What are the traditional methods of geographical research? Geography methods

1. Method of science

Method- a method of achieving a goal, a course of action or a method of achieving a comprehensive reflection of the subject of research, revealing its essence, knowledge of its laws. Methods mean a set of techniques and methods used in science to obtain new knowledge.

Methodology of science- the entire system of methods, approaches and principles for obtaining new knowledge, their structure, the unique logic of research in geography. Depending on the objects of research and the scale of generalizations, the following levels of methodology are distinguished:

Universal - covers all sciences (dialectical method - method of cognition)

General scientific - separately for natural sciences and humanities

Methodology scientific systems- geographical systems of sciences

Methodology of concrete science - methods of geography of the Russian economy

Methodology- a specific embodiment of the method, a specially developed technique and procedure for its implementation in the process of organized interaction between the subject and the object of research. The methodology includes a set of techniques for obtaining, clarifying or verifying scientific data.

2. Approaches to the study of geography. Types of approaches

Approaches- a set of techniques and methods for studying geography as a science. These are broader concepts than methods, which are based on principles that allow particular methods to be structured and targeted in a certain way.

Kinds:

Chronological - territorial approach, one of the most important approaches that aims methods at identifying territorial differences, as well as features of the spatial distribution and interaction of geographical objects. IN foreign literature The concept of geospace or place, district is more often used; in domestic schools - territory. The chronological principle is based on the interconnection of spaces, properties and relationships of geographical systems.

Historical - defines the use of methods that detect changes in objects over time. The formation of two scientific directions is associated with it:

Paleogeographical (attached to studies of the prehistoric past of the geographical shell)

Historical-geographical (correlates with the specifics of geographical processes of a certain historical period in the development of human society)

Systemic (synergistic) - synergetics- a doctrine based on the idea of ​​the systemic nature of the world and scientific knowledge about him. System- a set and combination of interrelated objects (elements) with their inherent properties and relationships that form a certain integrity and are characterized by relative stability. This is the leading direction in the development of all sciences without exception, but in geography its application is most important, because science itself and its objects of research are systemic. A systematic approach requires adherence to the following principles:

Integrity

Connection

Structure and organization

Control

Hierarchy levels

Example systematic approach in geography can serve as a comprehensive study of countries, regions, industries, industries, natural-territorial complex (NTC), territorial-industrial complex (TPC)

Analytical - dividing the object of study into its component parts, i.e. the most complex systems are divided into less complex subsystems

Typological - aims methods at highlighting the most significant features, similarities and differences in the geographical specifics being studied, primarily uses the comparative geographical method (socio-economic typology of countries of the world)

Ecological - associated with a mass environmental movement aimed against the deterioration environment as a result of anthropogenic activities. In this regard, new scientific directions: geoecology (studies problems associated with habitat deterioration as a result of human activity), environmental geography (studies the geographical environment in order to solve environmental problems)

Problematic - aimed at studying the most significant problems of our time: problems of peace and disarmament, environmental problems, demographic problems, problems of using the world's oceans, energy problems, raw materials, food.

3. Simulation method

Modeling is the process of reproducing a model of an object, phenomenon or process in order to solve a given problem with certain methodological techniques to monitor the research results and their implementation. Modeling plays the role of a necessary tool in geographical science. At the planetary level, there is the following classification of models: simulation, conceptual and intermediate. Simulation models are compiled to represent the dynamics of changes in phenomena such as climate. Conceptual or methodological models are intended to demonstrate the plausibility of processes and are formed based on a common understanding feedback. Models of intermediate complexity are needed to simulate interactions among processes in a natural system.

In geography, the following main models are distinguished: verbal, cartographic, structural, graphic, mathematical, natural. Models can also be combined: mathematical-cartographic, mathematical-graphical, etc.

1. Verbalmodels are a description of the geosystem using language.

2. Cartographicmodels are geographical maps with a situation of a certain content and purpose plotted on them.

3. Structuralmodels (schemes) are very often used to classify objects, systems, processes according to a certain criterion or to convey the sequence of processes when studying the genesis, evolution of an object or system

4. Graphicthe model is a graph with research results plotted on it in the form of points, lines and other display methods.

5. Mathematicalmodels are an abstract description of objects, phenomena or processes using signs (symbols).

6. Full-scalea model is an imitation of a natural object or phenomenon in the form of a model.

Thus, the model serves as a means of cognition of the original and reflects its most important properties.

