Pages of history. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814

In addition, the Russian forces were seriously weakened during the intense pursuit of Napoleon, when they suffered no less than the French troops from the cold and lack of food. In two months of travel from Tarutin to Neman, Kutuzov’s army lost up to two-thirds of its strength (stragglers, sick, killed, wounded, etc.). But Alexander I wanted to put an end to the source of aggression forever. Actually, thanks to the initiative of the Russian emperor, who took on the noble, but (as further experience showed) thankless role of the savior of Europe, European countries (and especially Germany) were freed from French domination. The failures revealed the fragility of the Napoleonic coalition. Prussia was the first to join victorious Russia, betraying its alliance with Bonaparte. In April 1813, M.I. Kutuzov died. By that time, Napoleon had managed to concentrate 200 thousand people through new mobilizations. against the 92,000-strong Russian-Prussian army. True, in the campaign of 1812 France lost the entire flower of its armed forces. Her army now consisted largely of new recruits. However, the Russian army also lost a considerable part of its veterans in last year’s battles.

Campaign of 1813

First stage

At this stage, the struggle for Germany unfolded, on whose territory the French sought to delay the Allied advance and defeat them. In April 1813, Napoleon went on the offensive at the head of an army of 150,000 and moved towards Leipzig. The French vanguard pushed the allies away from the city. At this time, on April 20, southwest of Leipzig, the main allied army under the command of Peter Wittgenstein (92 thousand people) attacked the corps of Marshal Ney (the vanguard of the southern column) near Lutzen, trying to defeat the French forces in parts.

Battle of Lützen (1813). Ney defended himself steadfastly and held his position. Emperor Alexander I and King Frederick William of Prussia were present on the battlefield. This constrained Wittgenstein’s initiative, who lost a lot of time coordinating his actions with the monarchs. Meanwhile, Napoleon with his main forces arrived in time to help Ney. Personally leading a counterattack, the French emperor managed to split the Allied lines by threatening to outflank them. At night, the Russian and Prussian monarchs gave the order to retreat. The lack of cavalry (which died during the campaign against Russia), as well as the fatigue of recruits exhausted by the long march, deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to effectively pursue the retreating troops. The damage to the Russians and Prussians amounted to 12 thousand people. The French lost 15 thousand people. The Battle of Lützen was Napoleon's first major victory of the 1813 campaign. She raised the morale of the French army and allowed it to retake Saxony.

Battle of Bautzen (1813). Napoleon moved east behind the retreating allied army and on May 8-9 gave it the battle of Bautzen. Napoleon's plan was to deeply flank the allied forces, surround them and destroy them. To do this, the French emperor sent a significant part of his forces, led by Marshal Ney (60 thousand people), to bypass the allied army from the north. With the rest, Napoleon crossed the Spree in several places on May 8. After a stubborn battle, the French pushed back the Allied army and captured Bautzen. However, the next day, Ney, who reached his initial positions, was unable to complete the coverage of the Allied right flank in time. This was largely due to the persistent defense of Russian units under the command of generals Barclay de Tolly and Lansky. Napoleon was in no hurry to throw his reserve into battle, waiting until Ney reached the rear of the allies. This gave Wittgenstein the opportunity to promptly withdraw his troops across the Lebau River and avoid encirclement. The French lack of cavalry did not allow Napoleon to build on his success. The Allies lost 12 thousand people in this battle, the French - 18 thousand people.

Despite the success at Bautzen, the clouds were gathering over Napoleon. Sweden entered the war against France. Her army moved from the north along with the Prussians towards Berlin. His ally, Austria, was also preparing to move against Napoleon. After Bautzen, the Prague Truce was concluded. Both sides used it to raise reserves and prepare for new battles. This completed the first stage of the 1813 campaigns.

