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Napoleonic Wars. Napoleonic Wars Biography of Napoleon

Napoleon leads the battle

The Napoleonic Wars (1796-1815) are an era in the history of Europe when France, having taken the capitalist path of development, tried to impose the principles of freedom, equality, and fraternity, with which its people made their Great Revolution, on surrounding states.

The soul of this grandiose enterprise, its driving force, was the French commander, politician, who eventually became Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. That is why numerous European wars of the early 19th century are called Napoleonic.

“Bonaparte is short and not very slender: his body is too long. Hair is dark brown, eyes are blue-gray; complexion, at first, with youthful thinness, yellow, and then, with age, white, matte, without any blush. His features are beautiful, reminiscent of antique medals. The mouth, a little flat, becomes pleasant when he smiles; The chin is a little short. The lower jaw is heavy and square. His legs and arms are graceful, he is proud of them. The eyes, usually dull, give the face, when it is calm, a melancholy, thoughtful expression; when he gets angry, his gaze suddenly becomes stern and threatening. A smile suits him very well, suddenly makes him look very kind and young; It’s hard to resist him then, as he becomes all prettier and transformed” (from the memoirs of Madame Remusat, a lady-in-waiting at Josephine’s court)

Biography of Napoleon. Briefly

1769, August 15 - born in Corsica
1779, May-1785, October - training at military schools in Brienne and Paris.
1789-1795 - participation in one capacity or another in the events of the Great French Revolution
1795, June 13 - appointment as general of the Western Army
1795, October 5 - by order of the Convention, the royalist putsch was dispersed.
1795, October 26 - appointment as general of the Internal Army.
1796, March 9 - marriage to Josephine Beauharnais.
1796-1797 - Italian company
1798-1799 - Egyptian Company
1799, November 9-10 - coup d'etat. Napoleon becomes consul along with Sieyes and Roger-Ducos
1802, August 2 - Napoleon was presented with a lifelong consulate
1804, May 16 - proclaimed Emperor of the French
1807, January 1 - proclamation of the continental blockade of Great Britain
1809, December 15 - divorce from Josephine
1810, April 2 - marriage to Maria Louise
1812, June 24 - the beginning of the war with Russia
1814, March 30–31 - the army of the anti-French coalition entered Paris
1814, April 4–6 - Napoleon's abdication of power
1814, May 4 - Napoleon on the island of Elba.
1815, February 26 - Napoleon left Elba
1815, March 1 - Napoleon's landing in France
1815, March 20 - Napoleon's army entered Paris in triumph
1815, June 18 - Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.
1815, June 22 - second abdication
1815, October 16 - Napoleon imprisoned on the island of St. Helena
1821, May 5 - death of Napoleon

Napoleon is considered by experts to be the greatest military genius in world history.(Academician Tarle)

Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon waged wars not so much with individual states, but with alliances of states. There were seven of these alliances or coalitions in total.
First Coalition (1791-1797): Austria and Prussia. The war of this coalition with France is not included in the list of Napoleonic wars

Second Coalition (1798-1802): Russia, England, Austria, Turkey, the Kingdom of Naples, several German principalities, Sweden. The main battles took place in the regions of Italy, Switzerland, Austria, and Holland.
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1799, April 27 - at the Adda River, the victory of Russian-Austrian troops under the command of Suvorov over the French army under the command of J. V. Moreau
1799, June 17 - near the Trebbia River in Italy, the victory of the Russian-Austrian troops of Suvorov over the French army of MacDonald
1799, August 15 - at Novi (Italy) victory of the Russian-Austrian troops of Suvorov over the French army of Joubert
1799, September 25-26 - at Zurich, the defeat of the coalition troops from the French under the command of Massena
1800, June 14 - at Marengo, Napoleon's French army defeated the Austrians
1800, December 3 - Moreau's French army defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden

1801, February 9 - Peace of Luneville between France and Austria
1801, October 8 - peace treaty in Paris between France and Russia
1802, March 25 - Peace of Amiens between France, Spain and the Batavian Republic on the one hand and England on the other

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France established control over the left bank of the Rhine. The Cisalpine (in Northern Italy), Batavian (Holland) and Helvetic (Switzerland) republics are recognized as independent

Third Coalition (1805-1806): England, Russia, Austria, Sweden. The main fighting took place on land in Austria, Bavaria and at sea
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1805, October 19 - Napoleon's victory over the Austrians at Ulm
1805, October 21 - Defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet from the British at Trafalgar
1805, December 2 - Napoleon's victory over Austerlitz over the Russian-Austrian army (“Battle of the Three Emperors”)