4. Principles and means of geography as a science

According to the principle of origin (historical principle):

Traditionalmethods of geographical research (observation, description): § cartographic method (study of maps, map diagrams) § statistical method (use and processing of statistical data) § historical-geographical method § comparative geographical method (identifies the similarities and differences of geographical objects for their classification and forecasting) Modernmethods of geographical research: § aerospace method § modeling method (creating an analogue of the object under study and its subsequent study) § geographic forecast (prediction of the future state of geosystems) § geographic information method (creation of data banks based on information obtained from various sources)

Based on the principle of use:

Are commongeographical methods: § descriptive § cartographic § comparative-geographical § quantitative § aerospace § geographic information § modeling Privategeographical methods: § physical geography(geochemical, geographical, paleogeographic) § socio-economic geography (specialization, studying the efficiency of production - agriculture or industry, many social methods - questioning, social survey, interviewing)

Based on the principle of being:

Empiricalmethods (empirics - the visible side) - allowing one to gain knowledge using the senses. This is knowledge gained on the basis of experience, otherwise this knowledge is called experimental and practical: § observation - obtaining primary information about the object being studied and measuring quantitative indicators, it is considered the most ancient method; correctly constructed observation presupposes the presence of a plan and the reduction of results to formally obtained data. § expeditionary (field) - collection is associated with it scientific facts obtained in the field while passing certain routes, compiling profiles and describing key areas § stationary method - studying changes in phenomena at the same place over a long period of time § aerospace method - the use of aerial photographs or satellite images § balance methods - calculation methods for analysis, forecasting and planning of geosystems development § office methods - processing observation results. Experimentalmethods (interdisciplinary) - differ from observation in that they require a special organization of research situations and the active intervention of the researcher in it. § experiment - reproduction by an object in specially created conditions carried out to test hypotheses; there are two types: Ø natural experiment - associated with the organization of targeted influences on natural systems and the study of the reactions of this system Ø model - carried out on analogues of certain natural systems (models) § mathematical methods - used in all natural and social sciences to obtain quantitative indicators. The theory of probability and methods of mathematical statistics are most often used in geography. § geochemical methods § geophysical methods. Theoreticalmethods - involve mental interaction of the researcher with a model of the research object being studied § induction is a way of constructing research by summarizing available data, a method of ascent from the particular to the general § deduction is a method of ascending from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete § modeling § analogies - identifying similarities in objects and phenomena for subsequent comparison. Methods interpretations and generalizations- characterized by the fact that the subject of the study operates with sign-symbolic ideas about the object in the form of terms, concepts, judgments, theories, laws § methods of empirical generalization Ø comparative geographical, perform several functions: determine the area of ​​similar phenomena and objects, delimit similar objects and phenomena, are important and widely applicable in regional studies when analyzing isolines Ø systematization - ordering of objects and phenomena in any aspect (formal, external, internal), involves the division of the entire set of objects related by a certain similarity by ranking. In geography, the most famous systems are classification, taxonomy (classification according to hierarchy), typology (classification based on qualitative characteristics), zoning Ø relatively- historical method Ø genetic method - involves the study of the origin of an object and phenomenon, based on the sources of development of geographical objects (genesis, i.e. the development of reliefs, soils, landscapes, socio-economic objects) Ø paleogeographic method Ø diochronic method - uses historical factors (study of historical texts, maps) to determine general trends in the development of geographical objects over a certain historical time § methods of theoretical generalization are aimed at forming the conceptual apparatus of the theory Ø abstraction: abstraction of abstraction - individual aspects of complex objects are recognized with their subsequent synthesis; abstraction of generalization - forms concepts, laws and theories by eliminating the random and inessential Ø formalization is the essence of generalization, as a result of which a new model of the formal level appears, which reflects only the form of an object or phenomenon; knowledge appears in the idea of ​​symbols: graphs, diagrams, profiles, flowcharts, maps.

5. Description method

The most ancient method with which the very origin of geography is associated.

History of development

1 period Ancient world, Middle Ages, Early Modern Geography is dominated by empirical description, i.e. I write about what I see. A striking example of such a description is the descriptions of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, and Marco Polo. Since the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the descriptions have changed little, only their factuality has increased; all travelers and discoverers of new lands are considered outstanding geographers. 2 period 18th century A transition is taking place from an empirical description to a scientific one, because Scientists and naturalists began to participate in trips around the world and other major trips. An example is the works of Tatishchev (Ural), Krasheninnikov3 period 19 - first half of the 20th century. Scientific descriptions are becoming widespread, the dawn of the use of geographical description is observed; this is associated with the formation of scientific geographical schools in many countries (German - Humboldt, French - Elisée Reclus, Russian domestic - Semenov- Tyan-Shansky, Przhevalsky, Miklouho-Maclay) 4 periodsecond half of the 20th century - our time. At this time, there is a gradual loss of the skill of geographical description, this is due to the fact that science requires full-fledged complex data, and the geography of that time is limited to analytical information of individual elements of nature. Baransky noted two reasons for the sharp decline in good geographical descriptions: the transition from a descriptive style to an analytical one and the underestimation of the literary form of geographical descriptions