Campaign of 1813

Second phase

During the truce, the Allied forces increased significantly. Having completed mobilization, they were joined by Austria, which sought not to miss the opportunity to divide the Napoleonic empire. This is how the 6th anti-French coalition (England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden) was finally formed. The total number of its troops by the end of summer reached 492 thousand people. (including 173 thousand Russians). They were divided into three armies: the Bohemian under the command of Field Marshal Schwarzenberg (about 237 thousand people), the Silesian under the command of Field Marshal Blücher (100 thousand people) and the Northern under the command of the former Napoleonic marshal Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte (150 thousand people) . Napoleon by that time had managed to increase the size of his army to 440 thousand people, the main part of which was in Saxony. The new Allied tactics were to avoid meeting with Napoleon and attack first of all the individual units commanded by his marshals. The situation was unfavorable for Napoleon. He found himself sandwiched between three fires in Saxony. From the north, from Berlin, he was threatened by Bernadotte's Army of the North. From the south, from Austria, - the Bohemian Army of Schwarzenberg, from the southeast, from Silesia, - the Silesian Army of Blucher. Napoleon adopted a defensive-offensive campaign plan. He concentrated the strike group of Marshal Oudinot for the attack on Berlin (70 thousand people). Davout's detached corps (35 thousand people) stationed in Hamburg was intended to strike in the rear of the Berlin Allied group. Napoleon left barriers against the Bohemian and Silesian armies - respectively, Saint-Cyr's corps in Dresden and Ney's corps in Katzbach. The emperor himself, with his main forces, positioned himself in the center of his communications in order to come to the aid of each of the groups at the necessary moment. The French campaign against Berlin failed. Oudinot was defeated by Bernadotte's army. Davout, in view of this failure, retreated to Hamburg. Then Napoleon replaced Oudinot with Ney and ordered him to launch a new attack on Berlin. The corps holding back the Silesian army was led by Marshal MacDonald. Meanwhile, the Silesian and Bohemian armies launched an offensive towards Katzbach and Dresden.

Battle of Katzbach (1813). On August 14, on the banks of the Katzbach River, a battle took place between MacDonald’s corps (65 thousand people) and Blucher’s Silesian army (75 thousand people). The French crossed the Katzbach, but were attacked by the allies and, after a fierce oncoming battle, were thrown back across the river. The Russian corps under the command of generals Saken and Langeron distinguished themselves in the battle. They attacked the flank and rear of the French, who were driven into the river and suffered heavy losses during the crossing. The battle took place in a severe thunderstorm. This made shooting impossible, and the troops fought mainly with edged weapons or hand-to-hand. French losses amounted to 30 thousand people. (including 18 thousand prisoners). The Allies lost about 8 thousand people. The defeat of the French at Katzbach forced Napoleon to move to the aid of Macdonald, which eased the position of the Allies after their defeat at Dresden. However, Blücher did not use the success under Katzbach to go on the offensive. Having learned about the approach of Napoleon's troops, the Prussian commander did not accept a new battle and retreated.

Battle of Dresden (1813). On the day of the Battle of Katzbach, August 14, Schwarzenberg's Bohemian Army (227 thousand people), following new tactics, decided to attack the lonely corps of Saint-Cyr in Dresden with the forces of the Russian vanguard of General Wittgenstein. Meanwhile, Napoleon's army quickly and unexpectedly came to the aid of Saint-Cyr, and the number of French troops near Dresden increased to 167 thousand people. Schwarzenberg, who even in this situation had a numerical superiority, ordered to go on the defensive. Due to poor communication between the allied units, the order for this came to the Russian army when it had already moved to attack. Unsupported by their neighbors, the Russians suffered heavy losses and retreated. On August 15, Napoleon, despite the numerical superiority of the Allies, went on the offensive and struck their left flank, where the Austrians stood. They were separated from the center occupied by the Prussians by the Planensky ravine. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and were thrown into a ravine. At the same time, Napoleon attacked the center and right flank of the Allies. Firing was hampered by heavy rain, so the troops fought mainly with melee weapons. The Allies hastily retreated, losing about 37 thousand people killed, wounded and captured in two days of fighting. (two thirds of them are Russian). The damage to the French army did not exceed 10 thousand people. In that battle, the famous French commander Moreau, who went over to the side of the Allies, was mortally wounded by a cannonball fragment. They said that he died from a cannon shot fired by Napoleon himself. The Battle of Dresden was the last major French success in the 1813 campaign. However, its significance was negated by the Allied victories at Kulm and Katzbach.

