EntranceThe change in natural components with altitude is called. Natural complexes and natural areas
Zoning - changes in natural components and the natural complex as a whole from the equator to the poles. Zoning is based on the different supply of heat, light, and precipitation to the Earth, which, in turn, is already reflected in all other components, and above all, soils, vegetation and wildlife.
Zoning is characteristic of both land and the World Ocean.
The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones. The belts differ from each other primarily in temperature conditions.
The following geographical zones are distinguished: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subpolar, polar (Antarctic and Arctic).
Within the zones on land, natural zones are distinguished, each of which is characterized not only by the same type of temperature conditions and moisture, which leads to common vegetation, soils and fauna.
You are already familiar with the arctic desert zone, tundra, temperate forest zone, steppes, deserts, wet and dry subtropics, savannas, moist evergreen equatorial forests.
Within natural zones, transitional areas are distinguished. They are formed due to gradual changes in climatic conditions. Such transition zones include, for example, forest-tundra, forest-steppe and semi-deserts.
Zoning is not only latitudinal, but also vertical. Vertical zoning is a natural change in natural complexes in height and depth. For mountains, the main reason for this zonation is the change in temperature and amount of moisture with height, and for the depths of the ocean - heat and sunlight.
The change in natural zones depending on the height above sea level in mountainous areas is called, as you already know, altitudinal zone.
It differs from horizontal zoning in the length of the belts and the presence of a belt of alpine and subalpine meadows. The number of belts usually increases in high mountains and as it approaches the equator.
Natural areas
Natural areas- large subdivisions of the geographical envelope, having a certain combination of temperature conditions and moisture regime. They are classified mainly according to the predominant type of vegetation and change naturally on the plains from north to south, and in the mountains - from the foothills to the peaks. Natural zones of Russia are presented in Fig. 1.
The latitudinal distribution of natural zones on the plains is explained by the flow of unequal amounts of solar heat and moisture onto the earth's surface at different latitudes.
The resources of flora and fauna of natural zones are biological resources territories.
The set of altitudinal zones depends primarily on what latitude the mountains are located at and what their height is. It should also be noted that for the most part the boundaries between altitudinal zones are not clear.
Let us consider in more detail the features of the location of natural zones using the example of the territory of our country.
polar desert
The very north of our country - the islands of the Arctic Ocean - are located in a natural area polar (arctic) deserts. This zone is also called ice zone. The southern border approximately coincides with the 75th parallel. The natural zone is characterized by the dominance of Arctic air masses. Total solar radiation is 57-67 kcal/cm2 per year. Snow cover lasts 280-300 days a year.
In winter, the polar night dominates here, which is at a latitude of 75° N. w. lasts 98 days.
In summer, even round-the-clock lighting is not able to provide this area with enough heat. The air temperature rarely rises above 0 °C, and the average temperature in July is +5 °C. There may be drizzle for several days, but there are practically no thunderstorms or showers. But there are frequent fogs.
Rice. 1. Natural areas of Russia
A significant part of the territory is characterized by modern glaciation. There is no continuous vegetation cover. The glacial areas of land where vegetation develops are small areas. Mosses and crustose lichens “settle” on placers of pebbles, fragments of basalt and boulders. Occasionally there are poppies and saxifrages, which begin to bloom when the snow has barely melted.
The fauna of the Arctic desert is mainly represented by marine inhabitants. These are the harp seal, walrus, ringed seal, bearded seal, beluga whale, porpoise, and killer whale.
The species of baleen whales in the northern seas are diverse. Blue and bowhead whales, sei whales, fin whales, and humpback whales are rare and endangered species and are listed in the Red Book. The inner side of the long horny plates that replace whales' teeth is split into hairs. This allows the animals to filter large volumes of water, extracting plankton, which forms the basis of their diet.
The polar bear is also a typical representative of the animal world of the polar desert. The “maternity hospitals” of polar bears are located on Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, Fr. Wrangel.
In summer, numerous colonies of birds nest on the rocky islands: gulls, guillemots, guillemots, auks, etc.
There is practically no permanent population in the polar desert zone. The weather stations operating here monitor the weather and the movement of ice in the ocean. On the islands they hunt Arctic fox in winter and game birds in summer. Fishing is carried out in the waters of the Arctic Ocean.
Steppes
To the south of the forest-steppe zone there are steppes. They are distinguished by the absence of forest vegetation. The steppes stretch in a narrow continuous strip in the south of Russia from the western borders to Altai. Further to the east, steppe areas have a focal distribution.
The climate of the steppes is moderate continental, but drier than in the zone of forests and forest-steppes. The amount of annual total solar radiation reaches 120 kcal/cm2. The average January temperature in the sun is -2 °C, and in the east -20 °C and below. Summer in the steppe is sunny and hot. The average temperature in July is 22-23 °C. The sum of active temperatures is 3500 °C. Precipitation is 250-400 mm per year. In summer there are frequent showers. The humidification coefficient is less than one (from 0.6 in the north of the zone to 0.3 in the southern steppes). Stable snow cover lasts up to 150 days a year. In the west of the zone there are often thaws, so the snow cover there is thin and very unstable. The predominant soils of the steppes are chernozems.
Natural plant communities are predominantly represented by perennial, drought- and frost-resistant grasses with a strong root system. These are primarily cereals: feather grass, fescue, wheatgrass, snake grass, tonkonog, bluegrass. In addition to cereals, there are numerous representatives of forbs: astragalus, sage, cloves - and bulbous perennials, such as tulips.
The composition and structure of plant communities change significantly both in the latitudinal and meridional directions.
In the European steppes, the basis is made up of narrow-leaved grasses: feather grass, fescue, bluegrass, fescue, tonkonogo, etc. There are many brightly flowering forbs. In summer, feather grass sways like waves in the sea, and here and there you can see lilac irises. In the drier southern regions, in addition to cereals, wormwood, milkweed, and cinquefoil are common. There are many tulips in spring. Tansy and cereals predominate in the Asian part of the country.
Steppe landscapes are fundamentally different from forest ones, which determines the uniqueness of the animal world of this natural zone. Typical animals in this zone are rodents (the largest group) and ungulates.
Ungulates are adapted to long movements across the vast expanses of the steppes. Due to the thinness of the snow cover, plant food is also available in winter. Bulbs, tubers, and rhizomes play an important role in nutrition. For many animals, plants are also the main source of moisture. Typical representatives of ungulates in the steppes are aurochs, antelopes, and tarpans. However, most of these species were exterminated or pushed south as a result of human economic activity. In some areas, saigas, which were widespread in the past, have been preserved.
The most common rodents are the ground squirrel, the vole, the jerboa, etc.
Ferrets, badgers, weasels, and foxes also live in the steppe.
Among the birds typical of the steppes are the bustard, little bustard, gray partridge, steppe eagle, buzzard, and kestrel. However, these birds are now rare.
There are significantly more reptiles than in the forest zone. Among them we will highlight the steppe viper, snake, common grass snake, quick lizard, and copperhead.
The wealth of the steppes is fertile soils. The thickness of the humus layer of chernozems is more than 1 m. It is not surprising that this natural zone is almost completely developed by humans and natural steppe landscapes are preserved only in nature reserves. In addition to the high natural fertility of chernozems, agriculture is also facilitated by climatic conditions, favorable for gardening, cultivation of heat-loving grains (wheat, corn) and industrial crops (sugar beets, sunflowers). Due to insufficient precipitation and frequent droughts, irrigation systems were built in the steppe zone.
