The concept of educational activity and its characteristics. Educational activity, its structure

To begin with, let's define range of development of this problem and briefly list the scientists. Scientists who dealt with the problem of educational activities: D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, A. K. Markova, S. L. Rubinshtein etc. Next, we will consider the concept of educational activity, the essence of educational activity and its result, the components of educational activity.

Concept of educational activity

Educational activity can be identified with the learning process, but this is not entirely true. According to D. B. Elkonin, educational activity is leading at primary school age. Also, educational activity is a special activity that should be motivated by certain motives.

Definition 1

- this is the activity of an individual, during which he masters the methods of educational actions. In addition, this type of activity is aimed at the subject (the child) himself and helps personal development and the cultivation of cultural experience.

The essence of educational activity and its result

Teaching and learning are closely related and constitute a two-way process, which consists of:

Transfer of knowledge,

Assimilation of knowledge.

Let's highlight main characteristics of educational activities:

Educational activities are aimed at mastering knowledge through solving educational problems.

Educational activities are aimed at mastering general methods of educational activities.

Educational activities are organized from general to specific.

Educational activities can change the mental properties of a child’s personality and bring them to a higher level.

Purpose of educational activity consists of the student acquiring knowledge. If a child does not have a need for knowledge, then this activity is meaningless for him, only if he does not pursue another goal, for example, to obtain a profession. Thus, educational activities can be different in meaning depending on the subject of the teaching:

Learning activities can satisfy a cognitive need.

Educational activities can satisfy other needs (external social motives).

The essence of educational activities consists of personal development student. Product of educational activities– this is current structured knowledge that underlies the ability to solve problems in various fields of science and practice that require its application, as well as internal new formations in the psyche and behavior in value, semantic and motivational terms. The products of educational activity in the form of the main organic part are included in the individual experience of the student. Further activities of a person, his success in professional activity, in communicating with other people depends on structural organization individual experience, its strength, depth, consistency.

The main product of educational activities is the formation of the student’s theoretical consciousness and thinking. The result of educational activities. As a result of the educational process, certain skills, abilities and knowledge are acquired. One of the most important results of educational activities is the child’s ability to learn independently.

Components of educational activities

The components of educational activities are most generally reflected in Figure 1.

1. Motivation. In educational activities, several groups of motives are distinguished, but “true” motives are only educational and cognitive motives.

External motives (debt, avoiding failures, etc.),

Cognitive motives.

Learning task. An educational task is a task that contains what the student needs to learn. Also, a learning task includes a group of tasks that are aimed at mastering a general method of action. It is associated with the implementation of some practical activity. When solving a learning task, the subject changes the object of his influence, which is the result of the learning activity. Thus, the peculiarity of the learning task is to change the original object.

Training operations. If a learning task contains everything that would help the mastery of general methods of action, then learning operations are precisely what is used to practically master one or another method of action embedded in the task. Highlight general and specific training operations:

• Are common:

a) Comparison,

b) Analysis,

c) Classification,

d) Planning.

• Specific (always related to the academic subject).

By structure educational operations are divided into:

• Skills,
• Skills.

By the nature of cognitive activity:

• Perceptual,
• Mnemonic,
• Thinking.

On functional aspects:

• Planning,
• Controlling,
• Performing,
• Estimated.

Control. First, the teacher controls the learning activities, then the students control themselves. Without self-control, it is impossible to fully develop educational activities, so this is the most important pedagogical task. The child needs operational control over the process of learning activities.

Assessment and self-esteem. The child must learn to adequately evaluate his work with a general assessment - how correctly the task was completed, and an assessment of his actions - how much he has mastered the solution method, what has not been worked out.

Figure 1. Learning activities

Plan

1. Characteristics of the learning process.

2. Teaching as an activity.

3. Structure of educational activities. Psychological components.

Literature

1. Davydov V.V. Problems of developmental education. – M., 1986.

2. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology. – M., 2002.

3. Ilyasov I.I. Structure of the learning process. – M., 1986.

4. Lerner I.Ya. The learning process and its patterns. – M., 1980.

5. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. – Rostov n/d., 2000.

6. Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology. – M., 1998.

7. Yakunin V.A. Pedagogical psychology. – M., 1998

1. Characteristics of the learning process

Training - specific type pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, lecturer), socially determined tasks of individual education are implemented in close connection with his upbringing and development.

A correct understanding of the learning process itself includes the necessary characteristics:

1) learning is a specific human form of transferring social experience: through tools and objects of labor, language and speech, specially organized educational activities, the experience of previous generations is transmitted and assimilated;

2) learning is impossible without the presence of interaction between the student and the teacher, without the presence of “counter” activity of the student, without his corresponding work, called teaching. “Teaching is work full of activity and thought,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky. Knowledge cannot be transferred mechanically from one head to another. The result of communication is determined not only by the activity of the teacher, but also to the same extent by the activity of the student, their very relationship;

3) learning is not a mechanical addition to existing psychological processes, but a qualitative change in the entire inner world, the entire psyche and personality of the student. During assimilation (as the highest stage of learning), there is a transfer of knowledge from the outside to the inside (interiorization), which is why the material being studied becomes, as it were, the individual’s own property, owned and discovered by him. A specific feature of educational activities is the activity of self-change. Its goal and result is a change in the subject himself, which consists in mastering certain methods of action, and not changing the objects with which the subject acts (D.B. Elkonin).

Are common goals training:

1) formation of knowledge (system of concepts) and methods of activity (methods of cognitive activity, skills and abilities);

2) increasing the general level of mental development, changing the very type of thinking and developing the needs and abilities for self-learning, the ability to learn.

During the learning process, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Stimulating educational and cognitive activity of students;

Organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;

Development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;

Improving educational skills;

Development of a scientific worldview and moral and aesthetic culture.

Thus, education- this is purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and cognition are assimilated.

Learning can be characterized as a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge and skills based on his own activity. And the teacher creates for the student’s activity the necessary conditions, guides it, controls it, provides it with the necessary tools and information.

2. Learning as an activity

In psychology, activity is usually understood as the active interaction of a person with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the emergence of a certain need or motive. Types of activities that ensure the existence of a person and his formation as an individual - communication, play, learning, work.

Learning takes place where a person’s actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain knowledge, abilities, skills, forms of behavior and activity. Teaching is a specifically human activity, and it is possible only at that stage of development of the human psyche when he is able to regulate his actions with a conscious goal. The teaching makes demands on cognitive processes (memory, intelligence, imagination, mental flexibility) and volitional qualities (attention management, regulation of feelings, etc.).

Learning activities combine not only the cognitive functions of activity (perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination), but also needs, motives, emotions, and will.

Any activity is a combination of some physical actions, practical or verbal. If teaching is an activity, then can it be carried out without external and visible forms? Research by scientists has shown that in addition to practical activities, a person is also capable of carrying out special Gnostic(cognitive) activity. Its goal is to understand the world around us.