Currently, there is a revival of the method of geographical description, which is explained by a new increased interest in regional studies and the development of domestic and foreign tourism. Now all descriptions are carried out comprehensively, this is most evident as a result of the creation of landscape maps. The creation of landscape maps involves the characterization of physical and geographical zoning. It is most interesting and revealing to carry out a comprehensive physical-geographical description of the territory at selected observation points; for this, the following plan is used:

The geographic reference of the observation point is established (nearby landmarks, directions and distances)

Geological and geomorphological observation (geological observations are of an auxiliary nature, layers are identified, the nature of occurrence, inclusions, geomorphology - description of fur forms, genetic type of relief: for hilly relief - size, shape, length, heights, exposure, etc., for plains - relative excess, for river valleys - shape, width, depth, etc., in conclusion, the nature of anthropogenic changes in the relief and transformation is given)

Soil observations (to describe soils, it is necessary to lay out soil sections: a pit or a dig, after which a sketch is made and genetic horizons, mechanical composition, moisture, color, etc. are determined, after which the name of the soil is given)

Geobotanical observations (a geobotanical site is laid - for a forest 20x20 m, for a meadow - 10x10 m, for a swamp 1x1 m, the species composition, layering, mosaic (horizontal heterogeneity), each plant genus and species is described, a herbarium is collected, the observation ends with the name of the plant association according to dominant two or three tiers).

Geoecological observation (studies anthropogenic impact, their nature and consequences, and also clarifies the boundaries of anthropogenic objects, agricultural land, roads, power lines, garbage dumps, farms, cowsheds, etc., fire pits, and identifies modern unfavorable processes: soil erosion, waterlogging or flooding, trampling of vegetation, quality is assessed surface waters by its transparency, color, smell. For soils based on the presence of oil stains, odor, other vegetation: drying and damage to leaves, pine needles, the appearance of weeds, depressed agricultural conditions. crops, in conclusion, a conclusion is made about the geo-ecological state.

A physical-geographical description may include other observations: microclimatic, hydrological, hydrochemical

Finally, a field map is drawn up, which includes a description of several observation points with clarification of boundaries. It can be compiled in the field, and therefore a legend is finalized and compiled on site.

6. Cartographic method

A specific method of geography because Geography is a territorial science. Baransky spoke about the significance of this method:

The map is the alpha and omega of geography, its beginning and end point

The card is an incentive to fill empty spaces

Map - a means to identify geographic patterns

A map is a necessary intermediary between the extremely limited scope of human direct observation and the enormous size of objects of geographical research on the surface of the globe.

Map is the second language of geography

Map is one of the criteria for geographic location

The essence of the cartographic method is that maps are used to depict phenomena on them. The modern purpose of the cartographic method of physical geography is landscape maps, socio-economic geography is maps reflecting various quantitative characteristics of objects to assess location factors.

In regional studies, a map helps to create an image of the country’s territory, i.e. her portrait. This method involves the following stages:

Receiving the information

Map processing and construction

Studying the map, analyzing it and extracting information

Using the information obtained for conclusions, recommendations and forecasts

For a map, it is important not only that it is drawn up correctly, but also that it works, i.e. gave information. Types of analytical application of the method:

1. Visual analysis of maps

2. Cartometric method for measuring geometric objects: area, distance

3. Geographic analysis (construction of profiles, graphs, diagrams)

4. Statistical analysis of maps

5. Analysis when converting maps (generalization, projections)

6. Mathematical analysis of maps

7. Comparative geographical method

Traditional, historically used since ancient times, is currently one of the most common. History of development:

1. The foundations of the method were laid in ancient times (Herodotus, Aristotle). In the Middle Ages, due to the social stagnation of science, the methods were forgotten.

2. 17-18 centuries Humboldt laid the foundations of the modern comparative geographical method, using it to study the connections between climate and vegetation. His expression accurately characterizes this method: “Comparing the distinctive features of individual countries and briefly presenting the result of these comparisons is a rewarding, although difficult, task of general geoscience.”

3. IN modern times comparison is one of the universal methods of geography and is a specific logical technique.

In the comparative geographical method, two sequential operations are distinguished:

identification operation (finding common features)

discrimination operation (finding different features)

8. Mathematical methods

1.The attitude towards mathematical methods in geography is ambiguous among various researchers. The first experiences of using mathematics in geography date back to the time of Eratosthenes, when mathematical geography existed and was used as a term.

1. The Middle Ages and even the times of the Great Geographical Discoveries did not give rise to theories leading to the path of mathematization of geography.

2. Late 50's - 60's. last century - the heyday of mathematization. Many geographers work under the slogan: “Mathematical methods solve everything.”

Mathematical methods make it possible to create special descriptions of geographical phenomena and processes - their mathematical models. The essence mathematical modeling consists in an abstracted and simplified reflection of reality using logical and mathematical formulas that convey in concentrated form information about the structure, relationships and dynamics of the geographical phenomena being studied.