The steppes are a zone of developed livestock farming. Cattle, horses, and poultry are raised here. Conditions for the development of livestock farming are favorable due to the presence of natural pastures, feed grain, waste from processing sunflowers and sugar beets, etc.
Various industries are developed in the steppe zone: metallurgy, mechanical engineering, food, chemical, textile.
Semi-deserts and deserts
In the southeast of the Russian Plain and in the Caspian Lowland there are semi-deserts and deserts.
The total solar radiation here reaches 160 kcal/cm2. The climate is characterized by high air temperatures in summer (+22 - +24 °C) and low in winter (-25-30 °C). Because of this, there is a large annual temperature range. The sum of active temperatures is 3600 °C or more. In the semi-desert and desert zones there is a small amount of precipitation: an average of up to 200 mm per year. In this case, the humidification coefficient is 0.1-0.2.
Rivers located in semi-deserts and deserts are fed almost exclusively by spring melting snow. A significant part of them flows into lakes or is lost in the sands.
Typical soils in the semi-desert and desert zones are chestnut. The amount of humus in them decreases in the directions from north to south and from west to east (this is primarily due to a gradual increase in the sparseness of vegetation in these directions), therefore in the north and west the soils are dark chestnut, and in the south they are light chestnut ( the humus content in them is 2-3%). In depressions of the relief, the soils are saline. There are solonchaks and solonetzes - soils from the upper layers of which, due to leaching, a significant part of the easily soluble salts is carried into the lower horizons.
Plants in semi-deserts are usually low and drought-resistant. The semi-deserts of the south of the country are characterized by such plant species as tree and gnarled saltwort, camel thorn, and juzgun. At higher elevations, feather grass and fescue dominate.
Steppe grasses alternate with patches of wormwood and romance of yarrow.
The deserts of the southern part of the Caspian lowland are the kingdom of semi-shrub wormwood.
To live in conditions of lack of moisture and soil salinity, plants have developed a number of adaptations. Solyanka, for example, have hairs and scales that protect them from excessive evaporation and overheating. Others, such as tamarix and kermek, “acquired” special salt-removing glands to remove salts. In many species, the evaporative surface of the leaves has decreased and their pubescence has occurred.
The growing season for many desert plants is short. They manage to complete the entire development cycle during a favorable time of year - spring.
The fauna of semi-deserts and deserts is poor compared to the forest zone. The most common reptiles are lizards, snakes, and turtles. There are many rodents - gerbils, jerboas and poisonous arachnids - scorpions, tarantulas, karakurts. Birds - bustard, little bustard, lark - can be seen not only in the steppes, but also in semi-deserts. Of the largest mammals, we note the camel and saiga; there are corsac dogs and wolves.
A special area in the semi-desert and desert zone of Russia is the Volga delta and the Akhtuba floodplain. It can be called a green oasis in the middle of a semi-desert. This territory is distinguished by its thickets of reeds (it reaches a height of 4-5 m), shrubs and shrubs (including blackberries), intertwined with climbing plants (hops, bindweed). In the backwaters of the Volga delta there are a lot of algae and white water lilies (including the Caspian rose and water chestnut preserved from the pre-glacial period). Among these plants there are many birds, including herons, pelicans and even flamingos.
The traditional occupation of the population in the semi-desert and desert zones is cattle breeding: sheep, camels, and cattle are raised. As a result of overgrazing, the area of unconsolidated dispersed sand increases. One of the measures to combat the onset of the desert is phytomelioration - a set of measures for cultivating and maintaining natural vegetation. To secure dunes, plant species such as giant grass, Siberian wheatgrass, and saxaul can be used.
Tundra
Vast areas of the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kola Peninsula to the Chukotka Peninsula are occupied tundra. The southern border of its distribution is almost
e falls with the July isotherm of 10 °C. The southern border of the tundra has moved farthest north in Siberia - north of 72° N. On Far East the influence of cold seas has led to the fact that the tundra border reaches almost the latitude of St. Petersburg.
The tundra receives more heat than the polar desert zone. Total solar radiation is 70-80 kcal/cm2 per year. However, the climate here continues to be characterized by low air temperatures, short summers, and harsh winters. The average air temperature in January reaches -36 °C (in Siberia). Winter lasts 8-9 months. At this time of year, southern winds blowing from the mainland dominate here. Summer is characterized by an abundance of sunshine and unstable weather: strong northern winds often blow, bringing cold temperatures and precipitation (especially in the second half of summer there are often heavy drizzles). The sum of active temperatures is only 400-500 °C. The average annual precipitation reaches 400 mm. Snow cover lasts 200-270 days a year.
The predominant soil types in this zone are peat-bog and slightly podzolic. Due to the spread of permafrost, which has water-resistant properties, there are many swamps here.
Since the tundra zone has a significant extent from north to south, climatic conditions within its boundaries change noticeably: from severe in the north to more moderate in the south. In accordance with this, arctic, northern, also known as typical, and southern tundras are distinguished.
Arctic tundra occupy mainly the Arctic islands. The vegetation is dominated by mosses, lichens, and flowering plants, which are more numerous than in Arctic deserts. Flowering plants are represented by shrubs and perennial herbs. Polar and creeping willow, dryad (partridge grass) are widespread. Of the perennial grasses, the most common are polar poppy, small sedges, some grasses, and saxifrage.
Northern tundra distributed mainly on the mainland coast. Their important difference from the Arctic is the presence of closed vegetation cover. Mosses and lichens cover 90% of the soil surface. Green mosses and bushy lichens predominate, and moss is often found. The species composition of flowering plants is also becoming more diverse. There are saxifrage, saxifrage, and viviparous knotweed. Shrubs include lingonberry, blueberry, wild rosemary, crowberry, as well as dwarf birch (ernik) and willows.
IN southern tundras, as in the northern ones, the vegetation cover is continuous, but it can already be divided into tiers. The upper tier is formed by dwarf birch and willows. Middle - herbs and shrubs: crowberry, lingonberry, blueberry, wild rosemary, sedge, cloudberry, cotton grass, cereals. Lower - mosses and lichens.
The harsh climatic conditions of the tundra “forced” many plant species to “acquire” special adaptations. Thus, plants with creeping and creeping shoots and leaves collected in a rosette better “use” the warmer ground layer of air. Short stature helps to survive the harsh winter. Although the snow cover in the tundra is small due to strong winds, it is enough for shelter and survival.
Some devices “serve” plants in the summer. For example, cranberries, birchberries, and crowberries “fight” to retain moisture by “reducing” the size of the leaves as much as possible, thereby reducing the evaporating surface. In dryad and polar willow, the underside of the leaf is covered with dense pubescence, which impedes the movement of air and thereby reduces evaporation.
Almost all plants in the tundra are perennial. Some species are characterized by the so-called viviparity, when instead of fruits and seeds, the plant develops bulbs and nodules that quickly take root, which provides a “gain” in time.
Animals and birds that constantly live in the tundra have also adapted well to harsh natural conditions. They are saved by thick fur or fluffy plumage. In winter, animals are white or light gray in color, and in summer they are grayish-brown. This helps with camouflage.