1805, December 26 - Peace of Presburg (Presburg - present-day Bratislava) between France and Austria

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Austria ceded to Napoleon the Venetian region, Istria (a peninsula in the Adriatic Sea) and Dalmatia (today mainly belongs to Croatia) and recognized all French conquests in Italy, and also lost its possessions west of Carinthia (today a federal state within Austria)

Fourth Coalition (1806-1807): Russia, Prussia, England. The main events took place in Poland and East Prussia
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1806, October 14 - Napoleon's victory at Jena over the Prussian army
1806, October 12 Napoleon occupied Berlin
1806, December - entry into the war of the Russian army
1806, December 24-26 - battles at Charnovo, Golymin, Pultusk, ending in a draw
1807, February 7-8 (New Style) - Napoleon’s victory in the Battle of Preussisch-Eylau
1807, June 14 - Napoleon's victory in the Battle of Friedland

1807, June 25 - Peace of Tilsit between Russia and France

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Russia recognized all the conquests of France and promised to join the continental blockade of England

Napoleon's Peninsular Wars: Napoleon's attempt to conquer the countries of the Iberian Peninsula.
From October 17, 1807 to April 14, 1814, the fighting between Napoleonic marshals and the Spanish-Portuguese-English forces continued, then fading, then resuming with new ferocity. France never managed to completely subjugate Spain and Portugal, on the one hand because the theater of war was on the periphery of Europe, on the other hand, because of opposition to the occupation of the peoples of these countries

Fifth Coalition (April 9–October 14, 1809): Austria, England. France acted in alliance with Poland, Bavaria, and Russia. main events took place in Central Europe
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1809, April 19-22 - the battles of Teugen-Hausen, Abensberg, Landshut, and Eckmühl in Bavaria were victorious for the French.
The Austrian army suffered one setback after another, things did not work out for the allies in Italy, Dalmatia, Tyrol, Northern Germany, Poland and Holland

1809, July 12 - a truce was concluded between Austria and France
1809, October 14 - Treaty of Schönbrunn between France and Austria

—
Austria lost access to the Adriatic Sea. France - Istria and Trieste. Western Galicia passed to the Duchy of Warsaw, Bavaria received the Tyrol and Salzburg region, Russia - the Tarnopol district (as compensation for its participation in the war on the side of France)

Sixth Coalition (1813-1814): Russia, Prussia, England, Austria and Sweden, and after the defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig in October 1813, the German states of Württemberg and Bavaria joined the coalition. Spain, Portugal and England fought independently with Napoleon on the Iberian Peninsula

The main events of the war of the sixth coalition with Napoleon took place in Central Europe
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1813 - Battle of Lutzen. The allies retreated, but in the rear the battle was considered victorious
1813, October 16-19 - Napoleon’s defeat from the allied forces in the Battle of Leipzig (Battle of the Nations)
1813, October 30-31 - the battle of Hanau, in which the Austro-Bavarian corps unsuccessfully tried to block the retreat of the French army, defeated in the Battle of the Nations
1814, January 29 - Napoleon’s victorious battle near Brienne with Russian-Prussian-Austrian forces
1814, February 10-14 - victorious battles for Napoleon at Champaubert, Montmiral, Chateau-Thierry, Vauchamps, in which the Russians and Austrians lost 16,000 people
1814, March 9 - the battle of the city of Laon (northern France) was successful for the coalition army, in which Napoleon was still able to preserve the army
1814, March 20-21 - the battle of Napoleon and the Main Allied Army on the Au River (center of France), in which the coalition army threw back Napoleon’s small army and marched on Paris, which they entered on March 31

1814, May 30 - Treaty of Paris, ending Napoleon's war with the countries of the sixth coalition

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France returned to the borders that existed on January 1, 1792, and most of the colonial possessions it had lost during the Napoleonic Wars were returned to it. The monarchy was restored in the country

Seventh Coalition (1815): Russia, Sweden, England, Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal. The main events of Napoleon's war with the countries of the seventh coalition took place in France and Belgium.
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1815, March 1, Napoleon, who fled from the island, landed in France
1815, March 20 Napoleon occupied Paris without resistance
How the headlines of French newspapers changed as Napoleon approached the French capital:
“The Corsican monster landed in the Bay of Juan”, “The cannibal goes to the Route”, “The usurper entered Grenoble”, “Bonaparte occupied Lyon”, “Napoleon is approaching Fontainebleau”, “His Imperial Majesty enters his faithful Paris”
1815, March 13, England, Austria, Prussia and Russia outlawed Napoleon, and on March 25 formed the Seventh Coalition against him.
1815, mid-June - Napoleon's army entered Belgium
1815, June 16, the French defeated the British at Quatre Bras and the Prussians at Ligny
1815, June 18 - defeat of Napoleon