Battle of Kulm (1813). After Dresden, Napoleon with his main forces rushed to the aid of Macdonald, defeated at Katzbach, and sent the corps of General Vandam (37 thousand people) to the rear of the demoralized Bohemian army retreating through the Ore Mountains. The Bohemian army was saved from a new defeat by the Russian corps led by General Osterman-Tolstoy (17 thousand people), who blocked Vandam’s path at Kulm. All day on August 17, the Russians heroically repelled the attacks of superior French forces. In that battle, the Russian corps lost about a thousand people. Osterman-Tolstoy himself was seriously wounded, losing his left arm in the battle. In response to condolences, he replied: “Being wounded for the Fatherland is very pleasant, and as for my left hand, I still have my right hand, which I need for the sign of the cross, a sign of faith in God, in whom I place all my hope.” General Ermolov took command of the corps. On August 18, the main forces of the allied army under the command of General Barclay de Tolly (44 thousand people) came to his aid, and the Prussian corps of General Kleist (35 thousand people) struck Vandamu in the rear. The battle on August 18 ended in the complete defeat of the French. They lost 10 thousand killed and wounded. 12 thousand were captured (including Vandam himself). Allied losses that day amounted to 3.5 thousand people. The Battle of Kulm did not allow Napoleon to build on the Dresden success and seize the initiative. For the battle of Kulm, the Russian participants in the battle received a special award from the Prussian king - the Kulm Cross. A week after Kulm, the defeat of Ney's strike group ended the second French offensive on Berlin. After all these battles there was a temporary lull. The Allies again received large reinforcements - the Polish army led by General Bennigsen (60 thousand people). Bavaria, the largest kingdom of the Union of the Rhine created by France, joined the camp of Napoleon's opponents. This forced Napoleon to switch to defensive tactics. He began to gather his troops towards Leipzig, where he soon fought a battle that decided the fate of the campaign.

Battle of Leipzig (1813). On October 4-7, near Leipzig, the largest battle took place between the armies of the allied states: Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden (over 300 thousand people, including 127 thousand Russians) and the troops of Emperor Napoleon (about 200 thousand people). entered into history under the name "Battle of the Nations". Russians, French, Germans, Belgians, Austrians, Dutch, Italians, Poles, Swedes, etc. took part in it. At the beginning of October, only Schwarzenberg’s Bohemian Army (133 thousand people) was located south of Leipzig. Napoleon concentrated 122 thousand people against it, covering the northern direction with the corps of Ney and Marmont (50 thousand people). On the morning of October 4, Schwarzenberg attacked Napoleonic troops defending the southern approaches to Leipzig. The Austrian commander threw only 80 thousand people into battle. (Barclay de Tolly's vanguard) against 120 thousand from the French, and he failed to achieve decisive success. Having exhausted the attackers with active defense, Napoleon launched a powerful counter-offensive at 3 pm. The strike group under the command of Marshal Murat overthrew the advanced Russian-Austrian units and broke through the center of the Allied positions. The French soldiers were already 800 steps from the headquarters, where the Russian emperor was watching the battle. Alexander I was saved from possible capture by a timely counterattack by the Life Guards Cossack Regiment under the command of General Orlov-Denisov. The general breakthrough and triumph of the French was prevented only by the entry into battle of the main reserve - the Russian guard and grenadiers, who on that day snatched the much-needed victory from Napoleon's hands. The French also failed to defeat the Bohemian army because at that moment Blucher’s Silesian army (60 thousand people) arrived from the north to Leipzig, which immediately attacked Marmont’s corps. According to the French marshals, the Prussians showed miracles of courage that day. After a fierce oncoming battle, Blucher’s warriors still managed to push the French back from the villages of Meckern and Wiederich, which had changed hands more than once in the evening. The Prussians built defensive fortifications from the corpses piled on top of each other and vowed not to retreat a single step from the captured positions. The total losses in the battle on October 4 exceeded 60 thousand people (30 thousand on each side). The day of October 5 passed in inactivity. Both sides received reinforcements and prepared for a decisive battle. But if Napoleon received only 25 thousand new soldiers, then two armies approached the Allies - Northern (58 thousand people) and Polish (54 thousand people). The superiority of the Allies became overwhelming, and they were able to cover Leipzig with a 15-kilometer in a semicircle (from the north, east and south).