Typical animals of the tundra are the Arctic fox, lemming, mountain hare, reindeer, white polar and tundra partridge, and polar owl. In summer, the abundance of food (fish, berries, insects) attracts birds such as waders, ducks, geese, etc. to this natural area.
The tundra has a fairly low population density. The indigenous peoples here are the Sami, Nenets, Yakuts, Chukchi, etc. They are mainly engaged in reindeer herding. Mining of minerals is actively carried out: apatites, nephelines, non-ferrous metal ores, gold, etc.
Railroad communication in the tundra is poorly developed, and permafrost is an obstacle to road construction.
Forest-tundra
Forest-tundra- transitional zone from tundra to taiga. It is characterized by alternating areas occupied by forest and tundra vegetation.
The forest-tundra climate is close to the tundra climate. The main difference: the summer here is warmer - the average July temperature is + 11 (+14) ° C - and long, but the winter is colder: the influence of the winds blowing from the mainland is felt.
The trees in this zone are stunted and bent to the ground, with a twisted appearance. This is due to the fact that permafrost and swampy soil prevent plants from having deep roots, and strong winds bend them to the ground.
In the forest-tundra of the European part of Russia, spruce predominates, pine is less common. Larch is common in the Asian part. The trees grow slowly, their height usually does not exceed 7-8 m. Due to strong winds, a flag-shaped crown shape is common.
The few animals that remain in the forest-tundra for the winter are perfectly adapted to the local conditions. Lemmings, voles, and tundra partridge make long passages in the snow, feeding on the leaves and stems of evergreen tundra plants. With an abundance of food, lemmings even give birth to offspring at this time of year.
Through small forests and thickets of bushes along the rivers, animals from the forest zone enter the southern regions: white hare, brown bear, white partridge. There are wolves, foxes, ermines, and weasels. Small insectivorous birds fly in.
Subtropics
This zone, occupying the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, is characterized by the smallest length and area in Russia.
The amount of total solar radiation reaches 130 kcal/cm2 per year. Summer is long, winter is warm (average temperature in January is 0 °C). The sum of active temperatures is 3500-4000 °C. Under these conditions, many plants can grow all year round. In the foothills and mountain slopes, 1000 mm or more of precipitation falls per year. In flat areas, snow cover practically does not form.
Fertile red earth and yellow earth soils are widespread.
Subtropical vegetation is rich and varied. The flora is represented by evergreen hard-leaved trees and shrubs, including boxwood, laurel, and cherry laurel. Forests of oak, beech, hornbeam, and maple are common. The thickets of trees are intertwined with liana, ivy, and wild grapes. There are bamboo, palm trees, cypress, eucalyptus.
Among the representatives of the animal world, we note chamois, deer, wild boar, bear, pine and stone marten, and Caucasian black grouse.
The abundance of heat and moisture makes it possible to grow subtropical crops such as tea, tangerines, and lemons here. Significant areas are occupied by vineyards and tobacco plantations.
Favorable climatic conditions, proximity to the sea and mountains make this area a major recreational area of our country. There are numerous tourist centers, holiday homes, and sanatoriums here.
The tropical zone contains rainforests, savannas and woodlands, and deserts.
Largely plowed tropical rain forests(South Florida, Central America, Madagascar, Eastern Australia). They are used, as a rule, for plantations (see atlas map).
The subequatorial belt is represented by forests and savannas.
Subequatorial rain forests located primarily in the Ganges Valley, southern Central Africa, the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea, northern South America, northern Australia and the islands of Oceania. In drier areas they are replaced savannah(Southeastern Brazil, Central and Eastern Africa, central regions of Northern Australia, Hindustan and Indochina). Typical representatives of the animal world of the subequatorial belt are ruminant artiodactyls, predators, rodents, and termites.
At the equator, the abundance of precipitation and high temperatures determined the presence of a zone here evergreen moist forests(Amazon and Congo basin, on the islands of Southeast Asia). The natural zone of evergreen moist forests holds the world record for the diversity of animal and plant species.
The same natural areas are found on different continents, but they have their own characteristics. First of all, we are talking about plants and animals that have adapted to exist in these natural areas.
The natural zone of the subtropics is widely represented on the Mediterranean coast, the southern coast of Crimea, the southeastern United States and other regions of the Earth.
Western Hindustan, Eastern Australia, the Parana Basin in South America and South Africa are areas of more arid tropical savannas and woodlands. The most extensive natural area of the tropical belt - desert(Sahara, Arabian desert, deserts Central Australia, California, as well as the Kalahari, Namib, Atacama). Vast areas of pebble, sand, rocky and salt marsh surfaces are devoid of vegetation. The fauna is small.
A. Ural
B. Syrdarya
V. Amudarya
G. Volga
D. Or
2. The change in natural components with height is called:
A. Altitudinal zone
B. Natural belt
B. geographical envelope
G. latitudinal zonation
D. climate zone
3. There are about 150 volcanoes on these islands, 40 of them are active:
A. British
B. Antilles
V. Bahamas
G. Philippine
D.Japanese
4. As a result of mixed marriages of blacks and Indians, a new population of America was formed:
A. Metis
B. Mulatto
B. Caribbean
G. Sambo
D. Iroquois
5. A group of people united on the basis of common origin and external hereditary physical characteristics:
A. Tribe
B. Population
B. Race
G. People
D. Humanity
6. The highest amounts fall in Australia:
A. In the center
B. In the east
V. In the west
G.In the north
D. in the south
7. The largest island in the world:
A. Greenland
B. New Zealand
V. Kyushu
G. Madagascar
D. Iceland
8. The largest lake in the world:
A. Sarezskoe
B.Baikal
V. Krasnoe
G. Balkhash
D. Kaspiyskoe
A. Tonga
B. Mariansky
V. Kermadek
G. Antibes
D. Rondysh
10. The platform is...
B) folded mountain regions
B) intermontane depression
11. The coldest and most powerful current:
A) Current of westerly winds
B) Peruvian
B) Kuroshio
D) North Atlantic
D) Gulf Stream
12. The zone of solar illumination that receives the greatest amount of heat,
A) northern temperate
B) southern temperate
B) hot
D) south polar
D) north polar
13. English scientist who discovered Lake Tanganyika and Victoria Falls:
A) A. Humboldt
B) D. Levingston
B) F. Drake
D) N. Vavilov
D) P. Semenov
14. Mountains called “copper” by the ancient Incas:
A) Appalachia
B) Atlas
B) Draconian
D) Cordillera
D) Andes
15. The state coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia depicts:
A) Kangaroo and Emu
B) Platypus
c) Dingo dog
d) Echidna
d) Koala
16. The freshest ocean:
A) Quiet
B) Atlantic
B) Indian
D) Arctic
17. In which climate zone is there a change of four climatic seasons of the year?
A) tropical
B) subtropical
B) moderate
D) equatorial
D) subequatorial
18. Parallel, south of which there is no polar night or polar day (in the northern hemisphere):
A) northern tropic
B) southern tropic
B) the Arctic Circle
D) the southern polar circle
D) equator
19. The cold Peruvian Current influences the desert climate:
A) Sugar
B) Washed up
B) Victoria
D) Atacama
D) Gobi
20. Match:
Mainland
A. Africa
B. Australia
B. South America
G. North America
D. Antarctica
E. Eurasia
Peculiarities
Intersected almost in the middle by the equator
Largest continent by area
Discovered by the Dutch in XVIIV.