Gnostic activity, like practical activity, can be objective and external. It can also be a perceptual activity or a symbolic activity. Unlike practical activity, gnostic activity can also be internal, or at least not observable. Thus, perception is often carried out with the help of externally not observable perceptual actions that ensure the formation of an image of an object. Memorization processes are implemented through special mnemonic actions (highlighting semantic connections, mental schematization and repetition). Special studies have discovered that the most developed forms of thinking are carried out through special mental actions performed by a person “in his head” (for example, actions of analysis and synthesis, identification and discrimination, abstraction and generalization). During the learning process, these types of activities are usually closely intertwined. Thus, while studying the classification of plants, the student examines them (perceptual activity), separates the main parts of the flower (objective activity), describes what he sees (symbolic, or speech activity), sketches (objective perceptual activity), etc. In different cases, the ratio of these types of activities is different, but in all cases the teaching is expressed in active gnostic activity, which often has internal forms.

The works of many psychologists (Vygotsky, Leontiev, Halperin, Piaget, etc.) have shown that internal activity arises from external activity in the process of interiorization, due to which the objective action is reflected in the consciousness and thinking of a person. For example, the objective action of dividing, disassembling a thing into parts when solving corresponding problems is replaced by an action in the mind (dividing a thing based on its image or concept of it). Objective action turns into a process of interiorization, into an action of mental analysis. Systems of such mental (mental) actions unfolding in an ideal plan are internal activities.

It has been established that the main means of interiorization is the word. It allows a person to, as it were, “tear off” the action from the object itself and turn it into action with images and the concept of the object.

External gnostic activity is mandatory for teaching when images, concepts about the subject and the actions corresponding to them have not yet been formed in the human mind. If the child already has the images, concepts and actions necessary for mastering new knowledge and skills, then internal gnostic activity is sufficient for learning.

When deciding the nature of educational activity, it is necessary first of all to analyze what knowledge and skills the assimilation of new material requires. If the student does not yet master certain images, concepts and actions, then the teaching must begin with objective gnostic activity. The student must carry out the appropriate actions with his own hands. Then, highlighting and consolidating them with words, he must gradually translate their implementation into ideal interior plan. If the student already has an arsenal of necessary initial concepts and actions, then he can begin his teaching directly with internal gnostic activity. In this case, the student can be presented with the appropriate words, since he already knows what they mean and what actions are necessary with them. Traditional teaching by communication and demonstration is based on this. It corresponds to such methods of learning as listening, reading, observing.

Educational activity is the leading activity at school age. Leading activity is understood as such activity, during which the formation of basic mental processes and personality properties occurs, new formations appear that correspond to age (arbitrariness, reflection, self-control, internal plan of action). Educational activities are carried out throughout the child’s education at school. Educational activity is especially intensively formed during primary school age.

Changes occur during educational activities:

In the level of knowledge, skills and abilities;

In the level of formation of individual aspects of educational activity;

In mental operations, personality traits, i.e. in the level of general and mental development.

Educational activity is, first of all, individual activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation. Like work, educational activity is characterized by goals and objectives, motives. Just like an adult doing work, a student must know What do, For what, How, see your mistakes, control and evaluate yourself. A child entering school does not do any of this on his own, i.e. he does not have the skills to study. In the process of learning activities, the student not only masters knowledge, skills and abilities, but also learns to set educational goals (goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, monitor and evaluate his actions.

The concept and structure of educational activities in psychological and pedagogical research

Start schooling and raising a child is a significant turning point in his entire life. External signs of this turning point are revealed in its organization, in the new responsibilities of the child as a student. However, this moment has a deep internal basis - with the arrival of school, the child begins to assimilate the most developed forms of social consciousness - science, art, morality, law, which are associated with the theoretical consciousness and thinking of people. The assimilation of these forms requires children to perform certain activities. This activity of children is their learning activity.

The concept of “learning activity” is quite ambiguous in the psychological and pedagogical literature. In the broadest sense of the word, it is sometimes wrongly regarded as synonymous with learning, teaching, and even teaching. IN in the narrow sense, according to D.B. Elkonin, is the leading type of activity in primary school age. In the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydova, A.K. Markova, the concept of “learning activity” is filled with actual activity content and meaning, correlating with the special “responsible attitude” of the subject to the subject of learning throughout its entire duration.

D.B. Elkonin gives the following definition of this concept: “Educational activities” - this is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field scientific concepts. Such activity must be stimulated by adequate motives; they can be motives for acquiring generalized methods of action, or, more simply, motives for one’s own growth, one’s own improvement. If it is possible to form such motives in students, then by this they are supported, filled with new content, by those general motives of activity that are associated with the position of the student, with the implementation of socially significant and socially valued activities.”

According to T.V. Gabay,educational activities - this is an activity deliberately aimed at gaining experience by one of its participants. Providing knowledge, it gives it as a direct or main product.

Zimnyaya I.A. believes thateducational activities - this is the activity of the subject in mastering generalized methods of educational actions and self-development in the process of solving educational tasks specifically set by the teacher, on the basis of external control and assessment, turning into self-control and self-assessment.

In the psychological dictionary we can find the following definition:educational activity - the leading activity of primary school age, in which the controlled appropriation of the foundations of social and cognitive experience occurs, primarily in the form of basic intellectual operations and theoretical concepts.

In our work we rely on the definition of educational activity given by D.B. Elkonin.

Psychologists define learning activity as a special one in the system of activities as a result of which a person gains experience. In particular, T.V. Gabay finds its place in the system of activities. In this regard, T.V. Gabay highlights the features of educational activities, which include:

the main product in educational activity is not only objectively the main product of this activity, in which everything is subordinated to its receipt, it is also recognized by a person as the main one, constituting its goal;

the experience a person acquires is not revealed to him in research process, but is obtained in finished form from other participants in this activity;

the actions of the cognizing person are limited to performing only its main functional component, while the entire sum of the preparatory functional components of this activity is transferred to the teaching person.

I.A. Zimnaya notes the following among the features of educational activities:

it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving educational problems;

it masters general methods of action and scientific concepts;

general methods of action precede problem solving;

leads to changes in the subject himself;

in the process of educational activity, changes occur in the mental properties and behavior of students depending on the results of their own actions (adds this feature, referring to I. Lingart).

Educational activities have their own subject. Different scientists define it based on their own research and analysis of the works of their colleagues. Let's give the opinions of some of them.

T.V. Gabay, following D.B. Elkonin, believes that the subject of educational activity is what in its process is completed to the desired product, which is the desired changes in the student himself. They thus consist either in the acquisition of some concept, skill or its fragments, or in their transformation.

I.I. Ilyasov determines the subject of educational activity by the experience of the students themselves, which is transformed in teaching by assigning elements social experience, processed into the content of training, therefore, he also considers the subject of this activity to be the content of training that has not yet been mastered, which is transformed in it from unlearned to mastered.

The subject of educational activities according to I.A. Zimnyaya: assimilation of knowledge, mastery of generalized methods of action, development of techniques and methods of action, their programs, algorithms, in the process of which the student himself develops.

In addition to the subject, these researchers determine the product and outcome of educational activities. The product, according to I.A. Zimnyaya, is structured and updated knowledge that underlies the ability to solve problems that require its application in various fields of science and practice. The product is also an internal new formation of the psyche and activity in motivational, value and semantic terms.

The result of educational activity is the behavior of the subject - this is either the need he experiences (interest, involvement, positive emotions) to continue this activity, or reluctance, evasion, avoidance. The second is manifested in a negative attitude towards school, non-attendance.

In the process of educational activities, younger generations reproduce in their consciousness the theoretical riches that humanity has accumulated and expressed in ideal forms of spiritual culture. The attitude towards oneself, towards the world, towards society, towards other people is formed in the educational activities of a primary school student, but the most important thing is that these relations are realized mainly through it as an attitude towards the content, teaching methods, teacher, class, school, etc. d.

