If a word comes from another language, ends in a vowel, is inanimate, and according to established tradition is not declined, it is considered neuter.

Neuter nouns answer the question: whose is it? If you can say about a word: “It’s mine,” then it’s a neuter noun. There are two types of endings for such words:

1. -o, -e, -e, -ie. These are, for example, the following words: pots, lake, muffler, gun, understanding.
2. -me. For example, stirrup, crown, name.

Neuter words can be not only nouns, but also adjectives, numerals and pronouns.

Coffee - it or he?

It seems that the word "coffee" does not obey the rule: it ends in "e", but at the same time it is not neuter, but masculine. exception? Not really. The fact is that the word, along with the drink, came to Russia with Peter the Great. Tea had already been known for a long time, and by analogy with this drink the new product began to be called “coffee.” Then no one doubted that the word was masculine. Its diminutive version of “coffees” is still beyond doubt.

Over time, the word “coffee” became obsolete and was replaced by “coffee.” The word became unbreakable. And here a paradox arose. According to the rules, this word must have a neuter gender. This is why, intuitively, people began to use “coffee” as a neuter word. A process began that transferred the word “metro” from the masculine to the neuter. You probably remember Utesov’s song: “But the metro sparkled with oak railings...”

Why don’t linguists recognize the neuter gender for coffee? Because this word has a special meaning. Using it in the neuter gender is contrary to literary tradition, and therefore is perceived as illiterate. The coffee ended up in a place for which speakers of literate Russian speech are fighting. These are the words contract, rings, blinds, cottage cheese, provision and several others.

And although since 2002 you can say “my coffee” in colloquial speech, only the masculine gender is recognized in writing.

Declension

Changing words by case is called declension. Neuter words with endings can be inflected. For neuter nouns there are the following rules (see table).

Common mistakes

A typical mistake was the incorrect determination of the gender of some words. Because of the ending “o,” which is pronounced “a” in the unstressed version, some inflect such words into the feminine form. Example:

• The buffet sells pies with jam, manga and dried apricots.
• We saw the natives living in bungalow.
• The neighbors bought piano.

The correct options would be to use the highlighted words in the neuter form. That is: with jam, with mangoes, in a bungalow, we bought a piano.

The second common mistake is trying to change indeclinable nouns by case. It’s not just children who get confused, and incredible words of feminine, masculine, and neuter gender arise.

Words that do not change by case. Examples

In addition to inflected words, there are also neuter words that are invariable by case:

• arpeggio,
• video,
• graffiti,
• dragee,
• neckline,
• coupe,
• cafe,
• mango,
• mini,
• neutrino,
• penalty,
• piano,
• rendezvous,
• solo,
• trio,
• Taxi,
• fouetté,
• facsimile.

This list is far from complete. Therefore, if difficulties arise, it is better to turn to dictionaries.

How to remember words without endings: a game

To avoid making mistakes in declination, there is a simple and fun way to check. Try putting these words in several different cases. If it turns out funny and absurd, then this word is not declined according to cases.

• The kangaroo put on his pince-nez (wrong, there is no such word, you need to put “pince-nez”).
• To get to the cafe, I took a taxi (it would be correct: “taxi”).
• We gorged ourselves on crème brûlée, blancmange and dragées (correctly: “crème brûlée, blancmange and dragées”).
• Let's meet near the depot and go watch the movie "Dynamo" (you need: "near the depot, the movie "Dynamo").
• I am dissatisfied with the passe-partout with a photo and a panel (it would be correct: “passe-partout with a photo and a panel”).

Play this game with your children. It is not difficult, the main thing is not to forget that these words are not declined by case. Regular games with words develop intelligence and expand vocabulary. Soon the child will feel how to construct a phrase and use words, and will not make mistakes.

Spanish words are masculine and feminine at the same time.

The Spanish language has an interesting group of words (fortunately, a small one) that can be either masculine or feminine. The meaning also changes depending on the gender.

Moreover, what’s surprising is that these are words that almost anyone who has just started learning Spanish knows: azucar, arte, analisis, mar, fin, puente, canal etc.

The word análisis is in the vast majority of cases used in the masculine gender (el análisis), but if you come across la análisis, do not be surprised, this word was previously actively used in the feminine gender:

Necesito hacer los análisis para saber por que me duele tanto la cabeza.

The word arte meaning “art” (i.e. “reflection of reality in artistic images”) is used in the masculine gender:

En la universidad me gustaría estudiar el arte clásico

Also in the masculine gender, el arte means “fishing net.”

Los artes de pesca - fishing equipment

In the feminine gender el arte* - las artes - “skill, mastery, cunning”

Me apetece dedicarse a las artes plasticas

I wouldn’t be surprised if even the Spaniards themselves don’t know that an everyday word like azucar (sugar) can have two genders, because it is usually used in the masculine gender.

Mi doctor dice que el azucar es necesario para la salud

But they can be forgiven for such ignorance, because la azucar is a term used by people whose work is related to sugar:

La azucar cruda - raw sugar

La azucar amarilla - yellow sugar (secondary product)

Canal in the meaning “canal, artificial channel” is used in the masculine gender

En San Petersburgo hay muchos canales

Canal in the meaning of “vessel” (in the body) is usually feminine.

Las canales linfáticas - lymphatic vessels

The word fin can mean “goal” or “end” and is always used in the masculine gender

Mi fin es hacer una magnífica carrera en el Minesterio de Hacienda

Al fin, por fin - finally, in the end

The only phrase where fin is used in the feminine gender is “the end of the world” - la fin del mundo.

La mar is spoken only by sailors and residents of some coastal areas, while ordinary people use the word “sea” in the masculine gender

Pensamos pasar las vacaciones en la costa del mar Mediterráneo

But la mar is also found in most phraseological units and set expressions (frases hechas)

La mar de - a large amount of something: Julia es la mar de encanto.