The largest river in terms of basin area and the most abundant river on Earth flows
Is the south polar region globe
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Aztec and Mayan tribes lived in the south, who were engaged in agriculture, knew how to process metals, build large houses from stone, and had their own written language.
Option 2
Choose one correct answer.
Wave generated by an earthquake in the ocean:
A) Typhoon
B) Tsunami
B) Tornado
D) Hurricane
D) Breeze
2. Latitudes within which ice forms on the ocean surface:
A) subtropical
B) tropical
B) equatorial
D) arctic
D) subequatorial
3. The largest state in South America:
A) Bolivia
B) Argentina
B) Brazil
D) Venezuela
D) Chile
4. Natural area with well-developed herbaceous and cereal vegetation:
A) semi-desert
B) taiga
B) steppe
D) mixed forest
D) humid subtropics
5. River flowing in North America:
A) Nile B) Amazon D) Yellow River
B) Danube D) Mackenzie
6. Main climatic characteristics of savannas:
A) large amplitude of annual temperatures
B) dry and hot throughout the year
IN) strong winds and few sunny days
D) change of dry and wet seasons of the year
D) a large amount of precipitation per year
7. The formation of natural zones on land is due to:
A) the ratio of flat and mountainous areas
B) the relationship between flora and fauna
C) the degree of human development of the territory
D) climate, i.e. the ratio of heat and moisture
D) the state of the World Ocean and water surface
8. In people of the equatorial race:
A) dark skin color
B) light skin color
B) yellowish skin color
D) blond straight hair
D) narrow eye shape
9. On the coasts of Antarctica live:
A) Partridges
B) Polar bears
B) Polar owls
D) Penguins
D) Arctic foxes
10. Discovered America:
A) Socrates
B) Archimedes
B) Plato
D) Columbus
D) Beheim
11. The last continent to be discovered was:
A) Antarctica
B) Africa
B) North America
D) Australia
D) South America
12. A huge influence, often negative, on the development of the geographical envelope has
A) human society
B) volcanic eruption
IN) animal world
D) vegetation
A) in subtropical latitudes
B) at the equator
B) in temperate latitudes
D) in the tropics
D) in the subtropics
A) Himalayas
B) Andes
B) Pamir
D) Tien Shan
D) Ural
15. The geographical envelope is formed:
A) lithosphere
B) hydrosphere, biosphere, upper part of the lithosphere and lower part of the atmosphere
B) hydrosphere
D) atmosphere
D) biosphere
16. Part of the geographical envelope populated and modified by organisms is
A) lithosphere
B) stratosphere
B) hydrosphere
D) biosphere
D) atmosphere
A) McKinley
B) Kilimanjaro
B) Mont Blanc
D) Fujiyama
D) Chomolungma
18. Specify the country of North America:
A) India
B) Brazil
B) Canada
D) Italy
D) Argentina
19. The highest waterfall on the globe:
A) Niagara
B) Victoria
B) Kalambo
D) Angel
D) Yellowstone
20. Match:
Mainland
A. Africa
B. Australia
B. South America
G. North America
D. Antarctica
E. Eurasia
Peculiarities
Driest continent
Opened by a special equipped domestic expedition on the ships “Vostok” and “Mirny”
Location of the Great Lakes
The highest mountain lake in the world is located
Has a slightly indented coastline
The largest on Earth.
Final knowledge control for 7th grade
Option 3
1. The lowest temperatures are observed in the area
A) poles
B) temperate latitudes
B) the equator
D) tropics
D) coastal zone
2. The largest state in South America:
A) Bolivia
B) Argentina
B) Brazil
D) Venezuela
D) Chile
3. Natural area with well-developed herbaceous and cereal vegetation:
A) semi-desert
B) taiga
B) steppe
D) mixed forest
D) humid subtropics
4. Name on which maps you can see the dependence of the relief on the structural features earth's crust:
A) on a physical map and a geological map
B) on a geological map and a map of natural areas
B) on a physical map and a climate map
D) on the map “Structure of the Earth’s Crust” and the map of natural zones
D) on the physical map and the “Structure of the Earth’s Crust” map
5. The strait separating Europe and Africa:
A) Drake
B) Magellanic
B) Gibraltar
D) Beringov
D) Mozambican
6. In people of the equatorial race:
A) dark skin color
B) light skin color
B) yellowish skin color
D) blond straight hair
D) narrow eye shape
7. The geographical envelope is formed:
A) biosphere
B) Lithosphere
D) Atmosphere
B) hydrosphere
8. the main objective creation of nature reserves :
A) cultural
B) tourist
D) medicinal
9. The main climate-forming factors are:
A) air masses, precipitation regime, lithospheric plates
B) geographic latitude, movement of air masses and underlying surface
C) the influence of oceans, earthquakes and volcanoes, ice sheets
D) permafrost, mountains and plains
D) influx of solar heat, temperature conditions, movement of air masses
10. Sandstorms in the Sahara:
A) Samum
B) Pune
B) Salari
D) Llanos
D) Campos
11. The alternation of natural zones on the plains is called:
A) altitudinal zone
B) anthropogenic complex
B) geographic envelope
D) landscape
12. States are depicted on ... map:
A) climatic
B) topographical
B) natural areas
D) political
D) physical
13. Least precipitation falls:
A) in subtropical latitudes
B) at the equator
B) in temperate latitudes
D) in the tropics
D) in the subtropics
14. Natural area in which the temperature is uniform throughout the year, at night above + 10 0 C, precipitation falls regularly, fever is common .
A) mixed forest
B) equatorial forest
B) steppe
D) tundra
D) altitudinal zone
15. What determines the diversity of natural areas on land:
A) the influence of currents
B) the ratio of heat and moisture
C) the influence of geographical objects
D) the influence of the oceans
16. The oldest continent that unites all the southern continents is called
A) Antarctica
B) Laurasia
B) Gondwana
D) Atlantis
D) Pangea
17. The change in natural zones when moving from the equator to the poles is called:
A) natural-territorial complex
B) altitudinal zone
B) continental
D) biocenosis
D) latitudinal zonation
18.What does not affect the formation of the geographical envelope:
A) vegetation
B) soil
B) solar radiation
D) water
D) wind
19. The greatest desert on Earth:
A) Tar
B) Sugar
B) Kyzylkum
D) Namib
D) Karakum
20. Match:
Mainland
A. Africa
B. Australia
B. South America
G. North America
D. Antarctica
E. Eurasia
Peculiarities
The wettest continent
It has been systematically studied since the International Geophysical Year.
The only one without active volcanoes and modern glaciation.
From the east it is washed by the saltiest sea in the world.
Washed by four oceans.
In the east, ancient, very destroyed mountains drop off in ledges towards the Atlantic lowland.