Outcome of the Napoleonic Wars

“The defeat of feudal-absolutist Europe by Napoleon had a positive, progressive historical significance... Napoleon inflicted such irreparable blows on feudalism from which it could never recover, and this is the progressive significance of the historical epic of the Napoleonic wars”(Academician E.V. Tarle)

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"KALININGRAD STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

Essay

According to "History"

Subject: " Patriotic War of 1812»

Performed by a student of group 13-EK-1

Simakova Victoria Sergeevna

Work submitted ______________ (date)

To defense______________________ I checked the work

Work passed _________________________

(date, teacher’s signature)

Kaliningrad

Introduction 3

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Causes and nature of war 4-5
The beginning of the war. Retreat of the Russian Army 6-7
Battle of Borodino 8

Napoleon's retreat from Russia

Napoleon leaves Moscow. Battle of Maloyaroslavl 9
Guerrilla movement 10
Retreat of Napoleonic army. End of War 11

Conclusion 12

References 13

Introduction

The Patriotic War of 1812 is one of the most outstanding events in the history of our Motherland. The heroic struggle of the Russian people against Napoleon led his army to defeat, which began the decline of Napoleonic power in Europe.

The French bourgeois revolution of 1789, which overthrew the monarchy of Louis XVI and established a republican system in the country, brought to Europe and the whole world many outstanding statesmen and military figures, among whom, undoubtedly, the most outstanding was Napoleon Bonaparte. Having begun his military career in 1793 with the capture of the Toulon fortress, the young artillery officer Napoleon in 1799 became the first consul of France, and in 1804 - emperor.

Possessing extraordinary military leadership talent and administrative and organizational abilities, Napoleon created the strongest army in the world, recruited on the basis of universal conscription, welded together by discipline, strong in the democratic spirit. Napoleon was the spokesman and conductor of the expansionist aspirations of the young French bourgeoisie, aimed at establishing French hegemony in Europe. This affected and infringed on the interests of European countries, primarily England, Austria, Prussia and Russia. France's main rival in Europe was England. Napoleon's attempt to inflict military defeat on England ended in failure - the French ships with the landing force were destroyed by the British fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar. On the European continent, England tirelessly organized anti-Napoleonic coalitions one after another, which Napoleon also defeated one after another.

In 1806, Napoleon imposed a continental blockade of the British Isles, hoping to break England economically. However, the economic blockade of England could not be effective unless all European states and, above all, England’s main trading partner, Russia, were involved in it. By involving Russia in the continental system with the Treaty of Tilsit of 1807, Napoleon actually laid the foundation for all subsequent Russian-French contradictions, and above all the war of 1812.

Much has been written about the War of 1812. The source base and historiography of the topic are very extensive. Because of this, in this work it is inappropriate, and simply impossible, to undertake a review of sources and literature on the topic under consideration.

The purpose of the work is to review the topic taking into account new scientific achievements presented in scientific, reference, educational and educational publications. The objectives of the work are to highlight the main aspects of the topic being studied, their comparative historical analysis, and summing up the results of the work.

The methodological basis of the abstract is both general scientific research methods - analysis, synthesis, systematization, and class principles of historical research - an integrated approach to the topic, historicism and objectivity.

1. Napoleon's invasion of Russia

1.1. Causes and nature of the war

Of the nearly 1,000 foreign ships that entered and left the ports of St. Petersburg and Kronstadt each year, more than half were English. The continental blockade led to a reduction in Russia's foreign trade by 43%, which, in turn, contributed to the breakdown of the country's financial system.

France as a trading partner could not replace England with Russia, because it was economically less developed than England, and Russia’s economic ties with France were weak and superficial.

The Russian government turned a blind eye to the smuggling trade with England. The nobility demanded that Alexander the First, in the interests of developing national trade, change the policy of the continental blockade, creating more favorable conditions for the export of goods from the country and at the same time limiting the import of French goods. Meeting these demands, on December 19, 1810, the tsar signed a law that established high tariffs on goods imported by land, primarily on luxury goods, that is, on French goods. Napoleon was sensitive to Russia's introduction of this tariff, although for Russia it was dictated by economic necessity, which it was forced to submit to.

“The economy,” F. Engels wrote about this, “turned out to be stronger than diplomacy and the tsar combined, trade relations with England were quietly resumed: the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit were violated, and the war of 1812 broke out.”* * Engels F. Foreign Policy of Russian Tsarism . Marx K., Engels F. Soch. T. 22. P. 30.