Hacerse a la mar - go to sea

El puente (bridge) is recommended to be used in the masculine gender.

Debajo del puente hay un mundo de gente

El/la reuma (rheumatism) is used in both genders.

* Don’t be surprised that the feminine noun arte is preceded by the masculine article el. The fact is that if a Spanish feminine noun begins with a stressed a, then the article before the word will be el.

Notes 1. Due to the fact that the Spanish language is implemented in different national varieties (Pyrenean, Mexican, Cuban, Peruvian, etc.), some nouns can have different genders depending on the area of ​​use. The Spanish say la vuelta - change, el columpio - swing, 1a sartén - frying pan, la bombilla - light bulb, and in many Latin American countries these nouns have the opposite gender el vuelto, la columpia, el sartén, el bombillo.

1. Swan. "Swan" is masculine. But if, for example, we are talking about Pushkin’s fairy tales (“Look, a white swan is swimming over flowing waters”), it is female. What do modern dictionaries say about this? That “swan” is really masculine, but in folk poetic speech this word can also be used as a feminine noun.

2. Tulle. In stores where they sell or sew curtains, you can often hear something about “beautiful tulle.” In fact, “tulle” is masculine: “curtain tulle.” By the way, in the source language (French) this noun is also masculine.

3. Shampoo. This word should also not be given “feminine” qualities. “Shampoo” is it. And unlike some other words, it never changed gender. So you can wash your hair with “new shampoo”, but not with “new shampoo”.

4. Callus. This is a feminine noun. However, quite often it is mistakenly attributed to masculine. The fact is that before (once upon a time) there really were fluctuations between the masculine and feminine genders, but in the end the feminine won. Which, by the way, is rather an exception - the male usually wins. Patriarchy reigns in linguistics!

5. Parcel. Feminine gender. The source language (French) is affected, as well as the defining word - parcel: “send by parcel post”.

6. Mascara. It’s hard to confuse anything here, it’s clearly “mascara”. But we need to talk about this word separately because it has a twin (or almost a twin) - “tush” without a soft sign at the end. Touche is a piece of music.

7. Report card. Actually, the “report card” is masculine, but there is one exception: “table of ranks.” This is a legislative act of the 18th century, and in its name the word “table” is feminine: “look at the table of ranks.” In all other cases, the masculine gender remains.

9. Shutter. In this case, it is necessary to distinguish between options. "Shutter" is masculine. “Shutter” - female.

Opening!

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"Words of feminine and masculine gender"

We learn to correctly use the feminine and masculine gender in words that look very similar.

1. Swan. "Swan" is masculine. But if, for example, we are talking about Pushkin’s fairy tales (“Look, a white swan is swimming over flowing waters”), it is female. What do modern dictionaries say about this? That “swan” is really masculine, but in folk poetic speech this word can also be used as a feminine noun.

2. Tulle. In stores where they sell or sew curtains, you can often hear something about “beautiful tulle.” In fact, “tulle” is masculine: “curtain tulle.” By the way, in the source language (French) this noun is also masculine.

3. Shampoo. This word should also not be given “feminine” qualities. “Shampoo” is it. And unlike some other words, it never changed gender. So you can wash your hair with “new shampoo”, but not with “new shampoo”.

4. Callus. This is a feminine noun. However, quite often it is mistakenly attributed to masculine. The fact is that before (once upon a time) there really were fluctuations between the masculine and feminine genders, but in the end the feminine won. Which, by the way, is rather an exception - the male usually wins. Patriarchy reigns in linguistics!

5. Parcel. Feminine gender. The source language (French) is affected, as well as the defining word - parcel: “send by parcel post”.

6. Mascara. It’s hard to confuse anything here, it’s clearly “mascara”. But we need to talk about this word separately because it has a twin (or almost a twin) - “tush” without a soft sign at the end. Touche is a piece of music.

7. Report card. Actually, the “report card” is masculine, but there is one exception: “table of ranks.” This is a legislative act of the 18th century, and in its name the word “table” is feminine: “look at the table of ranks.” In all other cases, the masculine gender remains.

8. Piano. Nowadays the word “piano” is masculine, but previously there were two variants. You could say “beautiful piano.” And this is where the masculine gender won.

9. Shutter. In this case, it is necessary to distinguish between options. "Shutter" is masculine. “Shutter” - female.

Opening!

It turns out that even the word “vegetable” can cause problems. The fact is that the dictionaries also include “vegetable” with a soft sign at the end. This feminine word has a collective meaning and denotes a collection of vegetables: “every vegetable.” But in living speech, “vegetable” is not used in this sense at all, and it is rare in written speech.

Poet or poetess? What is the correct name for a woman who works as a doctor, teacher or director? If you say “school director,” the person will also be offended! But the thing is that this is a feature of our grammar that appeared not so long ago - the alteration of words, originally formed only in the masculine gender, into the feminine gender. Feminitives in the Russian language have not yet been worked out too deeply, but the language is developing, and this topic is undergoing changes along with it.

Deeper and more accurate

Feminitives are neologisms that are not discussed in too much detail in the rules of the language. In many ways, this phenomenon has yet to be formalized, subject to laws, and introduced into official language practice. Many say that one of the most important features of the phenomenon is a reflection of how much opportunity there is in a language to form new words. To some extent, word-forming affixes demonstrate the richness of grammar. Scientific materials on this issue are heterogeneous, and the opinions of the authors differ significantly.

Currently, examples of feminists cause a lot of controversy in professional circles. Others are convinced that using such words is a sign of bad taste. There are also opinions that there is no point in raising such a question at all. Some people believe that the introduction of the corresponding words into the language reflects the strengthening of the status of women in society, but there are those who are ready to argue with this opinion. Artist, female artist - is it so important to designate gender when the main idea is the essence, that is, the talent to draw pictures?

Should I or should I not?