In educational activities, the child first reveals himself as a subject, and for the first time he is faced with the task of changing himself as a subject. Educational activity in this sense is a very significant moment in the formation of a person as an individual. According to V.V. Repkin, in order to form such an activity, training must be structured accordingly. Having set a learning task for the child, we gradually carry out its solution by introducing conceptual material that requires analysis, generalization, internal properties and connections.

In order for younger schoolchildren to develop a full-fledged educational activity in the process of teaching, it is necessary to build it in accordance with the main structural components existing in it. Only with such a structure of educational activity from the very beginning of learning can a conscious educational activity be formed, which is built by the student himself according to its inherent objective laws. Educational activities conducted under the guidance of a teacher, in the process of formation, should turn into independent, conscious activities organized by the student himself, i.e. into self-study.

An approach to structuring educational activities was proposed in the works of D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydova. They identify the following components of educational activities:

learning task;

educational action;

control action;

evaluation action.

Let us consider the components of educational activity they identified in more detail.

The concept of “learning task” was introduced into the psychology of learning by D.B. Elkonin. He considered the learning task to be the main unit (cell) of learning activity. The main difference between a learning task and all other tasks is that its goal and result are to change the acting subject himself, and not to change the objects with which he acts.

Tasks performed within educational activities must satisfy the basic requirement of theoretical thinking. This requirement, according to S.L. Rubinstein, is that solving a problem theoretically means solving it not only for a given particular case, but also for all homogeneous ones. Therefore, the actual educational task can be considered such a unique task, in solving which the student learns a general way of orientation and action in a certain class of problems in a certain field (scientific, artistic, etc.). The student learns this method before using it when correctly solving individual problems of the corresponding class. As noted by V.V. Davydov, in many cases it is very difficult to find and present in the form of a sample a general method for solving specific practical problems of a certain class.

When solving an educational task, the student makes changes in objects or in ideas about them through his actions, but his result is a change in the acting subject himself. An educational task can be considered solved only when predetermined changes have occurred in the subject.

When solving a learning task, specific individual objects with which the subject acts and into which he makes changes through his actions are not the objects of his actions. The object of educational activities is how such changes should be made to objects. The object of educational assimilation is not the objects with which the subject acts and not their specific properties, but the very ways of changing these objects.

The educational task is solved by schoolchildren through certain actions. These actions include:

transforming the conditions of the problem in order to discover the general relationship of the object being studied;

modeling the selected relationship in subject, graphic or letter form;

transformation of relationship models to study its properties in “pure form”;

building a system of particular problems solved in a general way;

control over the implementation of previous actions;

assessment of mastering the general method as a result of solving a given educational task.

Each educational action has a certain operational composition, i.e. consists of corresponding operations. Learning activities can be carried out both in the subject and in the mental plane. Their composition is heterogeneous. Alone learning activities are typical for mastering any educational material, others - for working within a given academic subject, and others - for reproducing only individual particular samples. Thus, actions that allow students to depict given patterns are used when studying any material in each subject. Semantic regrouping of the material, semantic highlighting of its supporting points, drawing up a logical diagram and plan are educational activities that are most adequate for mastering material of a descriptive nature. Special educational activities correspond to the assimilation of each fundamental concept of a particular academic subject.

The initial form of educational activities is the joint execution by a group of schoolchildren under the guidance of a teacher of educational activities distributed among them. Gradually, these collectively distributed actions are internalized and transformed into individually implemented solutions to educational problems.

According to V.S. Goncharov, the initial and main thing among educational actions is the action of transforming the conditions of the educational task in order to discover some general relations of the system of objects that should be reflected in the corresponding theoretical concept. We are talking about such a transformation of the conditions of the problem, which is aimed at searching, detecting and highlighting a very specific relationship of the entire object being studied. The peculiarity of this relationship is that it acts as the genetic basis and source of all the particular characteristics of the entire object. Attitude in its educational function acts as the initial moment in the formation of a concept. This educational action, which is based on mental analysis, first has the form of transforming the objective conditions of the educational task, as a mental action it is carried out in an objective-sensory form.

The next structural component of educational activity is the action of control. The action of control consists in comparing the action reproduced by the child and its result with a sample through a preliminary image. Direct application to the sample is not possible because the sample given by the teacher, is just an isolated case of an acquired method of action, and as such it can never coincide with an equally isolated case of an action reproduced by a child. Therefore, a sample method of action must contain reference points, based on comparison with which a control action can be carried out before the desired action for which this method was used is carried out.

Control can be carried out both on the basis of an analysis of the finished results of actually performed actions, and on the basis of the expected results of actions performed only in the mental plane.

D.B. Elkonin gives control to the action in the process of solving a learning task special meaning, because according to his assumption, it is this that characterizes all educational activity as a voluntary process controlled by the child himself. The arbitrariness of educational activity is determined not so much by the presence of an intention to do something and the desire to learn, but (and mainly) by control over the implementation of actions in accordance with the model.

The evaluation action records the compliance or non-compliance of the results of assimilation with the requirements of the learning task. The organization of educational work depends on the nature of the assessment. Thanks to the action of assessment, the child determines whether he has really solved the educational problem, whether he has really mastered the required method of action so much that he can subsequently use it in solving many particular practical problems. “Thus, assessment becomes a key point in determining the extent to which the educational activity carried out by the student influenced him as the subject of this activity. However, if educational activities are not organized correctly, assessment does not fulfill all its functions.”

The significance of the role of control (self-control) and evaluation (self-esteem) in the structure of activity is determined by the fact that it reveals the internal mechanism of the transition from external to internal, interpsychic to intrapsychic.

Sh.A. Amonashvili identifies the following components in the structure of educational and cognitive activity:

the student’s awareness and acceptance of the educational and cognitive task;

building a plan for its resolution;

practical solution of the problem;

control over the problem resolution process;

evaluation of results in accordance with the standard;

setting tasks for further improvement of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities.

In the works of A.K. Markova included another component in the structure of educational activities - an educational motive. Motivation performs several functions: it stimulates behavior, directs and organizes it, and gives it personal meaning and significance.

The motive that is most adequate to educational activity is the focus of schoolchildren on mastering new methods of action, because it is the mastery of methods for transforming the object being studied that leads to the enrichment of the subject of educational activity. The teacher should take care that the student develops a learning motive that orients the child towards a course of action.

A.K. Markova notes the peculiarity of the educational motive as one of the aspects of the motivational sphere, which is that it is directly related to the meaning, personal significance of educational activity: if the motive for which the student studies changes, then this fundamentally changes the meaning of all educational activities.

It should also be noted that the initial stage of educational activity is the process of goal setting, i.e. highlighting the ultimate goal for the sake of which the activity is carried out. In the educational activity of a schoolchild, goals are set from the outside as an external requirement for the result of the activity. Therefore, in order for them to act as the goal of the subject, they must be accepted by him.

T.V. Gabay in his works uses the definition “structural moments of educational activity.” These include: subject, subject, means, external conditions, procedure and product of educational activity. The subject of educational activity means a student, and it is specified that a student can function as a subject of learning only when he is healthy and all subsystems of his body are provided with energy. A subject is all that knowledge and skills that, in their subject content, are directly related to the knowledge and skills that the student must master. Accordingly, the desired knowledge and skills of the student become the product of educational activity. The activity procedure includes those methods and methods that are used to obtain the desired product. External conditions of activity characterize the environment of the subject of this activity.