Final knowledge control for 7th grade
Option 4
1. The largest state in South America: A) Bolivia B) Argentina C) Brazil D) Venezuela
D) Chile
2. Main river of South America:
A) Amazon
B) Neil
B) Murray
3. The warmest climate zone in Africa : A) Antarctic B) temperate C) equatorial
4. The first circumnavigation of the world was made by: A) F. Magellan, B) Przhevalsky F.F.C) M. Lazarev
5. Plants grow in the shroud: A) mostly herbaceous plants B) many trees and almost no grass C) only shrubs
6. The main climate-forming factors are: A) air masses, precipitation regime, lithospheric plates B) geographic latitude, movement of air masses and underlying surface C) influence of oceans, earthquakes and volcanoes, ice cover D) permafrost, mountains and plains E) solar heat influx, temperature regime, movement air masses
7 . Least precipitation occurs:
A) in subtropical latitudes
B) at the equator
B) in temperate latitudes
D) in the tropics
D) in the subtropics
8. In which climate zone is there a change of four climatic seasons of the year?
A) tropical
B) subtropical
B) moderate
D) equatorial
D) subequatorial
9. The deepest part of the World Ocean:
A). Tonga
B.) Marian
IN). Kermadec
G). Antibes
D). Rondysh
10. The strait separating Europe and Africa:
A) Drake
B) Magellanic
B) Gibraltar
D) Beringov
D) Mozambican
eleven . The main purpose of creating reserves :
A) cultural
B) preservation of natural landscapes
B) tourist
D) economic use natural resources
D) medicinal
12. In Australia, representatives of the animal world are distinguished by the fact that most of them
:
A) predators B) marsupials C) amphibians
13. The largest island in the world: A). Greenland B).New Zealand C). Kyushu G). Madagascar
14 . The geographical envelope is formed:
A) biosphere
B) Lithosphere
D) Atmosphere
B) hydrosphere
D) Hydrosphere, biosphere, upper part of the lithosphere and lower part of the atmosphere
15 . The platform is...
A) stable areas of the earth's crust.
B) folded mountain regions
B) intermontane depression
D) raised leveled areas
D) A basin filled with water
16. The highest point on land is Mt.
A) McKinley
B) Kilimanjaro
B) Mont Blanc
D) Fujiyama
D) Chomolungma
17. On the coasts of Antarctica live: A) Partridges B) Polar bears C) Polar owls
D) Penguins
18. On the continent of Africa, the population of the race predominates: A) Negroid B) Caucasoid C) no permanent population
19 . In which climate zone is there a change of four climatic seasons of the year?
A) tropical
B) subtropical
B) moderate
D) equatorial
D) subequatorial
20. Match:
Mainland
A. Africa
B. Australia
B. South America
G. North America
D. Antarctica
E. Eurasia
Peculiarities
1.The wettest continent
2. It has been systematically studied since the International Geophysical Year.
3.The only one without active volcanoes and modern glaciation.
4. The north is washed by the Mediterranean Sea
5.Washed by four oceans.
6. In the east, ancient, very destroyed mountains break off in ledges towards the Atlantic lowland.
The concept of a natural complex
The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical shell of our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographic envelope is divided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographic landscapes).
A natural complex is a territory that is homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a uniform soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis (a combination of microorganisms and characteristic animals). In a natural complex, the interaction and metabolism between its components are also of the same type. The interaction of components ultimately leads to the formation of specific natural complexes.
The level of interaction of components within a natural complex is determined primarily by the amount and rhythms of solar energy (solar radiation). Knowing the quantitative expression of the energy potential of a natural complex and its rhythm, modern geographers can determine the annual productivity of its natural resources and the optimal timing of their renewability. This allows us to objectively predict the use of natural resources of natural-territorial complexes (NTC) in the interests of human economic activity.
Currently, most of the natural complexes of the Earth have been changed to one degree or another by man, or even re-created by him on a natural basis. For example, oases in the desert, reservoirs, agricultural plantations. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic. According to their purpose, anthropogenic complexes can be industrial, agricultural, urban, etc. According to the degree of change by human economic activity - in comparison with the original natural state, they are divided into slightly changed, changed and strongly changed.
Natural complexes can be of different sizes—of different ranks, as scientists say. The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents there are physical-geographical countries - natural complexes of the third level. Such, for example, as the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Amazon Lowland, the Sahara Desert and others. Well-known natural zones can serve as examples of natural complexes: tundra, taiga, temperate forests, steppes, deserts, etc. The smallest natural complexes (terrains, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, individual hills, their slopes; or a low-lying river valley and its individual sections: bed, floodplain, above-floodplain terraces. It is interesting that the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even natural complexes of significant size retain the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical-geographical processes. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland is noticeably different from the Andes adjacent to the west, an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse the Karakum (temperate zone deserts) with the Sahara (tropical deserts), etc.
Thus, the entire geographical envelope of our planet consists of a complex mosaic of natural complexes of different ranks. Natural complexes formed on land are now called natural-territorial complexes (NTC); formed in the ocean and other body of water (lake, river) - natural aquatic (NAC); natural-anthropogenic landscapes (NAL) are created by human economic activity on a natural basis.
Geographical envelope - the largest natural complex
The geographic envelope is a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, which includes, in a vertical section, the upper part of the earth's crust (lithosphere), the lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere of our planet. What unites, at first glance, disparate components of the natural environment into a single material system? It is within the geographic envelope that a continuous exchange of matter and energy occurs, a complex interaction between the indicated component shells of the Earth.
The boundaries of the geographical envelope are still not clearly defined. Scientists usually take the ozone screen in the atmosphere as its upper limit, beyond which life on our planet does not extend. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth’s crust, which was formed under the strong combined influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. The entire thickness of the waters of the World Ocean is inhabited, therefore, if we talk about the lower boundary of the geographical envelope in the ocean, then it should be drawn along the ocean floor. In general, the geographic shell of our planet has a total thickness of about 30 km.
As we can see, the geographical envelope coincides in volume and territorially with the distribution of living organisms on Earth. However, there is still no single point of view regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographical envelope. Some scientists believe that the concepts of “geographical envelope” and “biosphere” are very close, even identical, and these terms are synonyms. Other researchers consider the biosphere only as a certain stage in the development of the geographic envelope. In this case, three stages are distinguished in the history of the development of the geographical envelope: prebiogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (modern). The biosphere, according to this point of view, corresponds to the biogenic stage of the development of our planet. According to others, the terms “geographical envelope” and “biosphere” are not identical, since they reflect different qualitative essences. The concept of “biosphere” focuses on the active and determining role of living matter in the development of the geographical envelope.
Which point of view should you prefer? It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished, first of all, by the great diversity of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through general (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To know the patterns of development of this unified system- one of the most important tasks of modern geographical science.
Thus, the integrity of the geographical envelope is the most important pattern, on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management is based. Taking this pattern into account makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in the others); give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.
The geographic envelope is also characterized by another characteristic pattern - the rhythm of development, i.e. recurrence of certain phenomena over time. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-century and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as is known, is determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, air pressure and humidity, cloudiness, and wind strength; in the phenomena of ebb and flow in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.
The annual rhythm is the result of the movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. These are the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. It is interesting that different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial belt.
Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than the daily and annual rhythms.
Natural zones of the globe, their brief characteristics
The great Russian scientist V.V. At the end of the last century, Dokuchaev substantiated the planetary law of geographic zoning - a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation. Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, the law of geographic zonation is subject to weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes; zonal climate, surface waters of land and ocean, soil cover, vegetation and fauna.
The largest zonal divisions of the geographic envelope are geographic zones. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographical zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as common features atmospheric circulation. On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:
- equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres; - subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere; - subantarctic and Antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere. Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean. The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.
The geographic envelope is not tripled equally everywhere; it has a “mosaic” structure and consists of individual natural complexes (landscapes).