According to many, men and women have equal rights, and this fact should be reflected in the language. It is important to introduce a distinction between men and women at the linguistic level, since androcentrism does not allow the fair sex to actively participate in social life. Limitations are everywhere, even in the terminology used. A society that is naturally formed by men and women, due to the peculiarities of word formation, turns into one consisting predominantly of men.

New feminine words are frowned upon by some. Philologists explain this by saying that people need time to get used to a new term, and over time, the practice of using such lexemes will become stable. But now neologisms seem to many to be rude, incorrect, they seem to hurt the ears. But there are also those who are convinced that new feminine words have already firmly entered our lives. Their sound has become familiar; it doesn’t seem like we had to deal with anything special. However, to this day there remain lovers of traditions, for whom the new feminine words accepted by the majority of society seem alien and incorrect.

Why is this necessary?

Feminitives are not just a linguistic phenomenon, but a reflection in the language of women’s desire to become noticeable, to be recognized as part of society. This is no less important within the framework of implementation in the labor field. Feminitives are one of the methods of representing women through linguistic tools, which allows us to fight for gender equality and equal rights for all participants in society. At the same time, the idea of ​​the feminine reflects the desire of the grammar of any language to simplify.

The use of neologisms makes it possible to bypass ugly constructions when the term is masculine, and the verb or adjective conveys belonging to the female gender. To avoid a silent phrase, the feminine could come to the rescue. “Doctor Sergeeva came on shift” - you must agree, it sounds illogical. Doctor is a word that must be followed by a masculine noun. Of course, you can find a way out of the situation and indicate “female doctor,” but the perception of such phrases is quite complex, so it is unlikely to take root in real speech. The best way out is feminitives.

How to do it?

Creating a new word is not easy. Not everyone will be able to formulate it sonorously and correctly. For example, this is exactly how the word “doctor” appeared, rude, negative - it was created not within the framework of the constructive idea of ​​​​reflecting gender equality, but as an attempt to belittle a person.

Feminitives are words that must be formed taking into account linguistic logic by a person with linguistic intuition. The result should be productive and sound good. It is important that feminists conform to the patterns of word formation characteristic of the language.

What to use?

The main tool that helps create a feminine is a suffix. Currently, it is customary to talk about productive and unproductive. The first category includes those that in the current period in our language are used quite actively to form words. Classic options: -ka, -nitsa, -inya and the like.

The elements -ikha, -ya, -i(es)sa, -sha are usually considered unproductive. You can also use these in language practice, but the result will have a slightly different shade.

-ka

This suffix can easily be called one of the most frequently used, especially if we take into account the logic of our language. It is through him that almost all currently applicable feminists are formed.

Often, ordinary people perceive words with this addition negatively, believing that the suffix gives them a derogatory connotation. Linguists explain this by its similarity with the specific slang that exists at school, because the first such neologism that comes to mind for most is “teacher.” This forms a negative pattern for this category of feminists. In reality, the suffix does not have any markings, including negative connotations. It is multi-valued, belongs to the category of productive, and can be safely used in different situations. Returning to the above example about doctors: in modern literary language there is the word “medic”, which can be used as normative.

-itsa

Such feminives are not very widespread, and the most characteristic manifestation observed in the language at present is “kotitsa/kotitsy”. It can be explained as follows: it is now quite common to address friendly audiences as “seals,” but this word has a clear gender identity. Since at times we are talking about the female half, it was necessary to choose an adequate term that would fit into the logic of the language, sound correctly and reflect a semantic load not directly related to representatives of the animal world.

But if you need to talk about a female animal, then they use a completely normative word for her - cat. It is not a neologism, has nothing to do with feminism, and is not used as a tool to achieve gender equality in society.

-nitsa

This suffix is ​​one of the most frequently used. Feminitives formed with its help appeared in the language quite a long time ago, so they are familiar to most modern people. Surprisingly, the suffix did not always mean exactly what it is currently applied to. For example, a “teacher” will be called a woman who teaches at school, but in earlier times the suffix only denoted that a man belonged to the corresponding specialty due to marital relations. For example, “colonel” was not the name of the one who had official service, but simply the colonel’s wife.

The change in social structure could not but affect the language, and words in -nitsa became independent. Now they are used to describe a woman in herself, rather than to characterize a man through her. Only one who herself occupies the corresponding post can be called a colonel. However, the word is purely colloquial. If you need to draw up an official document, you will have to use “colonel”, “teacher”. Perhaps, over time, the feminists of this group will enter the language as official, independent, literary, normative words, but so far this has not happened.

-ch(sch)itsa

For the Russian language, this suffix is ​​quite typical and characteristic, and feminives formed with its use seem logical and acceptable for everyday speech. Others, however, believe that such an increase gives a hint of mockery and disrespect. Currently, the method of word formation is quite widely used both in writing and in conversation.

-inya

More often you can find this suffix when talking about the type of activity, profession, the name of which comes from the ancient Greek language. If the ending of the word is -log, then the designation of belonging to the female gender will most often be made through the suffix -ina.

This suffix is ​​quite typical for the scientific environment and the medical field. From the point of view of some linguists, the formation of feminines in the future through -inya will be the most characteristic option for the indicated type of words, as well as similar ones. For example, “duchess”, “princess”, although they have nothing to do with scientific activity or medical activity, are formed according to the same logic. These words seem euphonious, acceptable, and the method of word formation, according to many, is the future in which language will be a reflection of equality.

-isa

This suffix is ​​a classic representative of the unproductive group. Currently, it is used very little and in narrow circles. Linguists have been arguing for quite some time about what meaning the suffix conveys. Some believe that it is an address, and a classic example would be the word “headmistress.” There are also opponents of this idea, explaining that in this particular case the negative emotional connotation is associated with the specific atmosphere at school and has nothing to do with the suffix as a word-formation tool. Some promote the “director” option as the most productive, positive, and without negative connotations.