Research in recent years has been devoted to the problem of individual differences in children, including their influence on the formation of educational activities. Individual differences can be understood and described as the ratio of different levels of development of the components of educational activity: some students are more developed in accepting and setting educational tasks, while others have better methods of action, methods of self-control and self-assessment. Davydov V.V. and Markova A.K. they say that the most high level the formation of individual characteristics of educational activity can be designated as the student becoming a subject of this activity when:

the student (with the help of the teacher) identifies individual aspects, means and methods of educational activity, correlates them with goals and conditions;

on the basis of these “standards” the student evaluates, rearranges his experience of activity, develops a system of his assessments (“meaning” of educational activity for himself) and on this basis actively carries out further assimilation, selection and use of socially developed standards;

the student is able to exert a transformative influence on the socially developed experience of activity, to create new means and ways of its implementation.

Thus, an analysis of the results of the work of domestic psychologists and teachers showed that there are many definitions of the concept of “learning activity”. Scientists identify a different number of components included in the structure of educational activity, but they are all united in the fact that the main structural components of educational activity are the educational task, the educational action, the control action and the evaluation action. The listed components are interconnected and inseparable from each other.

D. B. Elkonin was the first to introduce the concept of “learning activity”, in the meaning of the special activity of the student, which he consciously directs towards the implementation of the goals of education and training, which he accepts as personal goals. Elkonin argued that, first of all, educational activity is an activity during which changes occur in the student himself. The product of this self-change activity is the changes that occurred in the subject during its implementation.

In this interpretation, educational activity differs from the concept of “learning activity” in a broader sense, which in pedagogy means absolutely any activity in the learning process, and from a narrower understanding of the same term, which means the leading type of activity for school-aged children. In their works, A.K. Markova, V.V. Davydova and D.B. Elkonin fill the concept of “learning activity” with meaning and active content, which extends to others age groups and is associated with a special “responsible attitude” (S. L. Rubinstein) to the subject of training of the subject himself.

Structure and components of educational activities

In comparison with teaching, five main characteristics of educational activity can be distinguished:

1. In the process of educational activities, scientific concepts and general methods of action are mastered.
2. Such activities are specifically aimed at solving educational problems and mastering the material.
3. Educational activity leads to changes in the subject himself, which is its main characteristic, according to D. B. Elkonin.
4. Solving problems is preceded by general methods of action (for example: learning by trial and error, without a preliminary general method or program of action, is not a learning activity).
5. During educational activities, changes occur in the student’s behavior and his mental properties, “depending on the results of his own actions” (I. Lingart).

S. L. Rubinstein believed that the theoretical and practical activities of a person, including the activities of teaching, trigger special mental processes (cognitive, motivational, etc.) and external motor acts that directly influence the object. Moreover, the former are regulating, planning, preparatory, directing and motivating, and the latter are executive. The result of the first is a plan, the second is the real result of the impact.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that any activity has the following qualitative components: needs - motive - goal - condition for achieving the goal.

These components are correlated with: operations – actions – activities. Operations are the acts that make up an action (writing elements of letters), actions are goals and specific motives (writing individual letters), activities are more general goals and motives (learning to write). The result of these private actions is perceived not as a goal, but as a means.

Learning activities can be characterized by the same structure. The structure of educational activities includes the following components:

1. Motivation.
2. Learning tasks.
3. Learning activities.
4. Transitioning into self-control, control.
5. Turning into self-esteem, assessment.

Some experts identify three main components of educational activity, which correspond to any other type of full-fledged activity:

1. Educational motivation is an introductory and motivational component.
2. Learning activities and learning tasks are an operational-cognitive component.
3. Educational activities of assessment and control – reflective-evaluative component.

Let us examine in more detail the components of the external educational structure.

The first condition for the success of the educational process and its most important part is the introductory and motivational component. In his works, S. L. Rubinstein wrote that for a student to truly engage in work, it is necessary that the tasks assigned to him in the course of educational activities be understood and internally accepted by him, that is, that they become significant for the student and find a reference point and response in his experiences.

Note 1

To actively participate in learning activities, the child must be motivated and interested.

The term “motive” is interpreted differently in different texts and means different phenomena: value orientations, ideals, aspirations, desires, interests, instinctive impulses. Researchers believe that the lack of a systematic approach to considering motivation is a general shortcoming of existing theories and points of view, therefore any factor that can influence decision making and the occurrence of motivation is called a motive. A. N. Leontyev pointed out that modern psychology does not explain the entire scope of the concept of “motive,” since in the list of motives today one can find ideals, life goals, and irritation with electric current.

Needs can be considered as the reasons for any human activity, but by themselves they cannot provide the activity that leads to their satisfaction.

Definition 1

Need is a negative, negative state of lack that gives rise to search behavior.

The main motivator of directed activity is the object of need, and it is also the motive for activity.

According to A. N. Leontyev, a motive is an objectified need. Thus, a student’s cognitive need provokes the appearance of search activity (attending lectures, reading textbooks). Further, this activity leads to awareness of interest in history, that is, cognitive activity objectified in historical knowledge. Obtaining knowledge of history is the motive for the student’s further behavior. Awareness of the motive helps set a goal, for example, entering the history department or self-study stories. Therefore, a motive is an inducement for a student to engage in a particular activity.

When discussing a person’s motivation in the role of the totality of all his motives, they traditionally indicate only fairly strong and most persistent motives for a certain activity (situational and weak motives are not indicated). It is wrong to think that motivation is a purely personal trait of the human psyche, which some lack and others have.

Note 2

There are undoubtedly individual differences in the basic level of motivation, but it should be kept in mind that motivation is also determined by situational factors.

So, the factors that determine learning motivation are as follows:

• characteristics of the teacher;
• education system;
• characteristics of the student;
• organization of the educational process;
• specificity of the subject being studied.

S. L. Rubinstein spoke about a special dialectic of activity and interests. For example, a student may study poorly due to his lack of interest in the subject, or he may lose interest in the subject because he began to study poorly for some reason. Very often, different motives for educational activities are so strongly interconnected that they cannot be contrasted or distinguished.

Educational activities are usually related to the student’s interests, various needs and desires: to communicate with peers, become a leader in his group, gain knowledge, etc.

We can say that, like any other activity, educational activity is multimotivated.

In the classification of educational motives, two main groups are distinguished, which include motives of various levels.

1. Cognitive motives laid down directly from educational activities:
   • motives directly related to the educational process: the desire to overcome various obstacles, to demonstrate intellectual activity in the process of solving problems;
   • motives associated with the content of the teaching: the student’s desire to penetrate into the essence of a phenomenon, understand patterns, learn new facts.
2. Social motives related to what is outside of educational activities:
   • motives for social cooperation: orientation towards another person and various ways of cooperation with him;
   • narrow social motives: the desire to gain the approval of others and take a certain position in relations with them;
   • broad social motives: awareness of the social significance of learning, responsibility and duty.

Motives are also divided into external and internal.

Definition 2

External to to a given activity are the motives that motivate it, but are not directly related to it.