From a geographical point of view, three types of models can be distinguished:

1. mathematical models that are built without taking into account the spatial coordination of phenomena, and the results, the implementation of which cannot be mapped;

2. models in which the results are mapped, but the spatial aspect is not taken into account at the stage of implementing mathematical algorithms;

3. models in which it is impossible to implement mathematical calculations without taking into account the spatial position of phenomena.

Simulation modeling has become widespread in geography. Optimization models are also used. The transport linear programming problem is often used.

9. Aerospace methods

Space methods are methods for studying the structure and development of the geographic environment using space photography materials obtained by recording reflected solar and artificial light and the Earth’s own radiation from spacecraft. Geographic research using space methods is based on the theory of the optical properties of the natural environment, caused by the interaction of solar radiation with the geographic envelope. Image interpretation is based on the use of correlations between the parameters of geographical objects and their optical characteristics.

Space images earth's surface are terrain models that reflect the actual geographic situation at the time of shooting. Their most valuable properties are:

1) a comprehensive image of the landscape structure, including the main natural and anthropogenic components;

2) wide spectral shooting range, as mentioned above;

3) high visibility of images;

4) a wide variety of shooting scales;

5) different frequency of shooting - from tens of minutes to tens of years; multiple coverage of the globe by filming.

Space methods successfully complement traditional ground and aerial methods. Remote sensing is most widely used in physical geography. In soil science, satellite images are used to successfully establish the spatial differentiation of the soil cover and carry out its mapping, determining many soil parameters, such as humus content, mechanical composition, salinity, humidity, temperature. In landscape science, space methods are widely used in the study and mapping of spatial structure, seasonal rhythms and long-term dynamics of landscapes, and in paleogeographical studies.

9. Geoinformation method

It began to develop more than 30 years ago. Historically, geoinformation systems in their modern development based on information retrieval systems and later cartographic data banks. First, the automatic creation of maps occurs, with the further inclusion of blocks of mathematical and cartographic modeling and automatic reproduction of maps. GIS classification:

1. by territorial coverage (national, regional, etc.)

2. by purpose (multi-purpose, specialized, information guides, for planning, etc.)

3. by thematic orientation (general geographic, sectoral, etc.)

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This material gives a complete understanding of the methods of geographical research, emphasizes the importance and necessity of each of them, and also points to the constant development of geography as a science.

Methods of geographical research

Geographic research methods mean methods or methods for obtaining geographically oriented information.

They include techniques and methods for studying the laws according to which the formation and development of the nature of the planet occurs. Thanks to this scientific approach, today there is not a single large territory left that has not been studied by man. But still some phenomena and processes have not been sufficiently studied.

Methods of geographical research are divided into traditional and modern.

Traditional ones include:

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• Observation method - gives a complete picture of geographical objects;
• Cartographic method - makes it possible to observe the patterns of location of geographical objects in space using thematic maps (general geographical or complex);
• Statistical method - allows you to process, analyze and systematize data obtained through observations;
• Historical method - engages in the study of geographical objects, from the moment of their origin to the present;
• Comparative method - a way of detecting common features or differences between objects or phenomena.

The comparative method is used to classify the phenomena and objects being studied in order to predict possible changes in space and time.

All research methods are closely related and intertwined.

Modern methods of geographical research

Like any science, geography is constantly evolving. Development presupposes the availability of new research methods.

Rice. 1. Meteorological station.

Modern methods of geographical research include:

• Remote sensing methods - use aerospace research and compilation in their work detailed maps Earth using aircraft;
• Geographic forecast and modeling method - makes it possible to get an idea of ​​the possible state of the geosystem. Within the framework of this method, models of the possible state of geosystems in the future are designed;

Rice. 2. Computer modeling.

• Geoinformation method - a method of creating a database from information transmitted by space satellites and meteorological stations.

Rice. 3. Satellite in space.

Geographic research data is often used for its purposes by industry, agriculture, geodetic industry, and cartography.

Today, astronautics is actively used for detailed study of the Earth.

What have we learned?

From the material on geography for grade 5, we learned: what methods and techniques are used in geography for research. This makes it possible for geography to develop as a science. Where and how the data provided by geographic research is used. How new technologies make it easier to monitor the state of the planet.

Test on the topic

Evaluation of the report

average rating: 4.1. Total ratings received: 446.

Test tasks.

1. Answer to the question: “What features does the Amazon River have?” gives

a) descriptive method

b) cartographic method

c) space method

d) observational method

2. The rise of cartography in Europe was associated with

a) the creation of writing

b) the era of great geographical discoveries

c) the invention of paper

d) invention of the wheel

3. Space techniques began to develop

a) in late XIX century

b) at the beginning of the 20th century

c) in the second half of the 20th century

d) in beginning of XXI century

4. Scientific expeditions aimed at exploring the Earth began to be organized in

c) XVIII century

d) XIX century

5. Which of the following books can enrich your knowledge about the nature of the Earth?

a) J. Rowling “Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban”

b) E. Burroughs “Princess of Mars”

c) T. Main Reid “In the Wilds of South Africa”

d) J. R. R. Tolkien “The Lord of the Rings”

6. Arrange the names of geographical research methods in the order of their occurrence. Put the letters corresponding to them in the table.

a) space b) descriptive c) cartographic

Thematic workshop.