The next day (October 6), the largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic wars broke out. Up to 500 thousand people took part in it on both sides. The Allies launched a concentric attack on the French positions, who desperately defended themselves and constantly launched counterattacks. In the middle of the day, on the southern flank, the French even managed to overturn the attacking Austrian chains. It seemed that they would not be able to hold back the fierce onslaught of the Old Guard, which Napoleon himself led into battle. But at this decisive moment, the allies of the French, the Saxon troops, opened the front and went over to the enemy’s side. There could no longer be any talk of any offensive. With incredible efforts, the French troops managed to close the gap and hold their positions until the end of the day. Napoleonic soldiers, who were at the limit of their capabilities, were no longer able to withstand the next such battle. On the night of October 7, Napoleon ordered the withdrawal to the west along the only surviving bridge across the Elster River. The retreat was covered by the Polish and French units of Marshals Poniatowski and MacDonald. They entered the last battle for the city at dawn on October 7. Only by the middle of the day did the Allies manage to drive the French and Poles out of there. At that moment, the sappers, seeing the Russian cavalrymen breaking through to the river, blew up the bridge over the Elster. By that time, another 28 thousand people did not have time to cross. The panic began. Some soldiers rushed to escape by swimming, others fled. Someone else tried to resist. Poniatowski, who the day before received a marshal's baton from Napoleon, gathered combat-ready units and, in a last impulse, attacked the allies, trying to cover the retreat of his comrades. He was wounded, rushed on horseback into the water and drowned in the cold waters of Elster.

MacDonald was luckier. He overcame the stormy river and got out to the other side. The French suffered a crushing defeat. They lost 80 thousand people, including 20 thousand prisoners. Allied damage exceeded 50 thousand people. (of which 22 thousand are Russians). The Battle of Leipzig was Bonaparte's biggest defeat. She decided the outcome of the 1813 campaign. After it, Napoleon lost his conquests in Germany and was forced to retreat to French territory. Nevertheless, the allied command was unable to cut off the path to the west of the defeated French army (about 100 thousand people). She safely passed the territory of the Confederation of the Rhine, defeating the Bavarian army that crossed her path on October 18 near Ganau (Hanau), and then began to cross the Rhine.

Campaign of 1814

By the beginning of 1814, the Allied forces, ready to attack France across the Rhine, numbered 453 thousand people. (of which 153 thousand are Russian). Napoleon could oppose them along the left bank of the Rhine with only 163 thousand people. On January 1, 1814, on the anniversary of the crossing of the Niemen, the Russian army led by Emperor Alexander I crossed the Rhine. The Allied winter campaign took Napoleon by surprise. Not having time to gather all his forces, he nevertheless hurried towards the allied armies, having only 40 thousand people at hand. Thus began the famous campaign of 1814, which, according to many researchers, became one of Napoleon’s best campaigns. With a small army, a significant part of which were recruits, Bonaparte, skillfully maneuvering, was able to hold back the onslaught of the Allies for two months and win a number of striking victories. The main fighting of this campaign took place in the basin of the Marne and Seine rivers. Napoleon's successful actions in January - February were explained not only by his military leadership talents, but also by the discord in the camp of the allies, who did not have a common opinion on further actions. If Russia and Prussia sought to put an end to Bonaparte, then England and Austria were inclined to compromise. Thus, Austria actually achieved the goals of the war - ousting the French from Germany and Italy. The complete defeat of Napoleon was not part of the plans of the Vienna cabinet, which needed Napoleonic France to curb the growing influence of Prussia and Russia. Dynastic ties also played a role - the daughter of the Austrian emperor, Marie-Louise, was married to Bonaparte. England also did not want France to be crushed, since it was interested in maintaining the balance of power on the continent. London saw Paris as a possible ally in the future struggle against Russia, which was gaining strength. This political alignment predetermined the course of hostilities on the part of the Allies. Thus, the Prussian military leader Blucher acted, albeit not always skillfully, but still decisively. As for the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, he showed almost no activity and actually gave Napoleon freedom of maneuver. It is no coincidence that the main battles took place between Napoleon and Blucher. Parallel to the fighting, there was a peace congress in Chatillon, at which the allies tried to persuade the French emperor to a peaceful resolution of the conflict. But he still preferred to seek peace not at the negotiating table, but on the battlefield. In January, Napoleon attacked Blucher's army, which was in the vanguard of the allied forces, and dealt it a sensitive blow at Brienne (January 17). Blücher retreated to join Schwarzenberg. The next day, Napoleon fought at La Rotière with a vastly superior Allied army, and then retreated to Troyes. After these battles, the allies held a council of war, at which they divided their forces. Blucher's army was to advance in the Marne valley. To the south, in the Seine Valley, Schwarzenberg's main army was expected to attack. Napoleon, who had received reinforcements by that time, immediately took advantage of this.