Motives such as praise from significant persons, the process of learning as an opportunity for communication, understanding the need for learning for later life, can become quite useful and natural in educational activities, although they do not belong to internal forms of educational motivation. Even more pronounced external motives are the desire to be in the center of attention, studying for the sake of prestige or leadership, studying as a forced behavior. More pronounced external motives are studying for the sake of avoiding failures and studying for the sake of material reward.

Definition 3

Internal motives– the desire to learn new things, actions for others and together with others, one’s own development in the learning process.

Intrinsic motivation for learning is directly related to the learning activity itself.

Hierarchy of motives

In his work, the teacher must take into account the multimotivation of educational activities and focus on the fact that schoolchildren develop a hierarchy of motives for learning in the learning process. In this hierarchy, broad social motives or cognitive motives can be dominant. However, upward movement can only ensure the development of internal motivation for learning. It occurs as a shift from an external motive (positive mark, approval) to the goal of learning (development of one’s abilities, assimilation of new knowledge).

To develop internal motivation for a student’s learning process, the following conditions are necessary: ​​increasing the child’s self-esteem during the lesson; the teacher’s attitude towards the student and his subject; the teacher’s focus on the individual characteristics of the student; the student’s feeling of involvement in the common cause; appeal to the student’s personal experience and constant analysis of life situations; unusual form of behavior (role play, travel lesson, conference lesson, etc.); learning objectives based on the aspirations, interests and demands of the student; minimizing the use of punishments and rewards for learning outcomes; maximum possible removal of external control; providing freedom of choice.

It is much easier to move in the opposite direction when it comes to motivating a student, that is, to focus on the external motives for learning. Quite often, in actual practice, teachers and parents use methods that lead to a decline in schoolchildren’s internal motivation to learn. Such methods can be: unjustifiably low grades, belittling criticism, harsh punishments, material rewards, unjustifiably inflated grades, excessive attention and insincere praise.

Note 3

Thus, by increasing the share of internal motivation for learning in the student’s motivation structure, the teacher does not construct ingenious methods of external influence, but uses the child’s internal energy.

Based on the high level of motivation of the student to master knowledge, the teacher can move on to the next stage of educational activity - operational-cognitive, which includes the child’s performance of educational actions and educational tasks.

The goal that faces the student in the form of a problem task is a learning task. It creates a problematic and educational situation in the lesson.

D. B. Elkonin identified educational tasks as actions to be mastered, and he also considered educational actions to be practical tasks. While solving a practical problem, the student tries to change the object of his action (planing, drawing, writing, etc.). In turn, solving an educational task implies the implementation of predetermined changes in the subject.

Note 4

Elkonin believed that an educational task is the basic unit of educational activity, since its result and goal are not to change the objects with which the subject acts, but to change the acting subject itself.

There is a transformation of the student into a person who has mastered skills, abilities and knowledge that he did not previously possess. Therefore, educational activity is defined as an activity of self-development and self-change.

With repeated repetition of conscious actions, they gradually become a way of performing a more complex action, and cease to be an object of conscious control. That is, they are gradually transformed into operations (for example, teaching the sounds of a foreign language, writing, counting, etc.). Thus, mental operations include comparison, abstraction, classification, generalization, synthesis, analysis.

In educational actions, along with mental actions, there are mnemonic and perceptual operations and actions. Mnemonic actions consist of updating, storing, structuring and capturing information; perceptual actions involve identification and recognition.

As a result, each complex educational action contains a fairly large number of, as a rule, undifferentiated mental, mnemonic and perceptual operations. Since they are not differentiated in the general group of educational actions, it is sometimes difficult for a teacher to determine the nature of a student’s difficulty when solving an educational task.

Mastery level

As a result of educational activities, the student achieves a certain level of mastery of the educational material. This level can be described through the following actions and characteristics of knowledge acquisition:

1. The degree of readiness to reproduce knowledge and its internalization.
2. Awareness and deployment.
3. Resistance to forgetting and durability.

I. I. Ilyasov believed that changes in acquired actions and knowledge along these parameters constitute the main content of their development and development. There are certain operations that make it possible to make changes in the assimilation of the material being studied.

So, for example, in the role of special operations that ensure the internalization of educational material, the following methods of mediation can be considered: inclusion of new material in previously learned generalized actions and knowledge; figurative and graphic modeling; coding in the form of special schematizations, symbols; the use of material classifications and artificial groupings; mediation. In a similar way, we can imagine other processes that constitute processing as a component of learning activity.

Another important component of educational activities is the reflective-evaluative component (learning actions of assessment and control). The study of each independent topic (section) should include three stages: introductory-motivational, operational-cognitive and reflective-evaluative. At the first stage, the student’s main task is to understand the reasons for the need to study this topic of the program, to understand what exactly he will have to master. The second stage is mastering the topic and mastering educational operations and actions. The third stage is analysis and reflection of one’s activities, its evaluation. The main goal of the last stage is to develop in students self-analysis (reflective activity), abilities to form adequate self-esteem and generalization.

Another process, the adjustment process, is included in the control and assessment act. It is impossible, when assessing and monitoring the actions of any student, the level of his skills, abilities and knowledge, not to take measures for correction and correction if necessary.

Thus, in the structure of the control and assessment act, three main elements can be distinguished:

• the purpose of the control and assessment act;
• object of correction, assessment and control;
• the standard with which the object is compared;
• control result;
• evaluation criterion;
• assessment in the form of a detailed control characteristic based on the selected criterion;
• grade;
• means and methods of correction;
• the result of the correction, as a new object of control and evaluation activities.

P. Ya. Galperin's research on the essence of attention as a psychological process explains the psychological mechanism of control. Halperin was the first to propose considering psychological control as attention, which represents an ideal, automated and reduced form of control. He believed that in order to form a child’s attention, one should begin with the organization of control as an externally determined action. In the future, control should be exercised through step-by-step development to an automated and abbreviated, generalized and mental form, when the action of control turns into an act of attention that will correspond to a new task.

In her research work, S. L. Kabylnitskaya was able to, through step-by-step development of control actions (for example, checking a text), starting with a detailed materialized form, through speech control forms, gradually generalizing and reducing this action, bring it to a mental, automated form, which helped to form voluntary, sustained attention in children.

As a result of such work, external control, which was carried out by the student independently, turned into internal. Children have developed a mental, automated, reduced control action. This was expressed in the fact that the children learned to quickly and silently correct errors in the proposed texts, that is, they began to carefully check the text, they also learned to quickly check their work and find their own errors, errors no longer appeared in their works due to inattention and significantly the number of errors due to knowledge of the rules has decreased.

The significance of the role of assessment and control in the structure of educational activity is explained by the fact that during this process the mechanism of transformation of the external into the internal is revealed, that is, the teacher’s actions of assessment and control transition into the actions of self-esteem and self-control of the student.

The assessment expresses the results of control. Any assessment must show the degree of compliance of the results of the student’s actions with any norms and standards. When grading a student, any criteria can be selected that determine the way the results are assessed:

1. Normative method of assessment - the student’s results are compared with established samples and norms.
2. Comparative method - the student’s actions and results are compared with similar actions and results of other students.
3. An individual way of grading - the student's successes are compared with his past successes and achievements.

When using individual criteria in grading, the teacher should focus on the student’s efforts, perseverance and organization when solving a learning task.

In order for students to have a clear guideline for their activities, it is necessary to use a normative method of grading. In this case, it is very important that the student develops self-evaluative activity based on the teacher’s evaluative activity. In this case, the student can rely on clear standards that were previously established by the teacher.