Natural complex (page 1 of 2)
The natural complex is part earth's surface with relatively homogeneous natural conditions: climate, topography, soils, waters, flora and fauna.
Each natural complex consists of components between which there are close, historically established relationships, and a change in one of the components sooner or later leads to a change in the others.
Due to the uneven supply of solar heat to the earth's surface, the geographical envelope is very diverse. Near the equator, for example, where there is a lot of heat and moisture, nature is distinguished by the richness of living organisms, faster-moving natural processes, in the polar regions, on the contrary, slow-flowing processes and poverty of life.
At the same latitudes, nature can also be different. It depends on the terrain and distance from the ocean.
Therefore, the geographic envelope can be divided into areas, territories, or natural-territorial complexes of different sizes (abbreviated as natural complexes, or PC). The formation of any natural complex took a long time. On land, it was carried out under the influence of the interaction of natural components: rocks, climate, air masses, water, plants, animals, soils.
All components in the natural complex, as in the geographical shell, are intertwined with each other and form an integral natural complex; metabolism and energy also occur in it. A natural complex is a section of the earth's surface that is distinguished by the characteristics of natural components that are in complex interaction.
Each natural complex has more or less clearly defined boundaries and has a natural unity, manifested in its external appearance (for example, a forest, a swamp, a mountain range, a lake, etc.).
Natural complexes experience enormous human influence. Many of them have already been greatly changed by centuries of human activity. Man has created new natural complexes: fields, gardens, cities, parks, etc. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic (from the Greek.
"anthropos" - man - approx. from biofile.ru).
On land there is a huge variety of natural complexes. To verify this, it is enough to travel along the meridian from one geographic pole to another. Here are presented such dissimilar natural complexes as polar deserts, temperate steppes, and tropical forests.
It can be noted that in the direction from the poles to the equator, a pattern called latitudinal zonality, or latitudinal zonality, is observed in the change of natural complexes.
The diversity of natural complexes within natural zones is primarily due to the influence of relief. In the mountains, there is a natural change in natural complexes with altitude - their altitudinal zonation. Its main reason is changes in temperature and precipitation depending on altitude and the altitudinal zonation of the climate.
The higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the larger and more diverse the set of altitudinal zones, the more complex the natural altitudinal zones. However, the daily and annual rhythm of changes occurring in natural complexes in connection with the change of day and night and the change of seasons is the same in all altitudinal zones: it is the same as in the latitudinal zone at the foot of the mountains.
Each natural complex, regardless of its size, is a single whole.
Therefore, when one of its components changes, all the others must change, and, consequently, the entire complex. These changes may occur at different speeds and on different scales, but they are inevitable. Since the geographic envelope is unified, changes caused by one or another reason in one place over time affect the entire envelope as a whole.
Natural changes in the geographical environment have always occurred. Without this it is impossible to imagine its development. But with the growth of the Earth's population and the development of society, the natural course of processes occurring in natural complexes is increasingly disrupted, becomes different and increasingly causes undesirable consequences.
People cannot help but change the geographical environment. Nature is the only source of their existence, and the more attentive and careful they need to be about the use of its wealth and resources. The correct use of natural resources requires a good knowledge of the relationship and interdependence of all components of the natural complex, a deep understanding of their unity. Without appropriate knowledge, restoration and improvement are impossible natural conditions.
Geography
Textbook for 7th grade
§ 14. Natural complexes of land and ocean
- Name several natural complexes in your area. Briefly describe one of them and indicate the relationships between the components.
- From natural history and biology courses, remember how soils are formed and what kind of soils you know.
Natural sushi complexes. The geographical envelope, being integral, is heterogeneous at different latitudes, on land and in the ocean.
Due to the uneven supply of solar heat to the earth's surface, the geographical envelope is very diverse.
How natural complexes change
Near the equator, for example, where there is a lot of heat and moisture, nature is distinguished by the richness of living organisms, faster-moving natural processes, in the polar regions, on the contrary, slow-flowing processes and poverty of life. At the same latitudes, nature can also be different. It depends on the terrain, on the distance from the ocean.
Therefore, the geographic envelope can be divided into areas, territories, or natural-territorial complexes of different sizes (abbreviated as natural complexes, or PC).
The formation of any natural complex took a long time. On land, it was carried out under the influence of the interaction of natural components: rocks, climate, air masses, water, plants, animals, soils (Fig. 32). All components in the natural complex, as in the geographical shell, are intertwined with each other and form an integral natural complex; metabolism and energy also occur in it.
A natural complex is a section of the earth's surface that is distinguished by the characteristics of natural components that are in complex interaction. Each natural complex has more or less clearly defined boundaries and has a natural unity, manifested in its external appearance (for example, a forest, a swamp, a mountain range, a lake, etc.).
Rice. 32. Relationships between the components of the natural complex
Natural complexes of the ocean, unlike land, consist of the following components: water with gases dissolved in it, plants and animals, rocks and bottom topography.
In the World Ocean there are large natural complexes - individual oceans, smaller ones - seas, bays, straits, etc. In addition, natural complexes are distinguished in the ocean surface layers water, various layers of water and the ocean floor.
Variety of natural complexes. Natural complexes come in different sizes. They also differ in education. Very large natural complexes are continents and oceans. Their formation is determined by the structure of the earth's crust.
On continents and oceans, smaller complexes are distinguished - parts of continents and oceans. Depending on the amount of solar heat, i.e. on geographic latitude, there are natural complexes of equatorial forests, tropical deserts, taiga, etc. Examples of small ones include, for example, a ravine, lake, river valley, sea bay. And the largest natural complex of the Earth is the geographical envelope.
All natural complexes experience enormous human influence.
Many of them have already been greatly changed by centuries of human activity. Man has created new natural complexes: fields, gardens, cities, parks, etc. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic (from the Greek “anthropos” - man).
- Using the text of the textbook, write down the components of the geographical shell in the left column of your notebook, the components of the natural complexes of the land in the middle column, and the components of the natural complexes of the ocean in the right column. What do the components of each natural complex have in common?
- What is a natural complex?
- How do natural complexes differ?
Natural area as a natural complex
The geographical envelope is not tripled equally everywhere, it has
"mosaic" structure and consists of individual natural complexes
(landscapes).
A natural complex is a part of the earth’s surface with relatively homogeneous natural conditions: climate, topography, soils, waters, flora and fauna.
Each natural complex consists of components between which there are close, historically established relationships, and a change in one of the components sooner or later leads to a change in the others.
The largest planetary natural complex is
geographical envelope, it is divided into natural complexes of a smaller rank.
The division of the geographical envelope into natural complexes is due to two reasons: on the one hand, differences in the structure of the earth's crust and the heterogeneity of the earth's surface, and on the other, the unequal amount of solar heat received by its different parts. In accordance with this, zonal and azonal natural complexes are distinguished.
The largest azonal natural complexes are continents and oceans.
Smaller - mountainous and flat areas within the continents ( West Siberian Plain, Caucasus, Andes, Amazonian lowland). The latter are divided into even smaller natural complexes (Northern, Central, Southern Andes).
Natural complexes of the lowest rank include individual hills, river valleys, their slopes, etc.
The largest of the zonal natural complexes are geographical zones. They coincide with climatic zones and have the same names (equatorial, tropical, etc.).
In turn, geographical zones consist of natural zones, which are distinguished by the ratio of heat and moisture.