Here is a short excerpt from a book about Eurasia. Read it and answer the questions.

In the southern part of Eurasia, the highest mountains of the planet, the Himalayas, stretch from west to east. As many as 14 peaks in these mountains rise above 8 km. And the highest of them - Everest, or Chomolungma - has a height of 8848 m.

The country of Nepal is located in the Himalayas, between China and India. According to legend, Prince Siddhartha Guatama, who was destined to become the founder of one of the three world religions - Buddhism, was born here almost 2.5 thousand years ago.

The capital of Nepal, the city of Kathmandu, is famous for its numerous Buddhist temples and monasteries, many of which are more than 2 thousand years old. The city is located on high altitude and is surrounded by steep slopes and deep chasms. Previously, there were no big roads to the city, but only narrow paths along which it was not easy for a person to pass. Therefore, when in 1954 the King of Nepal wanted to get a car (before that he had walked exclusively on foot), bidding for that car turned out to be a very difficult matter. The car had to be completely disassembled piece by piece, transported along mountain paths to the city and reassembled there again. This is how the first car appeared in Kathmandu.

1. What method of geographical research was used to compile this text?

Observation method.

2. Which geographical information can be verified using other methods of geographical research?

In the southern part of Eurasia, mountains stretch from west to east - the Himalayas. The country of Nepal is located in the Himalayas between China and India.

3. What is the height of the most high peak Earth?

4. How many cars were there in Kathmandu in 1943?

5. Who is the ruler of Nepal?

Cartographic workshop.

Name the geographical features indicated by numbers on the map

1. Mainland Australia.

2. Hindustan Peninsula.

3. Atlantic Ocean.

4. Madagascar Island.

5. Mainland South America.

6. Arabian Peninsula

Methods of geographical research

Methods of geographical research - methods of obtaining geographical information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of domestic economic geography, Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky, is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises out of nowhere, therefore, to understand modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: ​​the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area, reserves natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative production indicators, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, fertility, mortality and natural population growth, balance of migration, resource availability, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Method of geographical zoning. Identification of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the research methods of geographical science.

6). Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison allows us to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observation. Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and offices.

What methods of geographical research do you know?

What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development National economy and nature conservation, in solving many problems of humanity.

9) Geographic modeling method. Creating geographic models is an important method for studying geography. The simplest geographical model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the objects and phenomena being studied, but also predict the consequences that humanity may come to in the course of its development. Geographic forecast helps to avoid
many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rational use of resources, solve global problems

Chapter 1. Some concepts of geographical analysis

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A map is a graphical representation of part of the earth's surface. The structure of the map is such that it easily conveys information to the user. A map contains a series of layers or coatings that are often combined to produce the final result. The map also includes descriptive information to help interpret the contents of the map.

Main components of the card:

Geographical objects:

Areas (area features) are polygon features, such as land use areas. Polygon boundaries are represented by lines. Polygons can be filled with different colors and types of shading, which depend on the attributes.

Linear elements are arcs, such as roads or watercourses. Arcs are drawn with lines and labeled using attribute values.

Point elements—represent point objects or polygon labels. They are represented by signs and signed using the value of the attributes.

Cartological elements:

Headings and explanatory notes describe the purpose of the card and are depicted using text symbols.

Frames form boundaries and separate parts of the map and are represented by lines.

Legends describe symbols used to represent geographic features and are depicted using lines, hatching or symbols, and text symbols.

North arrows and scale bars describe the orientation and scale of the map. They are depicted using lines, hatching and text symbols.

Geographic analysis allows you to study real processes through the development and application of models. Such models identify trends in geographic data and thus make new information accessible. GIS will improve this process by providing tools that can be combined into different sequence to build new models. These models can reveal new or previously unrecognized unidentified relationships within or between data sets, thereby improving our knowledge of the real world.

The results of geographic analysis can be presented in the form of maps and reports. A map is best used to show geographic relationships, while reports are more suitable for presenting tabular data and documenting calculated values.

Maps and reports provide the ability to share data contained in a geographic database.

Real system geographical coordinates

Most maps display coordinate data using one of the accepted global coordinate systems, such as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), Albert Conical, or Polar Stereographic. These are examples of map projections that are used to represent spherical geographic features on a flat surface. Projection is used to provide an appropriate relationship between a location on a map and the true location on the earth's surface.

Latitude and longitude.