Note 5

For students of primary school age, it is necessary to reveal the whole essence of the assessment activity by explaining its entire essence before announcing the assessment.

Many psychologists and teachers believe that a teacher should not use the comparative method of assessment explicitly. It is inhumane and incorrect to compare the failures and successes of individual students. At the same time, it is important for students to independently evaluate their work in this way, to compare their achievements with the achievements of their comrades, since for some students this is one of the most important incentives for intensifying educational activities.

The outstanding psychologist of the Leningrad psychological school of the last century, B. G. Ananyev, was the first to most fully develop the problem of pedagogical assessment in school education. In his works, he noted that pedagogical assessment is a fact of direct guidance of the student, and that a prerequisite for the further psychological development of schoolchildren is their knowledge of their own results and capabilities.
According to Ananyev, pedagogical assessment There are two functions: stimulating and orienting. The first function of assessment has an incentive effect on the affective-volitional sphere of the student. Changes in this area cause significant shifts in the child’s motivation, in his behavior, in relationships with friends and teachers, in the level of aspirations and self-esteem. The guiding function serves as a certain indicator of the student’s level of achievement and results in academic work.

In this way, the learning situation changes in the lesson itself: the student knows how to achieve the desired result and what the teacher requires of him. It is also important that the school grade received by the student for his work is perceived and evaluated by himself and the teacher as a certain result of today’s work, and not as final definition the child’s educational abilities, and even more so, it is not considered as personal characteristics the student as a whole.

Correctly assigned pedagogical assessment forms adequate self-esteem in younger schoolchildren. An overestimated assessment can cause an affect of inadequacy in a child, while an underestimated assessment by a teacher leads to persistent uncertainty in the student. The affect of inadequacy is a persistent negative emotional condition, which appears as a result of failure in activity. In this case, the subject does not admit his responsibility for failure or ignores the very fact of failure. A similar psychological phenomenon may appear as a result of the student’s desire to maintain an inflated level of aspirations and inflated self-esteem through a violation of an adequate perception of the surrounding reality.

Note 6

Like the entire learning process, giving a pedagogical assessment must be based on the strategy of optimism, that is, the assessment should instill a feeling of confidence in subsequent small and large successes and a feeling of joy from learning.

For an assessment and control system, it is important that it meets the following requirements, which were noted by various authors in their psychological and pedagogical works:

1. IN educational process All the most important actions of each student are controlled.
2. Must apply different kinds control, with particular emphasis on comprehensive and systematic control.
3. Public recording of assessment results is desirable.
4. Pedagogical assessment must be based on an optimistic strategy that promotes the development of the student’s personality.
5. Gradually, control should be replaced by self-control and mutual control, for which, for each action studied, the method of its control should be indicated.
6. The assessment of control results must be carried out in a combination of normative and personal methods.

Ability to learn

Returning to the fact that any full-fledged intelligent activity must include three parts - reflective-evaluative, operational-cognitive and motivational, it is necessary to emphasize that the main task of elementary school is to teach schoolchildren to build their activity as reasonable, full-fledged, in which all three parts sufficiently developed, fully realized, realized and balanced. It is understood that the student carries out all actions, including assessment and control, independently.

One of the key development tasks can be considered the ability to learn. Every primary school student must solve this problem for development and successful further education.

The first stage of “the ability to learn,” according to V. S. Mukhina, is understanding the meaning of educational tasks and their difference from practical ones, as well as the skills of self-assessment, self-control and awareness of how to complete tasks.

If we consider the concept of “learning ability” in more detail, then it should include such properties as the ability to highlight main idea message; ability to listen to the teacher; answer questions about the text; retell the content of the text coherently; highlight the main idea of ​​the message; draw meaningful conclusions based on the information received; ability to attract additional sources of information; the ability to express one’s thoughts in writing; adequately evaluate the results of one’s own activities; build an independent path of knowledge.

Reflexivity, voluntariness and awareness of learning activities, as well as the development of conceptual thinking in younger schoolchildren help prepare them for further education in secondary school.

Educational activities and productive forms of knowledge

For elementary school students, along with educational activities, other types of organization of activity and cognition are no less important.

The three main activities are research, design and creativity.

Study

Research as an active way of cognition is typical for preschool children, mainly in the form of spontaneous research activity and investigative behavior.

Definition 4

In the literal sense of the word, " study” is “gaining knowledge from a trace.”

In this context, a trace can be a trace of life, a trace of chemical or physical processes, and a trace of thought. Exploratory behavior is characterized by spontaneous manifestation; its launch most often occurs due to external stimuli, changes in conditions external environment. The initiation, manifestation and inhibition of exploratory behavior occur involuntarily. The patterns of exploratory behavior and research activity in early childhood often manifest themselves similarly to the patterns of behavior of representatives of the animal world with developed elementary rational activity. Growing up is different in that sociocultural determination comes to the fore, which transforms exploratory behavior into research activity. At a certain point, with an adequate correlation between sociocultural norms for the implementation of research activity in the form of research activity and research initiative, a research personal position can be formed.
Unconscious, spontaneous exploration in the form of a direct reaction to problematic situation characteristic of every person. Throughout a person’s life, sporadic research accompanies him, regardless of his social status and abilities, while being a means of interaction with reality and its development. Research, unlike other types of human activity (organization, construction, design) is the most “delicate” type of activity in relation to the object. The main goal of the research is to establish the truth and observe the object, if possible without interfering in his life. The key meaning of research activity is to extract knowledge “from the trace.”

Note 7

Research activity is based on research behavior and research activity, but unlike them it is purposeful, conscious and built by cultural means.

In human culture, specific means and norms for implementing key stages of research activity have been developed:

• orientation, which is the identification of the subject area of ​​the study;
• problematization - awareness and identification of a problem - a question that currently has no answer; setting the purpose of the study;
• equipment - selection and foundation of research techniques and methods, mastering methods of action; choosing a principle for selecting research materials and limiting space;
• planning – distribution of a sequence of actions to carry out a research search; formulation of sequential research objectives;
• collection of empirical material; planning and conducting an experiment; primary data systematization;
• analysis – comparison, synthesis, interpretation and discussion of data;
• reflection – correlating one’s conclusions with the data and results obtained, with the process of conducting research, with previously acquired data and knowledge.

Already from primary school age, successful development of this activity algorithm can occur. Mastery of a holistic algorithm of research activity must be based on certain research abilities, which should be developed to a certain extent already in preschool children, but they continue to actively develop in junior school, especially if students are involved in practical research activities.

Modern experts identify various classifications of research abilities. If they are considered in the light of the implementation of purposeful research activities, then the following abilities are distinguished: the ability to isolate a problem, observation, the ability to formulate a question, sensitivity to paradoxes, the ability to put forward hypotheses (versions), mastery of the skills of setting up and conducting experiments, mastery of the conceptual apparatus , the ability to typologize, classify, differentiate, the ability to analyze data and facts, formulate inferences and conclusions, prove, defend and explain their ideas, etc. These universal human abilities help children in primary school to be active and independent in this world.

The effectiveness of research activities is directly related to the stability and development of the research personal position. A developed research position helps a person to successfully interact with subjective reality, the social environment and the changing realities of the outside world.