-essa

In modern Russian, this suffix is ​​used quite rarely. In general, its use gives the word an elevated connotation, changing the style of speech. This type of word is characterized by a pronunciation that is somewhat atypical for the Russian language. Before [e] the consonant sounds hard. This is exactly what the word “poetess” is.

-iha

This method of word formation results in a rather simple-sounding, rude word. In earlier times, the variant was used to designate a woman whose husband has some profession, and it was used only in colloquial, simple speech. For example, a colonel's wife could easily be called a colonel's wife, but not to her face - otherwise the lady would be offended. An alternative option for using this method of creating neologisms is to designate a woman’s belonging to some profession. This is where the words “weavers” and the like came from. Modern Russian is distinguished by a negative assessment of words formed using this suffix. Neologisms designed to strengthen the position of women in society are not created with its use.

-sha

Like the method described above, this suffix results in a word that sounds extremely dissonant to a modern Russian person. In earlier times, it was applied to women whose husbands had some profession. Currently, this practice has not survived; it is considered an outdated form. In dictionaries, words formed through this suffix are noted as colloquial. They cannot be used in normative speech or simple conversational speech without fear of offending the interlocutor.

Feminitives in -sha exist, although they are very few. This is the exception rather than the rule. Such words have never been used to indicate that a woman belongs to a man. Thus, the literary background to the formation of the feminine word “musician” is quite interesting, which can currently be used freely. Also, the word “librarian” does not have offensive connotations. From the point of view of a number of linguists, it is necessary to use the “librarian” option, but in real language the first one has taken root much better. However, some philologists say that “librarian” is the very word that balances on the line between colloquial language and neutral. But the word “giantess” is known to everyone, is quite widespread, is often found in literary works and can be used in ordinary speech. It does not acquire any negative connotations due to the suffix.

But the word “captain” is somewhat different from others formed through the same suffix. It is impossible to form a feminine for it using the classical addition -ka, since captain is the name of a headdress. According to some linguists, it would be correct to use the suffix -essa, which would result in "capitaness". However, a living spoken language exists according to its own rules, and if you ask the average person what he would call the captain’s wife or the woman steering the ship, the answer will be the same - “captain”.

The last two suffixes considered have a lot in common. They are characterized by strong colloquial overtones. The three main meanings of these suffixes are:

• the object is female;
• marker of disdain;
• designation of a colloquial expression.

-ya

From a point of view, such a suffix is ​​neutral. Its only meaning is to indicate that the object is female. There is an established practice of adding such a suffix to those words whose stem ends in -un.

Traditions: it's time to change

Centuries ago, each gender had clear roles that were not passed on from one to the other. Now life has changed quite a lot, this division is a thing of the past. People are faced with the need to maintain new tools for designating the gender of the object in question. It is important to be able to convey the characteristic in an adequate, neutral way, without resorting to derogatory, mocking suffixes. A woman strives for equal rights - and this is completely reasonable and natural. Providing the same significant privileges as men in all areas of life is not only wages and employment opportunities, but also correct terminology, respectful treatment, and recognition of human capabilities, regardless of gender.

Feminitives are neologisms, at least at the current moment in the development of language. Many linguists, as well as specialists in social development, assume that such words will soon become normative, familiar to the general public, and used in a variety of situations. It is important to form them taking into account linguistic logic, in accordance with the word formation models characteristic of the Russian language, and then the result will be really good - it will give useful words, due to which the language will be gender sensitive.

Fluctuations in gender of nouns

1. Words that have parallel masculine and feminine forms. Some nouns are used in modern Russian in both the masculine and feminine forms.

In rare cases, parallel forms are not associated with semantic or stylistic differences and act as equals, however, most of these words are preferably used in one of the indicated genders:

aneurysm - aneurysm(in medical literature this term is fixed in the second form);
anemone - anemone(the second form is more common);
arabesque – arabesque(the feminine form is more often used);
banknote - banknote(the masculine form is more often used);
aviary - aviary(the second form is more common);
giraffe - giraffe(the first form is more common);
youngster - youngster(forms of equal rights);
sk?red - sk?red(forms of equal rights);
somnambulist - somnambulist(the second form is used more often);
shutter - shutter(the second form is more often used);
veneer - veneer(the first form is more common).

In other cases, parallel forms differ from each other in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, and sphere of use. These are:

dahlia – dahlia(the second form in professional use among botanists);
worm - worm(the second form is colloquial);
gelatin - gelatin(the second form is characterized as inherent in the language of technology; cf. photographic gelatin);
hangnail - hangnail: in the meaning of “lifted skin at the base of the nail” the word hangnail is used; the use of the word burr in this meaning is obsolete or colloquial; in the meaning of “roughness, a sharp protrusion on the surface” (in technology), the word burr is usually used;
keys– key(in technology the word keys is more common, in professional use among musicians it is a key);
cuff - cuff(the first form is usually used in technical literature);
spasm - spasm: the second form is general literary; Wed a spasm squeezed my throat (Paustovsky); the first form is used as a medical term (for example, spasm of the heart vessel);
turn - series(the first word is used in the meaning of “turn, sequence” (for example, to keep a turn) and in the meaning of “it’s time, time” (for example, the turn has come, it’s the turn to do something); the second word can be used in these meanings, but the usual its meaning is “string”, “alternation” (for example, a series of people, a series of events, days passed in a slow series).

Parallel forms also include bracelet - bracelet, comb - comb, vest - vest, crushed stone - crushed stone (feminine suffix forms are colloquial).

2. Words used in the masculine form. Many nouns, previously used in the feminine form or in parallel masculine and feminine forms, have become fixed in modern language as masculine words.

These include, for example:

jackboot(obsolete boots);
hall(the form of the hall is outdated in the meaning of “a large room for crowded meetings, for doing something, etc.”, but is preserved when used in the meaning of “a spacious front room in a private house for special occasions, for dancing, etc.” ; compare: concert hall, reading room, assembly hall - the hall was full of guests);
a curtain(parallel feminine form curtain outdated in the meaning of “fabric, panel covering the stage from the auditorium”, but remains as a synonym for the word curtain);
myrtle(obsolete myrtle);
shoulder strap(obsolete shoulder strap);
rail(obsolete and colloquial rail);
movie(obsolete film);
epaulet(obsolete epaulet).