The most common system for describing position in space is the system of latitudes and longitudes. This system can be used to locate points anywhere on the earth's surface. Latitude and longitude are angular values ​​measured from the center of the earth to a point on the earth's surface. Latitude can be north and south, longitude - west and east. A map grid (a grid of latitudes and longitudes) can be overlaid on the earth's surface to describe a location geographically. Lines of longitude, sometimes called meridians, begin and end at the North and South Poles. Lines of latitude, sometimes called parallels, span Earth parallel rings.

Latitude and longitude are traditionally measured in degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS). Latitude equal to 0 degrees is located at the equator, 90 degrees.

1.4 Methods of geographical research

- at the North Pole, -90 degrees. - at the South Pole. At longitude 0 degrees, there is the prime meridian, which begins at the North Pole, passes through Greenwich in England and ends at the South Pole. Longitude is positive, up to 180 degrees, if you move east of Greenwich, and negative, up to -180 degrees, if you move west from Greenwich. For example, Australia, which is south of the equator and east of Greenwich, has a positive longitude and a negative longitude.

However, latitude and longitude are a geographical descriptive system, not a two-dimensional system. flat system coordinates It is obvious that the meridians converge at the poles, but diverge as they approach the equator. Thus, the length of one degree of longitude will vary depending on the latitude at which it is measured. For example, one degree of longitude at the equator is 111 km long, but the length of one degree of longitude at the North and South Pole is close to zero. Since the units of measurement are not related to a standard length, they cannot be used to accurately measure distance. And since this system measures angles from the center of the earth, and not distances on the earth's surface, it is not a flat coordinate system.

Planar coordinate systems

Planar coordinate systems (Cartesian coordinate systems) have certain properties that make them suitable for representing real geographic coordinates on a map.

There are two dimensions: X measures distance in the horizontal direction, and Y measures distance in the vertical direction.

The measures of lengths, angles and areas remain constant in all dimensions.

There are various mathematical formulas to map the spherical surface of the earth onto a flat two-dimensional surface.

GIS, like flat maps, uses various plane coordinate systems to map the earth's surface. Each of the coordinate systems used is based on a specific cartographic surface.

Map projections

Because the earth's surface is a spheroid, mathematical transformations must be used to create a flat map of a spherical surface. These mathematical transformations are called map projections. Because each basemap is stored in a specific projection, it is necessary to determine the projection of the basemap before entering it into the system. It is important to keep the following in mind:

Any two-dimensional representation of the earth's surface always introduces distortions in some parameters, either in shape, area, distance or direction.

Different projections introduce different distortions. The characteristics of each projection make it suitable for some applications and unsuitable for others.

And regional studies use methods and knowledge, conclusions of other sciences for their own development and at the same time enrich these branches of knowledge with their data.

Method is a way of knowing, studying natural phenomena and public life(from Greek methods).

In studies of regional economics, economic geography and regional studies, a complex is used scientific methods, the main of which are system analysis, cartographic, balance sheet, historical and comparative, statistical and econometric methods, etc.

System analysis

System analysis is a universal technology for solving management problems. In economic geography and regional studies, the main problems are [[Location of productive forces | placement]] and development.

System analysis- method scientific research, in which a comprehensive study of the structure of the economy and internal relationships is complemented by the study of their interaction.

Final conclusions are drawn based on the comparison of forward and backward connections. System analysis is a comprehensive analysis that uses the principle of stages, starting from goal setting, defining tasks, formulating a scientific hypothesis, to a comprehensive study of the features of the optimal production location option. In this case, the optimality criterion is the effectiveness of the option, as well as maximum satisfaction of the needs of the population.

System analysis is the most developed area of ​​system research in economics, which requires a more detailed presentation of its methodology.

Cartographic method

is a graphical way of presenting information about the location and development of natural, demographic, socio-economic and other objects in a certain territory.

In economic geography, it is a source of enrichment with information on the location and economics of regions. It allows you to visualize the placement features. Thanks to the use of maps, map diagrams, cartograms, cartograms, not only the location features are consciously perceived and remembered, but also statistical materials characterizing the levels of development of industries and regions. The map is the most modern and effective method presenting information for preparation and decision-making.

The cartographic method occupies a special place in economic-geographical and regional studies. At its essence, a map is a graphical model of a territory. At the same time, the cartographic method is not only a means for revealing spatial relationships, but often the final goal of the study. According to N.N. Baransky. “every geographical research starts from a map and comes to a map, it begins with a map and ends with a map, a map is the second language of geography.”

Economic cartography deals with mapping actually existing socio-economic systems and their elements. Methods of displaying socio-economic objects include: the icon method, the method of linear signs and movement lines, the method of areas, the method of qualitative background, the method of isolines (image using lines connecting points on the map with the same quantitative indicators), point method (image of the concentration of objects ) etc. Combination different ways allows you to develop statistical maps, while the sources of information are statistical collections and geographical maps.