Another important reason for the war should be considered the hegemonic claims of the parties. Napoleon sought to establish his dominance in Europe and the world. England and Russia stood in his way. England blocked the path to world domination, Russia - to European domination. Alexander the First himself was not averse to ruling in Europe, as evidenced by the active foreign policy of Russia - from 1805 to 1812. Russia has fought eight wars. The tsar, by agreement with the Prussian king, was the first to start a war against France in the fall of 1811, and only the treachery of the Prussian king, who got scared at the last moment and refused the tsar military assistance, prevented this plan from being realized. * * Troitsky N. A. 1812. Great year of Russia. M., 1988. pp. 28-29. AKA: Russia in the 18th century: A course of lectures. M., 1997. P. 30.

In addition to the two main reasons mentioned above, there were also smaller reasons that accelerated the outbreak of the War of 1812 - the Polish and German issues, the clash of interests of Russia and France in the Middle East. Of these reasons, the most pressing was the Polish question. After Tilsit, Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from the Polish lands under Prussian rule and, at every opportunity, made it clear to Alexander the First that he could restore Poland to the borders of 1772 (before the beginning of its divisions between Russia, Austria and Prussia). This further aggravated Russian-French relations, since the tsar himself was thinking about annexing all Polish lands to Russia.

In December 1810, the German question was added to the already existing Russian-French contradictions. Napoleon, accusing the Duke of Oldenburg of “connivance” with English smuggling, annexed his duchy to France, which greatly offended

dynastic interests of tsarism, because the Duke of Oldenburg was Alexander the First's uncle. On February 20, 1811, the tsar made an official protest to Napoleon and entered into a diplomatic struggle with him over this duchy.

Finally, France hindered Russia's desire to assert its influence in the Middle East and seize Constantinople from Turkey. Thus, the War of 1812 was the result of economic and political contradictions between France and Russia. On Napoleon’s part, this war was aggressive, aggressive, he did not intend to conquer Russia: Napoleon only wanted to “punish” (armedly) Alexander the First for non-compliance with the continental blockade and force Russia to continue to follow the footsteps of his policy.

ABSTRACT

Napoleonic Wars

Introduction

Napoleonic anti-French coalition war

The Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) were fought by France during the Consulate and Empire of Napoleon I against coalitions of European states.

Of course, one cannot study the Napoleonic Wars without the personality of Napoleon himself. He wanted to do the same thing that the Romans wanted to do with the world - to civilize it, to erase borders, turning Europe into one country, with common money, weights, civil laws, local self-government, the flourishing of sciences and crafts... He embraced the Great French Revolution with fervor approval. His activities in Corsica and the capture of the city of Toulon marked the beginning of Bonaparte's rapid ascent through military service.

Bonaparte showed himself to be a remarkable master of strategy and maneuver tactics. Fighting against a numerically superior enemy. Victorious wars with coalitions of powers, brilliant victories, and a huge expansion of the territory of the empire contributed to the transformation of N. I into the de facto ruler of all Western (except for Great Britain) and Central Europe.

All Napoleonic wars were fought in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to establish its military-political, commercial and industrial hegemony in Europe, annex new territories to France and win the struggle with Great Britain for world trade and colonial primacy. The Napoleonic wars, which did not stop until the fall of the empire of Napoleon I, were generally wars of conquest. They were conducted in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to consolidate its military-political, commercial and industrial dominance on the continent, pushing the English bourgeoisie into the background. But they also contained progressive elements, because objectively contributed to undermining the foundations of the feudal system and cleared the way for the development of capitalist relations in a number of European states: (the abolition of dozens of small feudal states in Germany, the introduction of the Napoleonic civil code in some conquered countries, the confiscation and sale of part of the monastic lands, the elimination of a number of privileges of the nobility, etc.). The main opponents of France during the Napoleonic wars were England, Austria and Russia.

1. Causes and nature of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic era had not only a military-political aspect, in many ways the war acquired a general character, turned into a war of economies and peoples, something that later became an axiom in the 20th century during the years of two world wars. If earlier the war had the character of military clashes between relatively small professional armies, then in the Napoleonic era war already permeated all spheres of public and state life of the participating countries. The nature of the armed forces also changed; they began to turn into mass armies. This inevitably entailed changes in relations between state and public institutions.

There are several opinions about the nature of the Napoleonic wars and the reasons that caused them. Let's name just a few of them: the continuation of the revolutionary wars of the French Republic, the fruit of the exorbitant ambition of one man (Napoleon), the desire of the feudal "old regime" states to destroy this man (Napoleon), the continuation of the centuries-old confrontation between France and England for dominance in the world, the struggle between the ideologies of the new and the old regimes (that is, the clash of young capitalism with feudalism).