Replacing feminine forms with endings -A masculine forms with a zero ending indicate a tendency towards economy of speech means.

3. Words used in the feminine form.

In some cases, the feminine form has been assigned to words that were previously used in the masculine form or in parallel masculine and feminine forms, for example:

sideburn(obsolete sideburn);
bunch(obsolete grapes, but the corresponding plural form grapes is more common than bunches- a form formed from a bunch);
cataract(obsolete cataract as a medical term);
reserved seat(the form of reserved seats is colloquial);
price(spaciousness of prices);
plane tree(obsolete plane tree).

4. Words used in the neuter form. In rare cases, there is fluctuation in the choice of the neuter form, on the one hand, and the masculine or feminine forms, on the other, for example :

Kaylo – Kayla(the first form is used more often);
contralto – contralt(not only the second form is outdated, but also the use of the first as a masculine form; cf. Dostoevsky: pure, sonorous contralto; Gorky: rich, strong contralto);
notabene – notabene(forms of equal rights);
tentacle (neither tentacles nor tentacles are correct; the plural form is tentacles, gender - tentacles, not tentacles, -ev).

5. Words formed using suffixes.

Fluctuations in gender are also observed in nouns formed with the help of some suffixes (mainly from masculine nouns using the suffix -ina). The following forms are accepted in modern language:

2) feminine words: passport - passportina (for example, in Mayakovsky: red-skinned passportina), trunk - trunk (for example, thick trunk), snowdrift - snowdrift (for example, huge snowdrift);
3) words of a general gender: well done - well done (real good fellow - real good fellow), cattle - cattle (for example, unscrupulous brute - unscrupulous brute), freak - ugly (for example, terrible ugly - terrible ugly).

Depending on the meaning of the word, the grammatical gender of some nouns that contain the suffix -ish-e differs:
fortification(big city) – masculine; settlement (ancient settlement) – neuter;
conflagration(big fire) – masculine; conflagration (place where a fire occurred; remains of something burned) – neuter;
ax handle(big axe) – masculine; ax handle (axe handle) – neuter.

Gender of names of female persons by profession, position, etc.

1. Words without pair formations.

Many masculine nouns, denoting a person by profession, position held, work performed, occupation, academic or honorary title, etc., retain their form in cases where they refer to female persons, for example: teacher, technician, turner, geologist, physicist, metallurgist, designer, operator, innovator, judge, lawyer, associate professor, candidate of sciences, deputy, Hero of the Russian Federation, laureate of an international competition, master of sports, colonel, lieutenant.

In colloquial speech, there has clearly been a tendency to express the attribution of such words to female persons syntactically, mainly by putting the predicate in the feminine form if one of the words of the specified group acts as the subject, for example: the deputy received visitors, the master of sports set a new world record, The operator did a good job.

Similar constructions are also found in fiction - in the speech of characters and in the author’s speech, for example: The military paramedic is conscientious, no more (V. Panova); Apparently, the mine accountant became seriously ill (A. Koptyaeva); The agronomist left for the region (Antonov).

2. Paired formations adopted in neutral styles of speech.

Parallel names for designating female persons have been established in cases where a given specialty (profession, occupation, etc.) is equally associated with both female and male labor, for example: obstetrician - midwife, barmaid - barmaid, laboratory assistant - laboratory assistant, pilot - pilot, teacher - teacher, salesman - saleswoman, student - student, weaver - weaver, tractor driver - tractor driver, teacher - teacher and many others. etc. The same in the field of art, sports, when designating persons according to their relationship to a public organization, etc., for example: artist - artist, writer - writer, athlete - athlete.

The use of feminine pair formation eliminates ambiguity in cases where a non-Russian surname does not allow us to determine whether we are talking about a man or a woman, for example: Newspaper correspondent M. Smith reports ... (and not a correspondent, since such surnames are not associated with real gender their carrier).
In some cases, the formation of a paired name is hindered by the fact that a similar name already exists in the language, but is used with a different meaning. So, to the word shepherd it was impossible to form a parallel name “shepherd dog” (according to the model milkmaid - milkmaid), since this word was already fixed as the name of the dog breed. Wed. also the impossibility of forming pairs Indian - “turkey” (the second word means poultry, which is why the name Indian was formed) or Korean - “koreika” (pork belly, which is why the word Korean appeared), etc.

3. Paired formations used in colloquial speech.

In colloquial speech there are often paired names formed with the help of the suffixes -sha and -ikha, for example: librarian, usherette, accountant, director, doctor, engineer, cashier, commandant, conductor, hairdresser, postwoman, editor, registrar, secretary; doctor, janitor, watchman.

However, such formations are used to a limited extent. Their spread is hampered, on the one hand, by their inherent ambiguity: they can be understood as the name of the wife of a person of the corresponding profession and as the name of the character: cf. the possibility of a double interpretation of such words in sentences like: Here comes our foreman (either the foreman’s wife, or the foreman herself); The janitor helps us with the housework (same double meaning). Although in our time, with complete equality of male and female labor, we are more likely to see in such names a designation of an active person, the possibility of another interpretation is not excluded, which is associated with the history of such words (cf. previous names with the suffixes -sha and -ikha , denoting the names of wives by husband: general's wife, governor's wife, sexton, merchant's wife, etc.).

On the other hand, in literary speech such formations are avoided because of their inherent colloquial, reduced, sometimes disparaging evaluative meaning (professor, doctor). This especially applies to words in -iha; it is possible that undesirable associations with the names of animals are reflected here (cf. hare - hare, elephant - elephant, etc.). Such forms are used, as a rule, in stylized speech (for the speech characteristics of a character, in dialogue, etc.).