Statistical maps represent a species graphic images statistical data on a schematic geographical map, characterizing the level or degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon in a certain territory.

The means of depicting territorial placement are shading, background coloring or geometric shapes. In statistical maps, a distinction is made between cartograms and cartodiagrams.

Cartogram - this is a schematic geographical hag on which, by shading of varying density, dots or coloring of a certain degree of saturation, the comparative intensity of any indicator within each unit of the mapped territorial division is shown (for example, population density by region or republic, distribution of regions by grain yield and etc.)

Cartograms are divided into background and point.

Background cartogram- a type of cartogram on which shading of varying density or coloring of a certain degree of saturation shows the intensity of any indicator within a territorial unit.

Accurate cartogram - a type of cartogram where the level of a selected phenomenon is depicted using dots. A point represents one unit of a population or a certain number of them, showing on a geographical map the density or frequency of occurrence of a certain characteristic.

Background cartograms are used to depict average or relative indicators, point maps are used for volumetric (quantitative) indicators (population, livestock, etc.).

The second large group of statistical maps consists of cartographic diagrams, which are a combination of diagrams with a geographic map. As pictorial signs in map diagrams, diagrammatic figures are used that are placed on the contour geographical map. Map diagrams make it possible to geographically reflect more complex statistical and geographical constructions than cartograms.

There are map diagrams of simple comparison, graphs of spatial movements, isolines.

On simple comparison chart Unlike a regular diagram, the diagrammatic figures depicting the values ​​of the indicator under study are not arranged in a row. as on a regular chart, but are distributed throughout the map in accordance with the area, region or country that they represent.

Elements of the simplest map diagram can be found on political map, where cities differ in different geometric shapes depending on the number of inhabitants.

Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal, identical, similar) - these are lines of equal value of any quantity in its distribution on the surface, in particular on a geographical hag or graph. The isoline reflects a continuous change in the value under study depending on two other variables and is used in mapping natural and socio-economic phenomena. Isolines are used to obtain quantitative characteristics the studied quantities and analysis of correlations between them.

Balance sheet method

Balance sheet method— equalization of quantitative information about various aspects of the development of the object, phenomenon or process under study.

Drawing up industry and regional balances allows you to select the correct relationships between industries of market specialization, industries that complement the territorial complex, i.e. providing both the needs of leading industries and the needs of the population, and service sectors. Balances are also necessary for the development of rational interregional and intraregional connections. Drawing up sectoral and regional balances makes it possible to establish the level of integrated development of the region and the presence of imbalances in its development. Examples of balances: production and consumption of products, import and export of regional products, balance of labor resources, natural resources, etc.

Of particular importance in economic-geographical research is the model interindustry balance (IB), also known as the input-output model. The input balance was first developed by Soviet statisticians in 1924-1925. In the 1930s The American economist (Russian by birth) V. Leontiev proposed his own version of this model, adapted to the conditions of a capitalist economy, which became widely known as the “input-output” model.

The model is described as follows:

A * X + Y = X

• A - direct cost matrix;
• X is the vector of gross output;
• Y is the vector of final market demand.

The main purpose of this model is to substantiate a rational version of the sectoral structure of the economy of the region under study (or the national economy as a whole) based on optimizing inter-industry flows, minimizing costs and maximizing final products.

Historical-comparative method

Historical-comparative is a method that involves studying the location of productive forces in the spatiotemporal aspect. The historical-comparative method includes two directions - the method historical approach and comparative geographical method.

Subject historical approach method is the genesis of the system, its emergence, formation, cognition, development. This method is based primarily on literary, stock, and museum sources of information.

Comparative geographical method - a method for comparing countries, regions, cities, economic results, development parameters, demographic characteristics. This method replaces experiment, allows you to determine the causes, assess the influence of conditions and factors on the development of the objects under study. Comparison can be in space and time. The comparative geographical method is the basis for forecasting, by analogy, the development of socio-economic processes.

Statistical and econometric methods

Statistical methods based on the application of methods in economic geography and regional studies statistical analysis. Particularly widely used in economic-geographical research are the methods of calculating indices, sampling, correlation and regression analysis. Statistical methods are related to econometric methods.

Econometrics - This scientific discipline, studying the quantitative aspects of economic phenomena and processes by means of mathematical and statistical analysis. Econometrics covers all aspects of the application of mathematical methods in economics, identifies, constructs and studies specific quantitative dependencies of some economic indicators on others, using statistical methods to process information and assess the likelihood of constructions, and mathematical methods to analyze them.

The application of mathematical methods in economic geography and the development of spatial econometrics is mainly carried out in the following areas.

1. Mathematical methods in population geography:

• modeling of population reproduction;
• population migration assessment;
• modeling the effective use of labor resources.