2. First anti-French coalition 1793-1797

The revolution that took place in France in 1789 had a strong impact on neighboring states and prompted their governments to resort to decisive measures against the threatening danger. Emperor Leopold II and the Prussian King Frederick William II, at a personal meeting in Pillnitz, agreed to stop the spread of revolutionary principles. They were also encouraged to do this by the insistence of the French emigrants, who formed a corps of troops in Koblenz under the command of the Prince of Condé. Military preparations were begun, but the monarchs did not dare to open hostile actions for a long time. The initiative came from France, which on April 20, 1792 declared war on Austria for its hostile actions against France. Austria and Prussia entered into a defensive and offensive alliance, which was gradually joined by almost all other German states, as well as Spain, Piedmont and the Kingdom of Naples.

Hostilities began with the invasion of French troops into the possessions of the German states on the Rhine, which was followed by the invasion of coalition troops into France. Soon the enemies were repulsed and France itself began active military operations against the coalition - it invaded Spain, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the West German states. Soon, in 1793, the Battle of Toulon took place, where the young and talented commander Napoleon Bonaparte first showed himself. After a series of victories, the enemies were forced to recognize the French Republic and all its conquests (with the exception of the British), but then, after the situation in France worsened, the war resumed.

3. Second anti-French coalition (1798-1801)

The conditional date for the beginning of the Napoleonic wars is considered to be the establishment in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul. At this time, the country was already at war with the 2nd anti-French coalition, which was formed in 1798-99 by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples

Having come to power, Bonaparte sent a proposal to the English king and the Austrian emperor to begin peace negotiations, which they rejected. France began to form a large army on its eastern borders under the command of General Moreau. At the same time, on the Swiss border, in secrecy, the formation of the so-called “reserve” army was underway, which delivered the first blow to the Austrian troops in Italy. Having made a difficult transition through the Saint Bernard Pass in the Alps, on June 14, 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians operating under the command of Field Marshal Melas. In December 1800, Moreau's Rhine army defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Bavaria). In February 1801, Austria was forced to make peace with France and recognize its seizures in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine. After this, the 2nd coalition actually collapsed, England agreed in October 1801 to sign the terms of a preliminary (i.e. preliminary) agreement, and on March 27, 1802, the Treaty of Amiens was concluded between England, on the one hand, and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic - with another.

4. Third anti-French coalition (1805)

However, already in 1803 the war between them resumed, and in 1805 the 3rd anti-French coalition was formed consisting of England, Russia, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. Unlike the previous ones, it declared its goal not to fight against revolutionary France, but against Bonaparte’s aggressive policy. Having become Emperor Napoleon I in 1804, he prepared the landing of the French expeditionary army in England. But on October 21, 1805, at the Battle of Trafalgar, the English fleet led by Admiral Nelson destroyed the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. However, on the continent, Napoleonic troops won one victory after another: in October 1805, the Austrian army of General Mack capitulated without a fight at Ulm; in November Napoleon marched victoriously into Vienna; On December 2, 1805, Emperor Napoleon defeated the armies of the Emperors of Austria Franz I and Russia Alexander I in the Battle of Austerlitz. After this battle, the third anti-French coalition collapsed, and Austria had to accept the difficult conditions of the Bratislava Peace, which practically meant the loss of Austria's political influence in Southern Germany and Southern Germany. Europe, and France became a powerful land power. Now France's biggest opponent in the struggle for hegemony in Europe was Great Britain, which, after the Battle of Cape Trafalgar, held unconditional dominance over the seas.

As a result of the war, Austria was completely ousted from Germany and Italy, and France established its hegemony on the European continent. On March 15, 1806, Napoleon transferred the Grand Duchy of Cleves and Berg into the possession of his brother-in-law I. Murat. He expelled the local Bourbon dynasty from Naples, which fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet, and on March 30 placed his brother Joseph on the Neapolitan throne. On May 24, he transformed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of Holland, placing his other brother Louis at its head. In Germany, on June 12, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed from 17 states under the protectorate of Napoleon; On August 6, the Austrian Emperor Franz II renounced the German crown - the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist.