Natural area is a large area of land with similar natural components - soils, vegetation, wildlife, which are formed depending on the combination of heat and moisture.
The main component of a natural area is climate, since all other components depend on it.
Vegetation has a great influence on the formation of soils and fauna and is itself dependent on soils. Natural zones are named according to the nature of their vegetation, since it most obviously reflects other features of nature.
The climate naturally changes as it moves from the equator to the poles. Soil, vegetation and fauna are determined by climate.
This means that these components should change latitudinally, following climate change. The natural change of natural zones when moving from the equator to the poles is called latitudinal zonality. At the equator there are humid equatorial forests, and at the poles there are icy arctic deserts.
Between them are other types of forests, savannas, deserts, and tundra. Forest zones, as a rule, are located in areas where the ratio of heat and moisture is balanced (equatorial and most of the temperate zone, eastern coasts of continents in the tropical and subtropical zone). Treeless zones form where there is a lack of heat (tundra) or moisture (steppes, deserts). These are continental regions of the tropical and temperate zones, as well as the subarctic climate zone.
The climate changes not only in latitude, but also due to changes in altitude.
As you go up the mountains, the temperature drops. Up to an altitude of 2000-3000 m, the amount of precipitation increases. A change in the ratio of heat and moisture causes a change in soil and vegetation cover. Thus, different natural zones are located in the mountains at different altitudes.
This pattern is called altitudinal zone.
The change in altitudinal zones in the mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains, when moving from the equator to the poles. At the foot of the mountains there is a natural area in which they are located. The number of altitudinal zones is determined by the height of the mountains and their geographical location.
The higher the mountains, and the closer they are located to the equator, the more diverse the set of altitudinal zones. Vertical zonality is most fully expressed in the Northern Andes. In the foothills there are moist equatorial forests, then there is a belt of mountain forests, and even higher - thickets of bamboo and tree ferns.
With an increase in altitude and a decrease in average annual temperatures, coniferous forests appear, which are replaced by mountain meadows, often turning into rocky areas covered with moss and lichens.
The peaks of the mountains are crowned with snow and glaciers.
Ice zone
Ice zone occupies the very north of our country and includes the Arctic Ocean and islands. Its southern border runs approximately along the parallel of 71° N. w. The northern position determines the severity of the natural conditions of the zone; ice and snow cover lies here almost throughout the year.
Seasons in the ice zone they are very peculiar.
in winter The polar night prevails, which is at a latitude of 75° N. w. lasts 98 days, at latitude 80° - 127 days, and in the pole area - six months. At this time, auroras often flash in the sky.
At times they illuminate the sky for several days, but more often the radiance lasts an hour and a half.
Summer characterized by bright round-the-clock lighting, but lack of heat. The air temperature remains very low in summer and rarely rises above 0°.
the average temperature of the warmest month does not exceed +5°C. The sky is sometimes overcast with gray low clouds, and for several days there is drizzling rain, turning into snow. Fogs are frequent. There are almost no thunderstorms or showers. Despite the cold summer, the snow cover in open areas melts and the surface soil thaws. Before the snow has melted, arctic plants begin to turn green and bloom on the islands: poppies and saxifrage. Bright flowers next to snow are a common summer sight.
Appear in summer animals, which are almost invisible in winter: polar bear, arctic fox, pied, as well as birds arriving from the south: gulls, guillemots, guillemots, auks, etc.
Many birds They make nests on coastal rocks and form so-called bird colonies.
Can not understand anything?
Summer is short. In August, the temperature already drops below 0°, the frosts intensify, and snow covers the ground with a continuous blanket. In spring and autumn, for some time there is a change of day and night during the day.
Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered with floating ice throughout the year.
The thickness of first-year ice reaches 1.8 m, multi-year ice - 3-4 m, hummocky ice - up to 20-25 m.
There is almost no permanent population in the ice zone. Weather stations have been built on the islands and the mainland to monitor the weather and ice movement. Observational data is transmitted to Moscow, to the hydrometeorological center, where they are processed and plotted on special maps.
In the central part of the Arctic Ocean, “North Pole” stations are set up, drifting on ice fields.
Winterers at these stations study the condition of the ice, take measurements of the seabed, establish the direction of ice drift and make many other important scientific observations. The first station was organized in 1937. Since 1975, the North Pole - 23 station has been operating.
On the Arctic islands they hunt Arctic foxes in winter and game birds in summer. There are many different fish in the waters of the Barents Sea, which are caught and processed on special vessels. The base of the trawl fishing fleet is the port of Murmansk.
Tundra zone
Word " tundra" comes from Finnish " tunturi", which means " flat treeless hill».
Indeed, the absence of trees is the most striking, eye-catching feature tundra zones.
Tundras are widespread mainly in the Northern Hemisphere - in Eurasia and North America. The tundra zone, an almost continuous belt, stretches across the northernmost territories of the continents around the North Pole, as scientists say, circumpolarly (“circum” in Latin - “around”: remember the round arena of the circus).
In the Southern Hemisphere there is very little land near Antarctica - mostly ocean.
Therefore, there are very few tundras there and they are located on small islands around southern continent and in the mountains of Patagonia.
The areas occupied by tundra zones are much larger than is commonly believed. In Russia, tundras occupy the second largest area after the taiga (although together with the forest-tundra - the transition zone from it to the forest). In North America, they also occupy vast areas. Along mountain ranges, tundra landscapes in some places extend far to the south, to where on the plain taiga forests have long been replaced by steppes.
With the word " Arctic"usually associated with the idea of severe cold, snowstorms and the lack of "necessary conditions for life.
And indeed, such an opinion is not without foundation - after all, summer in the tundra it is cold, short and light. Cold - because even in summer frosts are not uncommon, and the average monthly temperature of the warmest month does not exceed 10 C.
Short - because it lasts no more than 2 - 2.5 months. And it’s bright because at this time the sun does not set below the horizon and stays there all day long polar day. In addition, there is very little precipitation in the tundra, no more than in the desert. But it seems like there is a lot of water. There are large and small lakes, rivers, swamps all around, wet moss squelches under your feet.
This is due to the fact that the sun, although it does not set beyond the horizon, still heats weakly and evaporates very slowly. In addition, in the summer in the tundra, only the top layer of permafrost thaws, and even then not for long, while the lower, icy layer does not allow water to seep deeper.
The surrounding tundra zone is cold and damp. In such harsh conditions, it is difficult for true soil to develop. All processes proceed sluggishly, as if reluctantly, and the result is appropriate - the soils are only primitive, with barely defined layers, most of which are occupied by the semi-decomposed remains of mosses, grasses and shrubs - peat.
Although the tundra zone is spread over vast areas, the diversity of plant species here is very small.
In some areas their number is 200 - 300, and in the north - less than 100. No other landscapes, except desert ones, seem so monotonous. It is interesting that tundra landscapes located far from each other, even at different ends of the continents, have almost the same set of plant species. One of the explanations for this “unanimity” is that in winter, the fruits and seeds of tundra plants are well spread by the wind over snow or ice, crossing land and sea without hindrance.
On the southern border of the tundra zone, small groups of trees are occasionally found.
They made a depressing impression on the Russian ethnographer V.L. Seroshevsky: “ This forest is pathetic. Prematurely aged, covered with bearded lichens, with liquid, yellowish greenery on the few living shoots. The trees are sick, ugly, covered with a mass of warts, twigs, and branches. They provide almost no shade or protection at all; in such a forest you see the sky everywhere in front of you».