Note 8

A research position is not only something that becomes relevant in uncertain situations, but also something that gives a person the need to get into these situations and find them, and then consistently go through all the main stages of research activity.

Interest acts as an emotional and motivational basis for the manifestation of research behavior. Cognitive activity stimulates the emotion of interest, it also streamlines the processes of attention and perception. Interest can be activated through the presence of changes in context and situation, novelty, animate objects and through thinking and imagination.

Definition 5

Cognitive motive– this is the motivational basis for the manifestation of a research position and the motive for self-realization.

In the event that a person is driven by the motive of avoiding failure or achieving success, then it would be more correct to talk about the implementation of socially normalized activities, and not about the manifestation of a research position.

The research position is comprehensive description personality, the manifestation of which is possible in the following aspects:

• multiverse vision of the world;
• aptitude, that is, purposeful and conscious mastery of specific sociocultural ways of carrying out and developing research activities, and also voluntary mastery of special abilities that will be in demand and developed in the course of research activities;
• readiness for an exploratory response in non-standard situations;
• independence of judgment as the ability to go beyond the boundaries of stereotypes accepted in society;
• reflection as an opportunity to go beyond oneself and the situation.

Research teaching methods have been included in educational practice since primary school in recent years. These include all kinds of classes and trainings to discover and develop research abilities and special educational and research activities. Educational and research activity is understood as a creative process of joint activity between a student and a teacher to find the unknown, during which cultural values ​​are transmitted between them. The result of such work is the formation of a worldview.

The main task of the teacher is to create a hypothetical-projective model for creating a developmental environment for students. The teacher sets the conditions and forms for the implementation of research activities, which help to form the child’s internal motivation to approach every problem of everyday life and scientific plan from a creative, research position. From this we can conclude that the most significant task is to resolve the issue of ways to create internal motivation.

Note 9

Successful mastery of educational and research activities in primary school occurs due to the fact that the subject of research is understandable to the student, as concrete and tangible as possible, accessible to study and included in the field of his real interests. The research algorithm must be clearly stated using a method that is accessible and understandable to the student.

In his work, A. M. Matyushkin identified signs of the presence of research talent in a student:

• expresses thoughts accurately and clearly;
• it is easy to use and understand abstract concepts and symbols;
• seeks to understand the causes of events and phenomena and events that occur in the surrounding world; he likes to experiment with different materials, construction kits and objects;
• formulates his own projects, hypotheses, theories, uses graphs, diagrams, sketches;
• is not discouraged if his idea or project was not supported by adults.

Design

The word "project" comes from the word "problem". Problema (ancient Greek) – task, “something thrown forward”; something that has yet to be achieved. In Latin, projectus is fixed in the isolated and generalized sense of a project, preserving the ancient Greek mode of action - thrown forward. In Russian, the word appeared from French (and originally sounded like “project”) in the 18th century. It later came from German as the word "project". In the original understanding of the word and some of its subsequent transformations, N. G. Alekseev defines the following important features:

• reference to the distant or near future;
• as such, this future does not yet exist, but it is either undesirable or desirable;
• this future is visible in ideal terms.

Based on these features, design as a special pure and ideal type of activity can be defined as the process of thinking about what does not yet exist, but should or should not exist.

The project has the following typical stages:

• conceptualization - identifying the problem, selecting the design area;
• goal setting – setting tasks, goals, creating an ideal image of the result;
• resource provision - determining the necessary capabilities, resources, funds;
• planning – development of a detailed project implementation plan;
• implementation – implementation of operations and actions for implementation;
• reflection – summing up, recording the progress of implementation, negative and positive aspects, comparing the plan and the result.

Design in a primary school is quite accessible at a non-specific, tangible, local level. At the same time, projects that are implemented by students must be significant and in demand for the immediate environment and for the child himself. The student should not act as the executor of someone else’s plan, he should be the author of the plan, he should learn to actually implement his plan. The teacher, in turn, needs to arrange everything in such a way that this happens in ways that are incomprehensible to the younger student and in very specific examples.

Design and research have a similar implementation algorithm. However, they have significant differences in goal setting. In design, an image of the final result is assumed, and its implementation occurs in reality, while in research, actions begin with an understanding of the problematic issue and move along the path of searching for the unknown.

Full-fledged design and research include analysis of the results obtained, planning, goal setting, correction and control of actions, reflection on one’s activities, methods and means of its implementation, consequences and results of accompanying communications.

Note 10

Both project and research activities help develop in children of primary school age the ability to find, summarize, analyze and interpret the required information, present and transform it, critically comprehend and discuss.

Creation

Full development and education of the individual can occur without creativity, special type independent activity. Creativity plays an important role in personal development. The task of the school is to build a truly developing space around the student, where he can become the creator of some artistic reality and demonstrate his creative activity. Creativity requires a person not only to learn this or that activity, but also to go beyond its scope.

Any tracing or reproduction is detrimental to creativity, since it is impossible to teach a child to create according to a model or template. It is permissible to study and master the technique of a craft using a model; it is undoubtedly important for creative realization, but it is not it.

Definition 6

Creation- this is bringing something new into the world, something of our own, something that has not yet existed.

Often, it is in creativity that a person comes not from an external model, but from his own author’s message. However, this does not mean that you need to create your own creation in contrast to what existed before, it does not mean that you need to reject everything. Creativity does not destroy or deny, but creates. The main goal of creativity, which teachers should not forget about, lies in the process of creation itself, and not its final result. A creative child is completely devoted to this work and is passionate; it often does not matter to him how highly artistic the result of this work will be, the main thing is that the child can realize and reveal himself as a result of the creative process.

Creativity requires mastery and certain skills, a certain degree of freedom that knowledge gives. The learning process is as important as creativity for the development of personality, but it will only be productive if it is caused by the need for creative self-development of the child himself. Skills, knowledge and abilities provide a certain degree of freedom, but they are acquired and implemented only when there is a need to realize oneself in them.

Having started to study at school, the child becomes familiar with abstract concepts, numbers and their relationships, conventional signs and diagrams. For younger schoolchildren, it is very important to develop sensory experience, taking into account psychological characteristics their age. One-sided development impoverishes the child’s sensory sphere, his direct connection with the outside world, receptivity and sensitivity towards it and causes reasonable concern for medical workers and teachers. This problem, which is explained in terms of inter-hemispheric asymmetry, is exacerbated in the era of early enthusiasm for the computer, which displaces real sensory experience from the child’s everyday life and from school education. Rich artistic experience, acting as a counterbalance to “left-hemisphere” education, can preserve the integrity of a child’s mental development.

Note 11

For general development For primary school students, it is important to encourage their creative expressions by teachers, parents and teachers.

A. M. Matyushkin advised providing children with the following encouragement:

• encourage proactive independent creative work, research and teaching;
• formulation of problems and questions;
• originality of the work results;
• grace and clarity of expression of the results of work;
• using your own facts, illustrations and examples to express creative ideas.

The full development of a primary school student is possible only if he is included not only in educational activities, but also in design, research and creative activities.

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BRIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNING ACTIVITIES OF JUNIOR SCHOOL CHILDREN

Educational activities – a special form of student activity aimed at changing oneself as subject of teaching , as a result of which it begins to act as the immediate basis for its development .