The above, of course, does not apply to neutral words such as dressmaker, weaver that have been fixed in the language, as well as to words that have only a feminine form to denote a certain profession, for example, manicurist. In professional speech, the words sprinter and swimmer are freely used.
To indicate the masculine correspondence to the words ballerina, typist, descriptive expressions are used: ballet dancer, typewriter. In professional use, the pair nurse - medical brother arose.

Gender of indeclinable nouns

The gender of indeclinable nouns of foreign language origin is determined as follows.

Masculine gender includes nouns that are:

a) names of male persons (for example, attaché, couturier, dandy);
b) names of animals (for example, ponies, kangaroos, chimpanzees), excluding: tsetse (female);
c) the noun coffee (cf. the noun coffee is acceptable only as a colloquial option).
The feminine gender includes nouns - names of female persons (for example, lady, frau, madam).
The neuter gender includes nouns - names of objects (for example, coat, cinema, menu, taxi, etc.).

The gender of proper names and some common nouns is determined by their common name.

For example: Tbilisi (city) - m.r., Mississippi (river) - g. r., Ontario (lake) - Wed. r., as well as ivashi (herring) - f. r., salami (sausage) - w. R. Some nouns are used only in the plural form, according to which agreement with other words is carried out according to the number form. For example: blinds - horizontal, vertical blinds.

Substantivalized words. Substantivized indeclinable words belong to the neuter gender, for example: polite “hello”, the usual “yes”, loud “hurray”, our “tomorrow”, sharp “I don’t want”.

Geographical names. The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical proper names (names of cities, rivers, lakes, islands, mountains, etc.) is determined by the grammatical gender of the common noun, which acts as a generic concept (i.e. by the gender of the words city, river, lake, etc.), for example: sunny Tbilisi (city), wide Mississippi (river), deep Erie (lake), inaccessible Jungfrau (mountain), picturesque Capri (island).

Deviations from the rule are explained by the influence of analogy, the use of the word in a different meaning, the tendency to classify foreign indeclinable words ending in -o as neuter, etc., for example: five-headed Beshtau (influence of the name of the neighboring mountain Mashuk), North Borneo (influence of the final o), The second is Baku (the name of the place of oil production, not the city), New Sochi (a false analogy with words in the plural form like Malye Mytishchi).

Names of press organs. The generic name also determines the grammatical gender of indeclinable names of press organs, for example: the liberal “News Chronicle”; The Times published a detailed summary of the report; At the 1962 competition for the best design and layout, the Daily Worker took second place (the names of newspapers are given in the examples);

Abbreviations and compound words. Abbreviations formed by combining the initial letters of those words that make up the full name determine their grammatical gender by the gender of the leading word of the compound name, for example: MGU (Moscow State University) celebrated its bicentenary; NPP (nuclear power plant) has entered into agreements with a number of enterprises.

Genitive singular endings for masculine nouns -а(-я) – -у(-у)

In the genitive case, variant endings are possible in combinations such as a glass of tea - a glass of tea, a lot of people - a lot of people. The -у(-у) form, with its inherent colloquial connotation, is found in the following cases:

1) for nouns with a real meaning when indicating quantity, i.e., to designate a part of the whole, for example: a glass of tea (for example, the taste of tea), a kilogram of sugar (for example, the sweetness of sugar); get wax, gasoline, glue, varnish, chalk, turpentine, wood; buy peas, lard, onions, honey, pepper, rice, cheese; the same with a striking ending: a kilogram of sand, get some garlic, add boiling water.

As a rule, nouns that have a diminutive suffix are used with the ending -у: drink kvass, cognac, tea, eat honey, sugar, cheese, garlic.

If a noun is accompanied by a modifier, then the form ending in -а(-я) is usually used, for example: a glass of strong tea, a pack of fragrant tobacco;

2) for single collective nouns with the same quantitative meaning: a lot of people (for example, the history of the people);

3) for abstract nouns, if the indicated shade of quantitative meaning is expressed: to make noise, to instill fear, to talk nonsense;

4) in some phraseological turns: a week without a year, without a clan and tribe, give a blunder, get some sense, give pepper, there is no end, our regiment has arrived, it’s no laughing matter, turn up the heat, pick up the pace, face to face, with the world by thread, to confuse, no doubt, just talk according to the spirit, etc.;

5) after the prepositions from, from, with (with the meaning of removal or cause), the preposition to (with the meaning of limit, achievement), the preposition without (in adverbial combinations), the particle nor (usually in phraseological units), for example: lose sight of, thirty years old, go crazy with fat, scream in fright, die of hunger, need to die, be escorted home, dance until you drop, take indiscriminately, enter without asking, talk incessantly, waste money without counting, never been, not a sound, not a breath, not a step further;

6) in negative sentences, for example: there is no wear, there is no end, there was no refusal, there was no peace, not to show, lacks the spirit;

7) in some cases there may be a semantic difference between the forms in -а(-я) and in -у(-й). So, to leave the house means “to leave one’s home” (i.e., the place where a person lives), and to leave the house can mean “to leave a certain type of building” or “to leave a designated house” (cf.: from the house two citizens came out; someone came out of house no. 15). Wed. also: leave home (for a while) - leave home (leave family); to take you home (to take you home) – to take you home (to a certain house); there is no forest (there is no forest) - there is no forest (there is no building material).

Accusative forms of animate and inanimate nouns

1. Options are possible: study bacteria - study bacteria, study bacilli - study bacilli, destroy microbes - destroy microbes; the same applies to the words embryos, larvae, embryos and some others. The first forms (like inanimate nouns) are used in general literary language, the second (like animate nouns) are associated with more archaic or professional use.

2. The difference in forms: caught three fish - ate three fish is reflected by the fact that in the second case we mean food (cf.: eat sprat, sardines, sprats - as an undivided product; but: eat crucian carp, crayfish, chicken - as individual objects) . Possible options: eat lobster, oysters - eat lobster, oysters.