2. Mathematical methods in the study of settlement systems:

• mathematical models of population density;
• spatial influence of settlements;
• mathematical-geographical method for determining stages of development in the system of urban settlements.

3. Application of mathematical methods in the study of production-territorial systems.

4. Modeling the processes of self-organization of territorial socio-economic systems.

5. Modeling the process of innovation waves in the placement and development of productive forces.

6. Modeling of territorial proportions of Russian economic development.

7. Modeling of placement by industry.

8. Modeling the formation of regional economic complexes.

In economic geography, which is closely related to economics, urban planning, regional planning, and sociological disciplines (i.e., those areas of knowledge in which methods of quantitative assessments and research are actively used), theoretical models and schemes for the development of territorial socio-economic objects are widely developed. The geographical approach to modeling geosystems does not imply the simple addition of a large number of different elements: enterprises, settlements. groups of people, etc., but the study of relationships in the context of dynamically updated external and internal conditions for the development of the region. The integrity of the geosystem presupposes the property of their emergence. that additional effect in their functioning, which is formed as a result of the systemic interaction of its structural elements. The development of computer technology and mathematical modeling has led to the fact that modern stage For economic-geographical tasks, a variety of software products are offered that can be used to solve a wide range of problems in the field of classification and zoning of territory, determining dynamic trends to highlight the main trends, and selecting the area of ​​the most effective strategies for the placement of economic and social structures.

Mathematical modeling has an important advantage over the traditional approach - it ensures the objectivity of the consequences of the accepted initial conditions.

There are expert computer systems that combine the qualitative ideas of an expert economic geographer with the potential of a computer knowledge base, which makes it possible to develop the most effective decisions on the placement and development of productive forces in conditions of significant uncertainty in the external environment. Ideas integrated approach Traditional methods of mathematical modeling are implemented in geographic information systems (GIS) and in geographic information technologies (GIT). The main elements of GIS are database management systems (DBMS), systems for their cartographic representation, a set of mathematical models of territorial and economic structures, an expert knowledge system, and a user interface that allows expert changes in the development parameters of territorial and functional objects. A characteristic feature of GIS is its adaptability to various situations, the mobility of its reconfiguration from one territory to another, the ability to accumulate and process information, self-learning and the ability to recognize various problem situations.

In economic geography and regional studies, other methods and models are also used. For example, expert methods based on the use of expert opinions, methods of economic analysis, forecasting, management decision-making and others. Some of them are considered to be methods of regional analysis and modeling of the regional economy (the technology of their application is discussed in the fourth chapter).

The variety of methods of economic and geographical research necessitates their application in accordance with technology system analysis problems of development of economic and geographical objects.

Research methods (methods) are specific techniques for studying geographical objects and phenomena. Geographic research methods (methods) include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote sensing (aerospace), geographic monitoring, geographic forecast, GIS technologies, etc.

The fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge, is the expeditionary method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and wealth, they learned during their wanderings and travels, and modern language– expeditions.

The travelers' recording of what they saw led to the emergence of a method of description. The very name of the science - geography (from the Greek geo - Earth and grapho - describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, indicates the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of research, but also its systematization, explanation and theory building. In the 18th century began to develop scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, and explanation. This method is especially important in works of a regional character, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive regional characterization. Currently, description is not necessarily associated with recording information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder; the use of electronics allows the description to be transmitted over long distances, stored, and edited. Great importance for memorization and emotional perception has a literary and artistic description ( literary works I.A. Bunina, K.G. Paustovsky, M.M. Prishvina and others). The following types of geographical descriptions are distinguished: ascertaining (statement of facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of cause-and-effect relationships; forward-looking descriptions.

With the emergence of description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. This is how a very important and necessary cartographic research method arose for geography.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to drawing up maps of the study area, includes a visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measuring distances, areas, heights, etc. from a map; comparison of various geographical phenomena and study of their connections and causes; analysis of maps by constructing profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with existing, known ones contributed to the development of the comparative research method, which is successfully used to this day. (Which famous geographer successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to use the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Geo Information system (geographic information system, GIS) - a system for collecting, storing, analyzing and graphically visualizing spatial (geographic) data and related information about the necessary objects.

The concept of a geographic information system is also used in a narrower sense - as a tool (software product) that allows users to search, analyze and edit both a digital map of the area and additional information about objects.

A geographic information system may include spatial databases (including those controlled by universal DBMSs), raster and vector graphics editors, various means spatial data analysis. They are used in cartography, geology, meteorology, land management, ecology, municipal administration, transport, economics, defense and many other areas. Scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and use of geographic information systems are studied by geoinformatics.

Data in geographic information systems usually describe real objects, such as roads, buildings, reservoirs, and forests. Real objects can be divided into two abstract categories: discrete (houses, territorial zones) and continuous (relief, precipitation levels, average annual temperature). Vector and raster data are used to represent these two categories of objects.