By the time the child enters school is the subject various types of activities , and he develops a need to expand the sphere of realization of himself as a subject. However, he has no need for self-change , and even more so - aptitude for it . Both can arise, take shape and develop only in the process of schooling itself . Transformation baby in the subject interested in self-change and capable of it, constitutes main content of development schoolboy in progress primary education. Whether this opportunity is realized or not is another matter: a child can participate in the educational process as a subject only if he acquires the ability to independently find ways to solve the problems that arise before him. And such possibilities are determined by those conditions , which will be created during the learning process.

Let us briefly consider the components of educational activities

· The first component is motivation

Learning activity is multimotivated - it is stimulated and directed by different motives.

If motives , moving students adequate educational tasks , then his educational work becomes meaningful and effective.

named such motives educational and cognitive .

They are based on cognitive needs and the need for self-development. This is an interest in the content side of educational activity, in what is being studied, and interest in the process of activity - how, in what ways results are achieved, educational tasks are solved. The child must be motivated not only by the result, but also by the process of educational activity itself.

· Second component - learning task ,

that is, a system of tasks during which the child masters the most general methods of action.

Educational task must be distinguished from individual tasks . Usually, children, solving many specific tasks, spontaneously discover for themselves a general method of solving them, and this method turns out to be conscious to varying degrees in different children, and some students make mistakes when solving similar problems. Developmental education involves the joint “discovery” and formulation by children and the teacher of a common method for solving a whole class of problems. In this case, the general method is learned as a model and is more easily transferred to other tasks in the same class, educational work becomes productive, and errors do not occur as often and disappear faster.

· Third component - training activities and operations

These are specific actions that a child performs when solving particular problems (to check an unstressed vowel, wherever it is, first, you need to put an emphasis, find a weak position in the word, then work with the word so that the weak position is strong).

Each training operation must be practiced.

· The fourth component is control

Initially, the children's educational work is supervised by the teacher. But gradually they begin to control her themselves, learning this partly spontaneously, partly under the guidance of a teacher. Without self-control, it is impossible to fully develop educational activities, so teaching self-control is an important and complex pedagogical task. Teaching a child to control the very process of his work means promoting the formation of such a mental function as attention .

· Fifth component - grade .

The child, while controlling his work, must learn to evaluate it adequately. At the same time, a general assessment is also not enough - how correctly and efficiently the task was completed; you need to evaluate your actions - whether you have mastered the method of solving problems or not, what operations have not yet been worked out. Teacher evaluation must be meaningful.

Educational activity, having a complex structure, goes through a long process of development. Its development will continue throughout the years school life, but the foundations are laid in primary school, the specifics of educational activities qualitatively change the child, influence development of his higher mental functions, personal formations, arbitrary behavior .

BRIEF
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGHER MENTAL FUNCTIONS OF JUNIOR SCHOOLCHILDREN

At primary school age, great changes occur in the child’s cognitive sphere. Memory becomes more pronounced arbitrary . If in preschool age arbitrariness appears only in individual cases, then in school all activities by their nature are arbitrary .

Changes in the area memory associated with the fact that the child begins to realize the special mnemonic task , separates it from any other, there is an intensive formation of memorization techniques, from the most primitive (repetition and careful long-term examination of the material), to more complex ones - he moves on to grouping, understanding the connections between different parts of material .

In area perception there is a transition from involuntary perception to targeted random observation behind an object subordinate to a specific task. It is not enough to have visual educational material in the lesson, you need teach a child his see .

At this age the ability is formed concentrate attention on little interesting things.

Emotional experiences become more generalized.

The most significant changes are taking place in the area thinking , which acquires an abstract and generalized character. Educational activities contribute to the development of a child's cognitive abilities. The process of mastering a system of concepts, a system of sciences cannot be considered as a matter of memory alone. The child is required to develop mental operations ( analysis, synthesis, reasoning, comparison ). In the process of schooling, not only the assimilation of individual knowledge and skills occurs, but also their generalization and, at the same time, the formation intelligent operations. wrote: “awareness and volitionality enter consciousness through the gates of scientific concepts.”

Educational activities place great demands on all aspects of the child’s psyche. She contributes development of not only the cognitive, emotional and volitional sphere, but also a qualitative change in all personal formations of a junior schoolchild.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL SUPPORT AND ACCOMPANIMENT FOR STUDENTS AT SCHOOL No. 21.

The methodological theme of our school for the 2006-2007 academic year is: “Psychological and pedagogical support and accompaniment of students at school.” This topic provided an opportunity for many school teachers to reconsider their approaches to the educational process. The elementary school was actively involved in this work.

So in 2006 – 2007 academic year Lectures and seminars were planned on the following topics:

· Memory. Laws of memory, mechanisms of memory formation. Techniques for developing the memory of younger schoolchildren.

· Attention and its development in lessons and in extracurricular activities in children of primary school age.

· Thinking. Basic operations of thinking. Development of thinking in younger schoolchildren.

· Speech. Speech development in primary school age.

Each seminar lesson is accompanied by a psychological and pedagogical diagnosis of the level of development of the function being studied. The results of this work made it possible to timely adjust the curricula in order to introduce into the lesson work directly aimed at the development of the student’s mental capacity.

Final diagnostic studies will be carried out in May 2007, which will help identify development dynamics cognitive processes among junior school students, as well as the degree of active participation of teachers in this work.

Work on the implementation of the “Commonwealth” project (PPP) at school No. 21 in Ramenskoye is based on a system of principles:

PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL - PEDAGOGICAL SUPPORT AND SUPPORT (PPS)

I. THE PRINCIPLE OF PERSONAL GOAL SETTING OF THE STUDENT, that the education of each student occurs on the basis of and taking into account his personal educational goals.

II. THE PRINCIPLE OF CHOOSING AN INDIVIDUAL EDUCATIONAL TRAJECTORY, i.e. the student has the right to an informed choice of the main components of his education, agreed upon with teachers: the meaning, goals, personal content of education, a system for monitoring and evaluating results.

III. PRINCIPLE OF METASUBJECT FOUNDATIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS, (from the Greek meta meaning “standing behind”)

Cognition of real educational objects leads the student to go beyond ordinary academic subjects and move to the meta-subject level. At the meta-subject level, the variety of concepts is reduced to a relatively small number of fundamental educational objects - categories, concepts, symbols.

IV. THE PRINCIPLE OF PRODUCTIVE TEACHING, i.e. the main guideline for learning is the student’s personal educational increment, which consists of internal and external educational products of his educational activities .

Domestic - development of abilities, acquisition of skills, found original way of solving, reflection of judgments, formation of adequate self-esteem, etc.

External - creative works, projects, etc.

V. THE PRINCIPLE OF SITUATIONAL TRAINING

VI. THE PRINCIPLE OF THE PRIMARYITY OF THE STUDENT'S EDUCATIONAL PRODUCTION. The knowledge “open” to students should be ahead of the material being studied.

VII. THE PRINCIPLE OF EDUCATIONAL REFLECTION, i.e. the educational process is accompanied by a reflexive awareness of the methods of activity, the discovery of its semantic features, and the identification of educational increments of the student and teacher.

FORMS OF REFLECTION:

Oral discussion

Questionnaire

Graphic representation of changes

A student-centered approach involves learning as the cultivation of a student.

IFR and support involves ensuring the most comfortable conditions students’ stay at school, allowing to fully realize the student’s abilities and aspirations, stimulate the success of his activities, and form adequate self-esteem.

In recent years, teachers at our school have conducted a number of seminars