The war against Napoleon was continued by England and Russia, which were soon joined by Prussia and Sweden, concerned about the strengthening of French dominance in Europe. In September 1806, the 4th anti-French coalition of European states was formed. A month later, during two battles, on the same day, October 14, 1806, the Prussian army was destroyed: near Jena, Napoleon defeated the units of Prince Hohenlohe, and at Auerstedt, Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian forces of King Frederick William and the Duke of Brunswick. Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin. Prussia was occupied. The Russian army, moving to help the allies, met the French, first near Pultusk on December 26, 1806, then at Preussisch-Eylau on February 8, 1807. Despite the bloodshed, these battles did not give an advantage to either side, but in June 1807, Napoleon won the Battle of Friedland over the Russian troops commanded by L.L. Bennigsen. On July 7, 1807, in the middle of the Neman River, a meeting between the French and Russian emperors took place on a raft, and the Peace of Tilsit was concluded. According to this world, Russia recognized all of Napoleon’s conquests in Europe and joined the “Continental Blockade” of the British Isles proclaimed by him in 1806. In the spring of 1809, England and Austria again united in the 5th anti-French coalition, but already in May 1809 the French entered Vienna, and on July 5-6, in the battle of Wagram, the Austrians were again defeated. Austria agreed to pay indemnity and joined the continental blockade. A significant part of Europe came under Napoleon's rule.

6. End of the Napoleonic Wars

The national liberation movement that was growing in Europe acquired its greatest scope in Spain and Germany. However, the fate of Napoleon's empire was decided during his campaign in Russia. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the strategy of the Russian army, led by Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov, the partisan movement contributed to the death of more than 400 thousand “Great Army”. This caused a new rise in the national liberation struggle in Europe, and people's militia began to be created in a number of states. In 1813, the 6th anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria and a number of other states. In October 1813, as a result of the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig, German territory was liberated from the French. Napoleon's army retreated to the borders of France and was then defeated on its own soil. On March 31, Allied troops entered Paris. On April 6, Napoleon I signed his abdication and was exiled from France to the island of Elba.

In 1815, during the famous “Hundred Days” (March 20 - June 22), Napoleon made a last attempt to regain his former power. The defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (Belgium) on June 18, 1815, inflicted on him by the troops of the 7th Coalition under the command of the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blucher, ended the history of the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna (November 1, 1814 - June 9, 1815) decided the fate of France, securing the redistribution of the territories of European countries in the interests of the victorious states. The wars of liberation that were waged against Napoleon were inevitably associated with the partial restoration of the feudal-absolutist order in Europe (the “Holy Alliance” of European monarchs, concluded with the aim of suppressing the national liberation and revolutionary movement in Europe).

Results

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, France's military power was broken and it lost its dominant position in Europe. The main political force on the continent became the Holy Alliance of Monarchs led by Russia; Great Britain retained its status as the world's leading maritime power.

The wars of conquest of Napoleonic France threatened the national independence of many European nations; at the same time, they contributed to the destruction of the feudal-monarchical order on the continent - the French army brought on its bayonets the principles of a new civil society (Civil Code) and the abolition of feudal relations; Napoleon's liquidation of many small feudal states in Germany facilitated the process of its future unification.

Bibliography

1.Bezotosny V.M. Napoleonic Wars. - M.: Veche, 2010.

2.Zalessky K.A. Biographical encyclopedic dictionary. Napoleonic Wars, 1799-1815, M., 2003

3.Easdale C.J. Napoleonic Wars. Rostov-on-Don, 1997

4.Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron Napoleonic Wars. - St. Petersburg: Publishing company “F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", 1907-1909

5.Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. The triumph and tragedy of the conqueror. M., 2000

6.#"justify">7. http://www.bezmani.ru/spravka/bse/base/3/014204.htm

Composition

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), French emperor in 1804-14 and in March - June 1815. A native of Corsica. He began serving in the army in 1785 with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery; advanced during the French Revolution (reaching the rank of brigadier general) and under the Directory (commander of the army). In November 1799 he carried out a coup d'état (18 Brumaire), as a result of which he became the first consul to actually concentrate all power in his hands over time; in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor.

Established a dictatorial regime. He carried out a number of reforms (the adoption of the civil code, 1804, the founding of the French bank, 1800, etc.). Thanks to the victorious wars, he significantly expanded the territory of the empire and made most of the Western states dependent on France. and Center. Europe. The defeat of Napoleonic troops in the war of 1812 against Russia marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon I. The entry of anti-French coalition troops into Paris in 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate the throne. He was exiled to Fr. Elbe. He re-took the French throne in March 1815 (see “One Hundred Days”). After the defeat at Waterloo, he abdicated the throne for the second time (June 22, 1815). He spent the last years of his life on the island. St. Helena a prisoner of the British. NAPOLEON Bonaparte, Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte, Buonaparte) (August 15, 1769, Ajaccio - May 5, 1821, St. Helena), French statesman, commander, emperor. Napoleon's early life He came from a poor Corsican noble family of Charles and Letizia Buonaparte (in total there were 5 sons and 3 daughters in the family). He studied at the Royal Military School in Brienne and at the Paris Military School (1779-85), from which he graduated with the rank of lieutenant. Napoleon’s journalistic works during the Revolution (“Dialogue on Love”, “Dialogue sur l’amour”, 1791, “Dinner at Beaucaire”, “Le Souper de Beaucaire”, 1793) indicate that he shared Jacobin sentiments at that time. Appointed chief of artillery in the army besieging Toulon occupied by the British, Bonaparte carried out a brilliant military operation. Toulon was taken, and at the age of 24 he himself received the rank of brigadier general (1793).