3. In the options buy two cows - buy two cows, shoot three ducks - shoot three ducks (when the names of animals are in the feminine form, when we are talking about a general account, purchase and sale), the second form is colloquial.

4. In the normal form, deliver twenty-two passengers (in constructions with compound numerals ending in two, three, four, the accusative case retains the nominative form regardless of the category of animation), there is a colloquial form to deliver twenty-two passengers.

5. Of the two options: to meet several comrades and to meet several comrades, the second is currently more common (the same with the words how many, so many).

6. The word person in the meaning of “person” is used in the plural as an animate noun, for example: to reward entire teams and individuals.

The difference in forms to bring out a positive type - teach this type a lesson, find the subject of judgment - punish this subject, drive away a fighter - reward a tank destroyer, build a bomber - injure a bomber (colloquial connotation), repair counters - collect counters for the census is associated with the different meaning of the words in each of the given pairs.

The word character is declined as an inanimate noun: introduce comic character. But in the plural there is also a form of an animate noun, for example: “Newspapers vied with each other to claim that Chichikov reminds them of many real characters from current reality.”

The word addressee is declined as an animate noun: find the addressee.

7. When using animate nouns to denote objects, two forms of the accusative case are observed. Wed: observe an artificial Earth satellite, launch a new satellite - launch new satellites (in professional use). Only: Jupiter has four moons.

In conventional names (for example, in the names of ships), animate nouns can be declined as if they were inanimate, for example: The cadets were in a hurry to catch the “Favorite” setting sail; Boarding is carried out on the “Sedov” (such forms are inherent in the spoken language; in bookish, literary language, a word denoting a generic concept is usually placed before the conventional name: “boarding on the motor ship “Sedov””).

Prepositional singular case endings for masculine nouns -е – -у(-у)

The difference between these forms may be related to meaning (cf.: at home - at home) or with stylistic coloring (cf. book version on vacation and colloquial version on vacation).

1. The form with the ending -у(-у) is used if an inanimate masculine noun has the prepositions in and on (in combination with the preposition at only in isolated cases: at the shelf); cf.: on the shore - about the shore, in the ranks - about the ranks, etc. Few constructions include a proper name: on the Don, in the Crimea, in Klin.

The form ending in -y(th) has an adverbial meaning, and the form starting with -e has an objective meaning. Wed: keep on the canopy (circumstance) - gain on weight (addition); get stuck in honey - understand honey; to be in order - in the order of a simple sentence, etc. Cf. also: walking in the forest - the role of Neschastlivtsev in “The Forest” by A. N. Ostrovsky; was on the Don - was on “Quiet Don” (the name of the opera); born in 1918 - description of events in “The Eighteenth Year” by A. N. Tolstoy.

2. When choosing one of the parallel forms, the lexical composition of the combination, the phraseological nature of the expression, and the use of the word in a literal or figurative meaning are taken into account. Wed:

in our everyday life - changes in everyday life
work from home – house number
suffocate in smoke - in the smoke of fires
covered in fat - swimming in fat
sole with glue – connection with a new brand of glue
standing forest - crack on the root of a tooth
at the very edge - at the forefront
among friends - in a life preserver, etc.
The form ending in -у(-у) is used in combinations close in meaning to adverbs, for example: on the wing, on the fly, at a gallop, on the move, as well as in expressions that have the character of stable combinations, for example: eyesore, stay in duty, on the verge of death, on pasture, to live in harmony, to follow the lead, to stew in one’s own juices, in good standing.

3. The form in -e is characterized as bookish, the form in -у(-у) is characterized as colloquial and professional, sometimes with a touch of vernacular. Wed:

at the airport – at the airport

on vacation - on vacation
on the coffin - on the coffin

in alcohol - in alcohol
on the ground - on the ground

in the stable - in the stable

Nominative plural endings for masculine nouns -ы(-и) – -а(-я)

In modern language, the formation of forms in -а?(-я?) such as bell?, zakrom? is productive. In some cases, such forms have been firmly entrenched in the literary language for a long period (for example, many monosyllabic words like run - run? and words with singular stress on the first syllable, such as v?cher - evening?, ?korok - ham? ); in other cases, there is a parallel use of them with forms ending in -ы(-и), but with stylistic differentiation (cf. the book form korr?ktory and the colloquial korr?ktor?); finally, in third cases, forms ending in -а?(-я?) go beyond the literary norm (for example: author?, lecturer?).

Genitive plural endings

1. Many masculine nouns with a non-derivative base on a solid consonant (except for sibilants) have a form without an ending in the genitive plural (the so-called zero ending).

These include:
1) names of items usually used in pairs: (pair) boots, felt boots, boots (but: boots), stockings (but: socks); (without) shoulder straps, epaulette;
2) names of some nationalities, mainly based on n and r: (live among) the British, Armenians, Balkars, Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Buryats, Georgians, Lezgins, Mordvins, Ossetians, Romanians, Saracens, Turkmen, Turks, Khazars, Gypsies ; but: Bedouins, Berbers, Bushmen, Negroes, Svans; Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Mingrelians, Mongols, Oirots, Tajiks, Tungus, Uzbeks, Khakassians, Croats, Yakuts;
3) names of military groups, former branches of the military, etc.: (detachment) of partisans, soldiers; (detachment) grenadier, hussar, dragoon, cuirassier, reiter, lancer; but: miners, midshipmen, sappers;
4) some names of units of measurement, usually used with numerals: (quantity) ampere, watt, volt, arshin, hertz, grain, oersted; fluctuations: angstroms - angstroms, microns - microns, ohms - ohms, roentgens - roentgens; grams - grams, kilograms - kilograms, carats - carats; full forms: pendants, newtons, ergs, cables (from cables). In case of hesitation, the undoubted tendency to use shorter forms should be taken into account. Also: without veneer.