And yet the tundra can be attractive and understandable to the eye.
Imagine the never setting sun, small courageous plants rushing to bloom their dim but numerous flowers, the blue surface of the water. Alas, this beauty is short-lived. Both herbaceous plants and dwarf trees, hardly taller than grasses, are all in a hurry, in a hurry, in a hurry.
They are in a hurry to unfurl the leaves, in a hurry to bloom and set seeds, in a hurry to drop them - to sow them in the inhospitable frozen soil saturated with water. If they didn’t have time, the frost was merciless, the sun would also disappear for a long time, and life would freeze for many months in anticipation of a new, such a short summer.
Topic 2.
Forest zone
Forest- this is a natural (geographical) zone represented by more or less closely growing trees and shrubs of one or more species.
The forest has the ability to constantly renew itself.
Mosses, lichens, grasses, and shrubs play a secondary role in the forest. Plants here influence each other, interact with their environment, forming a community of plants.
A significant area of forest with more or less clear boundaries is called a forest area.
The following types of forests are distinguished:
Gallery forest. It is stretched out in a narrow strip along the river flowing among treeless spaces (in Central Asia it is called tugai forest, or tugai);
Belt bur. This is the name given to pine forests that grow in the form of a narrow and long strip on the sand. They are of great water conservation importance; their logging is prohibited;
Park forest.
This is an array of natural or artificial origin with rare, individually scattered trees (for example, a park forest of stone birch in Kamchatka);
Coppices. These are small forests connecting forest areas; Grove- a section of forest, usually isolated from the main tract.
The forest is characterized by tiers - vertical division of the forest, as if into separate floors.
One or more upper tiers form the crowns of trees, then there are tiers of shrubs (undergrowth), herbaceous plants and, finally, a tier of mosses and lichens. The lower the tier, the less demanding of light are its components.
kinds. Plants of different tiers interact closely and are mutually dependent. The strong growth of the upper tiers reduces the density of the lower ones, up to their complete disappearance, and vice versa. There is also an underground layering in the soil: the roots of plants are located here at different depths, so numerous plants coexist well in one area.
Man, by regulating the density of crops, forces the development of those tiers of the community that are valuable for the economy.
Depending on climatic, soil and other natural conditions, various forests arise.
Equatorial rainforests
This is a natural (geographical) zone stretching along the equator with some displacement south of 8° N latitude.
to 11° S The climate is hot and humid. All year round, average air temperatures are 24-28 C. The seasons are not defined. At least 1500 mm of atmospheric precipitation falls, since there is an area of low pressure (see Atmospheric pressure), and on the coast the amount of atmospheric precipitation increases to 10,000 mm.
Precipitation falls evenly throughout the year.
Such climatic conditions in this zone contribute to the development of lush evergreen vegetation with a complex layered forest structure. The trees here have few branches. They have disc-shaped roots, large leathery leaves, tree trunks rise like columns and only spread their thick crown at the top. The shiny, as if varnished surface of the leaves saves them from excessive evaporation and burns from the scorching sun, from the impacts of rain jets during heavy downpours.
In plants of the lower tier, the leaves, on the contrary, are thin and delicate.
The equatorial forests of South America are called selva (port. - forest). This zone occupies much larger areas here than in Africa. The selva is wetter than African equatorial forests and richer in plant and animal species.
The upper tier of equatorial forests is formed by ficus and palm trees (200 species).
The soils under the forest canopy are red-yellow, ferrolitic (containing aluminum and iron).
The fauna of equatorial forests is rich and diverse.
Many animals live in trees. There are numerous monkeys - monkeys, chimpanzees. There are a variety of birds, insects, and termites. Ground inhabitants include small ungulates (African deer, etc.). In the equatorial forests of Africa lives a relative of the giraffe - the okapi, which lives only in Africa.
The most famous predator of the South American jungle is the jaguar. Constantly wet conditions allowed frogs and lizards to spread to trees in equatorial forests. Among the birds there are hummingbirds, which are small in size and brightly colored, parrots, and toucans. Insects are diverse, many of which lead a parasitic lifestyle.
Differences in the relationship between air temperature and precipitation in different parts Lands determine the diversity of soils and fauna. Therefore, our planet is a delightful variety of “pictures of nature.”
What is a natural complex?
The interaction of natural components: rocks, air, water, flora and fauna - leads to the formation of natural complexes.
Any natural complex is characterized by a special composition of components and has a unique appearance.
Natural complexes in the mountains, replacing each other with height, are called altitudinal zones. Their number depends on geographical location and mountain heights. The higher the mountains, the closer they are located, the greater the set of altitude zones.
In the World Ocean, along with zonal ones, shallow and deep-water natural complexes are distinguished.
Anthropogenic complexes
Today, natural-anthropogenic complexes—territories that have been significantly altered by humans—are increasingly encountered. These are drained swamps, plowed steppes, artificial forest belts, parks and gardens, irrigated and watered desert areas, mining areas. In cities, major ports, along highways and railways, where the natural environment is completely changed by man, anthropogenic complexes are formed.
Geographical envelope- a complete and continuous shell of the Earth, including the lower part of the atmosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere.
There is a complex interaction between the shells of the Earth, a continuous exchange of matter and energy. The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined, so scientists define them differently. Usually for upper limit accept ozone screen. Bottom line The geographical envelope on land is most often carried out at a depth of no more than 1000 m. In the ocean, the lower boundary of the geographical envelope is its bottom. Thus, general power The geographical envelope is about 30 km.
The geographical envelope coincides territorially and in volume with the biosphere. Some scientists believe that the geographical envelope and the biosphere are synonymous. Others are inclined to believe that the biosphere represents a certain stage in the development of the geographical envelope. In the history of the development of the geographical envelope, there are 3 stages:
– prebiogenic;
– biogenic;
– anthropogenic.
According to others, the geographical envelope and the biosphere are not identical, since the concept of “biosphere” focuses on the active role of living matter in the development of this envelope.
Each natural complex consists of interconnected components - components. These include rocks, air, water, plants, animals and soils. The interaction of components leads to the formation of natural complexes. Natural complexes formed on land are called natural territorial and in the ocean or other body of water - natural aquatic.
The geographic envelope has a number of patterns. The most important of them include the following:
– integrity– the unity of the geographical envelope, due to the close interrelation of its constituent components, and a change in one component inevitably leads to a change in others and the geographical envelope as a whole. It is the most important geographical pattern and is achieved by the circulation of matter and energy;
– rhythm of development– repeatability of certain phenomena over time. In nature, there are rhythms of different durations - daily, annual, intra-century and super-century;
– horizontal zoning– a natural change in natural components and natural complexes in the direction from the equator to the poles. The largest zonal divisions of the geographical envelope are geographical zones(there are 13 - Arctic and Antarctic, subarctic and subantarctic, 2 temperate, 2 subtropical, 2 tropical, 2 subequatorial, equatorial), which extend in the latitudinal direction and essentially coincide with climatic zones. Inside the belts, according to the ratio of heat and moisture, they are distinguished natural areas;
– altitudinal zone– a natural change of natural components and natural complexes with an ascent into the mountains from their foot to the peaks. It is caused by climate change with altitude.