After the Thermidorian coup, Bonaparte distinguished himself during the dispersal of the royalist rebellion in Paris (1795), and then was appointed commander of the Italian army. During the Italian campaign (1796-97), Napoleon's military genius was revealed in all its splendor. The Austrian generals were unable to oppose anything to the lightning-fast maneuvers of the French army, poor, poorly equipped, but inspired by revolutionary ideas and led by Bonaparte. She won one victory after another: Montenotto, Lodi, Milan, Castiglione, Arcole, Rivoli. The Italians enthusiastically greeted the army, which carried the ideals of freedom, equality, and liberated them from Austrian rule. Austria lost all its lands in Northern Italy, where the Cisalpine Republic, allied with France, was created. The name of Bonaparte resounded throughout Europe. After his first victories, Napoleon began to claim an independent role. The Government of the Directory, not without pleasure, sent him on an Egyptian expedition (1798-1799). Its idea was connected with the desire of the French bourgeoisie to compete with the English, which was actively asserting its influence in Asia and North Africa. However, it was not possible to gain a foothold here: while fighting the Turks, the French army did not find support from the local population.

Meanwhile, the power crisis in Paris reached its climax. The corrupt Directory was unable to ensure the gains of the Revolution. In Italy, Russian-Austrian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov liquidated all of Napoleon’s acquisitions and there was even a threat of invasion of France. Under these conditions, the returning popular general, relying on an army loyal to him, dispersed the representative bodies and the Directory and proclaimed the consulate regime (November 9, 1799). According to the new constitution, legislative power was divided between the State Council, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps and the Senate, which made it helpless and clumsy. The executive power, on the contrary, was gathered into one fist by the first consul, i.e. Bonaparte. The second and third consuls had only advisory votes. The constitution was approved by the people in a plebiscite (about 3 million votes against 1.5 thousand) (1800).

Later, Napoleon passed through the Senate a decree on the lifetime of his powers (1802), and then proclaimed himself Emperor of the French (1804). When Napoleon came to power, France was at war with Austria and England. Bonaparte's new Italian campaign resembled the first. Having crossed the Alps, the French army unexpectedly appeared in Northern Italy, enthusiastically greeted by the local population. The decisive victory was the Battle of Marengo (1801). The threat to the French borders was eliminated. Napoleon's domestic policy consisted of strengthening his personal power as a guarantee of preserving the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of peasants, as well as those who bought national property during the revolution, i.e. confiscated lands of emigrants and churches. The Civil Code (1804), which went down in history as the Napoleonic Code, was supposed to ensure all these conquests. Napoleon carried out an administrative reform, establishing the institution of prefects of departments and sub-prefects of districts accountable to the government (1800). Mayors were appointed to cities and villages. The state French Bank was established to store gold reserves and issue paper money (1800), and the tax collection system was neutralized.

Napoleon's administrative and legal innovations laid the foundation for the modern state, many of which are still in effect today. It was then that a system of secondary schools was created - lyceums and higher educational institutions - the Normal and Polytechnic schools, which still remain the most prestigious in France. Well aware of the importance of influencing public opinion, Napoleon closed 160 of the 173 Parisian newspapers and placed the rest under government control. A powerful police force and an extensive secret service were created. Napoleon concluded a concordat with the Pope (1801). Rome recognized the new French government, and Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. At the same time, freedom of religion was preserved. The appointment of bishops and the activities of the church were made dependent on the government.