The ending -ov is preserved in the forms: hectares; oranges, eggplants, tangerines, tomatoes, tomatoes, rails.

Homonym words have different forms. So, a horn (shepherd's, children's, etc.) forms the plural form horn? – horn?in; horn (diminutive for the word horn) has the shape of a horn - horn; from the eyes? to (plant bud; hole for supervision) – peephole? - peephole; from eyes? to (reduce. to the word eye) – eyes – eyes.

2. Variant forms of feminine nouns: barzh (from b? rzha) – barzh?y (from barzh?); p?sen (from p?snya) – p?sney (from song); sazheny (from sazhen) – s?zhen and sazhen?y (from s?zhen). Modern literary usage is characterized by the first forms in each of the given pairs.
The normative forms of the genitive case are waffles, domain, poker, roofs, shafts, rods, weddings, gossip, estates; shares, skittles, handfuls, sakleys, candles (less often candles), herons, nannies, sheets (less often sheets), aunts (less often aunts; cf. Chekhov: “In this new world, where the sun hurts the eyes, there are so many dads, moms and aunts that you don’t know who to run to”).

3. Variant forms of neuter nouns: rusel - rusl (from r?slo), nozzles - nozzle (from nozzles?). In book speech, the first forms are usually found, in colloquial speech - the second (without inserting a fluent vowel).
Stylistic options are literary backwaters, coasts, drugs and colloquial backwaters, coasts, drugs.

Regulatory forms: upper reaches, lower reaches, mouths, shoulders, apples; saucer, mirror; blankets, towels, tentacles; bolottsev, kr?zhevtsev (from kr?zhevtse) and lace?ts (from kruzhevts?).
Variant forms: knees - knees - knees, knees - knees, troughs - troughs, koptytsev - koptyts and some others.

4. Variant forms of nouns used only in the plural: rake (rarely rake), stilts (rarely stilt).
Standard forms: frills, frosts, clavichords, rags, rags, antlers, scum; moccasin, attack, trousers, dark, leggings, twilight, bloomers; everyday life, wood, nursery.
Some words in this category allow parallel forms of the genitive plural (without ending and with ending -ov), for example: bot - bots, vyzhik - vyzhikk, vysek - vysevk, vysel - vyselki, vychesok - vychesk. But (only with the ending -ov): vymorozki - vymorozkov, opivki - opivkov, posledki - posledkov and some others.

Instrumental plural endings -yami – -(ь)ми
In pairs of doors - doors, daughters - daughters, horses - horses, the second options are more common (the first are considered bookish and to one degree or another outdated, but usually negotiations are held behind closed doors).

With the normative forms with bones, lashes, the form with the accented ending -(b)mi is preserved in phraseological units: lay down with bones, punish with lashes.

The use of the singular in the meaning of the plural

The singular form is used to mean the plural in a number of cases:
1) when designating a whole class of objects indicating their characteristic features, for example: A dog is a man’s friend; Pine is a resinous tree; A book is a source of knowledge;
2) when using a specific noun in a collective, generalizing meaning, for example: The grain has already been poured; In such a blizzard, even a bear does not crawl out of its den; The noble bird, the black grouse (Turgenev), has not yet disappeared;
3) when indicating that identical objects belong to each person or object from their entire group or are in the same relationship to them, for example: The soldiers stood with their heads bowed... (Pushkin); Meeting of heads of information departments (not “information departments”); Students wrote in pencil (not “pencils”); He did not know what grief lay in the hearts of strangers (Korolenko) - the figurative use of the word heart also plays a role.

The use of abstract, real and proper nouns in the plural

1. Some abstract nouns, used in a specific meaning, are put in the plural form, for example: ... They talked about the joys of work (Chekhov) (for example, to hide your joy); ...He began to list the beauties of his native country (i.e., beautiful places); low temperatures (for example, outside air temperature); radio noise (for example, noise on the street); sea ​​depths (for example, the depth of the sea); gain solid knowledge at school (for example, knowledge of life); Pedagogical readings (for example, reading classical works); number of sales (meaning “number of sales acts”).

Abstract nouns are also used in the plural to indicate the intensity of a phenomenon, its repetition, for example: It’s cold at night... (Kuprin) (for example, turn blue from the cold); Frosts... Epiphany time... (A. N. Ostrovsky) (for example, take food out into the cold).

2. Nouns with a real meaning are used in the plural form to designate various varieties or types of substances, for example: high-quality steel, expensive tobacco, red and white clays, medicinal wines, lubricating oils, alcohols from scarce raw materials. However, the names of the elements (gold, silver, platinum, nitrogen, potassium, sodium, etc.) do not form a plural form. It is also not formed by such material nouns as milk, millet, rice, sorrel, fluff, wood, etc.

The plural form is also used to designate products made from this material: bronze, porcelain, crystal; cf.: Furniture, mirrors, bronzes were given away for free (L. Tolstoy).

The plural form of the nouns in question can also indicate a large amount of substance occupying a vast area: desert sands (for example, sand is scattered); endless snow (for example, snow fell); in particular, when naming cereals: oats, barley (also winter). For example, the sun set, and quails screamed in the wet rustles (A. N. Tolstoy); Along the road, ripened oats were smoking in the dew (Sholokhov).

The difference in the singular and plural forms of the names of fruits, vegetables, berries (for example, a kilogram of raspberries - a kilogram of apples) is due to the fact that when collected or consumed, some crops act as an undifferentiated mass, while others act as single objects.

For example, a kilogram of cherries, currants, strawberries, carrots, turnips - a kilogram of pears, peaches, apricots, cucumbers.

3. Proper nouns are used in the plural form to designate a type of people, for example: And the Russian land can give birth to its own Platonov and quick-witted Nevtonov (Lomonosov).

Surnames in the plural form designate members of the same family, for example: the Artamonov family (foreign surnames in this case retain the singular form, for example: the Oppenheim family).