Economic policy, wars and the continental blockade Economic policy consisted of ensuring the primacy of the French industrial and financial bourgeoisie in the European market. This was hampered by English capital, the predominance of which was determined by the industrial revolution that had already taken place in England. England put together coalitions against France one after another, trying to win over the largest European powers - primarily Austria and Russia. She financed military operations on the continent. Napoleon planned a direct landing on the British Isles, but England was stronger at sea (at Trafalgar, the French fleet was destroyed by the English fleet, commanded by Admiral Nelson (1805). However, a month later, at Austerlitz (now Slavkov, Czech Republic), Napoleon dealt a crushing blow to the combined Austrian and Russian troops. Frightened by the growing influence of France, Prussia opposed it, but was quickly defeated (Battle of Jena, 1806), French troops entered Berlin. Russian troops inflicted great damage on the French army at the Battle of Eylau (1807), but were defeated at Friedland (1807).As a result of the war, France included the territories of Belgium, Holland, northern Germany, part of Italy. In the rest of Italy, in the center of Europe, in Spain (1809) kingdoms dependent on Napoleon were created, where members of his family ruled. extremely reduced Prussia and Austria were forced to conclude an alliance with France, as did Russia (Treaty of Tilsit, 1807). Having won, Napoleon signed the decree on the continental blockade (1806). From now on, France and all its allies stopped trade relations with England. Europe was the main market for British goods, as well as colonial ones, imported mainly by England, the largest maritime power. The continental blockade caused damage to the English economy: a little over a year later, England was experiencing a crisis in the wool production and textile industry; the pound sterling fell. However, the blockade also hit the continent. French industry was not able to replace English industry on the European market. The disruption of trade relations with the English colonies also led to the decline of French port cities: La Rochelle, Marseille, etc. The population suffered from a lack of familiar colonial goods: coffee, sugar, tea... Crisis and fall of the Empire Napoleon's policies in the first years of his reign enjoyed the support of the population - not only owners, but also the poor (workers, farm laborers). The fact is that the revival in the economy caused an increase in wages, which was also facilitated by constant recruitment into the army.

Napoleon looked like the savior of the fatherland, wars caused national upsurge, and victories caused a sense of pride. After all, Napoleon Bonaparte was a man of the revolution, and the marshals around him, brilliant military leaders, sometimes came from the very bottom. But gradually the people began to get tired of the war, which had lasted for about 20 years. Military recruitment began to cause dissatisfaction. In addition, the economic crisis broke out again (1810). The bourgeoisie realized that it was not within its power to economically subjugate all of Europe. Wars in the vastness of Europe were losing their meaning for her; the costs of them began to irritate her. The security of France had not been threatened for a long time, and in foreign policy the emperor’s desire to extend his power and ensure the interests of the dynasty played an increasingly important role. In the name of these interests, Napoleon divorced his first wife Josephine, with whom he had no children, and married the daughter of the Austrian Emperor, Marie-Louise (1810). An heir was born (1811), but the Austrian marriage of the emperor was extremely unpopular in France. Napoleon's allies, who accepted the continental blockade against their interests, did not strive to strictly observe it. Tensions grew between them and France. The contradictions between France and Russia became increasingly obvious.

Patriotic movements expanded in Germany, and guerrilla violence continued unabated in Spain. Having broken off relations with Alexander I, Napoleon decided to invade Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 was the beginning of the end of the Empire. Napoleon's huge, multi-tribal army did not carry within itself the previous revolutionary spirit; far from its homeland in the fields of Russia, it quickly melted away and finally ceased to exist. As the Russian army moved west, the anti-Napoleonic coalition grew. Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish troops opposed the hastily assembled new French army in the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813). Napoleon was defeated and abdicated the throne after the Allies entered Paris. He took possession of the small island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea (1814). The Bourbons and emigrants returned to France in the convoy of foreign troops, anticipating the return of their property and privileges. This caused discontent and fear in French society and in the army.

Taking advantage of this, Napoleon fled from Elba and, greeted by the enthusiastic cries of the crowd, returned to Paris. The war resumed, but France was no longer able to bear its burden. The "Hundred Days" ended with Napoleon's final defeat near the Belgian village of Waterloo (June 18, 1815). He became a prisoner of the British and was sent to the distant island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean.

There Napoleon spent the last six years of his life, dying from a serious illness and the petty bullying of his jailers. The significance of Napoleon's personality Napoleon had a phenomenal memory and efficiency, a sharp mind, a military and state genius, the gift of a diplomat, an artist, and charm, which allowed him to easily win over people. This man, in his unchanging gray frock coat and cocked hat, took a strong place in history, giving his name to an entire era. Napoleon's empire turned out to be fragile. However, the tragic fate of the emperor deeply shocked his contemporaries, including artists, musicians, poets, and provided abundant food for romanticism, which blossomed in European culture in subsequent decades. Napoleon's battles were included in military textbooks. “Napoleonic law” underlies the civil norms of Western democracies. The restored Bourbon monarchy was unable to destroy the results of the Revolution secured by Napoleon.