Leaving a 40,000-strong barrier against Schwarzenberg, the French emperor moved with an army of 30,000 against Blucher. Over the course of five days (from January 29 to February 2), Bonaparte won a series of successive brilliant victories (at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry and Vauchamp) over the Russian-Prussian corps, which Blücher’s strategic fantasy scattered individually in the Marne valley. Blucher lost a third of his army and was on the verge of complete defeat. This was the peak of Napoleon's success in 1814. According to contemporaries, he outdid himself in a seemingly hopeless situation. Napoleon's success embarrassed the Allies. Schwarzenberg immediately proposed a truce. But inspired by five days of victories, the French emperor rejected the very moderate proposals of the allies. He said that he "found his boots in the Italian campaign." However, his successes were also explained by the inaction of Schwarzenberg, who received secret orders from his emperor not to cross the Seine. Only the persistence of Alexander I forced the Austrian commander to move forward. This saved Blucher from inevitable defeat. Having learned about Schwarzenberg's movement towards Paris, Napoleon left Blucher and immediately set out to meet the main army. Despite his double superiority, Schwarzenberg retreated, ordering Blucher's army to join him. The Austrian field marshal suggested withdrawing beyond the Rhine, and only the persistence of the Russian emperor forced the allies to continue hostilities. On February 26, the allies signed the so-called Treaty of Chaumont, in which they pledged not to conclude either peace or truce with France without general consent. It was decided that Blucher’s army would now become the main one. She again went to the Marne to attack Paris from there. Schwarzenberg's army, which was superior in number, was assigned a secondary role. Having learned about Blucher's movement to the Marne, and then to Paris, Napoleon with an army of 35,000 again moved towards his main enemy. But Bonaparte's second Marne campaign turned out to be less successful than the first. In the fierce Battle of Craon (February 23), Napoleon managed to oust the detachment under the command of Borodin’s hero, General Mikhail Vorontsov. With their persistent resistance, the Russians made it possible for Blucher's main forces to retreat to Lahn. Thanks to the approaching corps from Bernadotte's army, Blucher was able to increase the number of his troops to 100 thousand people. In the two-day battle of Laon, he was able to repel the onslaught of Napoleon's army three times smaller. While the French emperor was fighting with Blücher, Schwarzenberg took offensive action on February 15, pushing back the corps of Oudinot and MacDonald in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube.

Then Napoleon, leaving Blucher alone, again moved towards Schwarzenberg’s army and gave it a two-day battle near Arcy-sur-Aube (March 8 and 9). Only the caution of the Austrian commander, who did not bring the main forces into battle, allowed Napoleon to avoid a major defeat. Unable to defeat his allies in frontal attacks, Napoleon changed his tactics. He decided to go behind the rear of Schwarzenberg's army and cut off its communication with the Rhine. This plan was based on the experience of past wars with the Austrians, who always reacted painfully to the severance of ties with supply bases. True, the entry of the main French forces behind Schwarzenberg's rear opened up an almost free path for the Allies to Paris, but Napoleon hoped that none of the allied commanders would dare to take such a bold step. Who knows how events would have developed if the Cossacks had not intercepted Napoleon’s letter to his wife, where the French emperor described this plan in detail. After discussing it at the Allied headquarters, the Austrians immediately proposed to retreat to protect their communications and cover the communication with the Rhine. However, the Russians, led by Emperor Alexander I, insisted otherwise. They proposed to set up a small barrier against Napoleon, and to march on Paris with the main forces. This bold move decided the fate of the campaign. Having defeated the corps of Marmont and Mortier in the battle of Fer-Champenoise on March 13, the Russian cavalry cleared the way to the French capital.

Capture of Paris (1814). On March 18, Schwarzenberg's 100,000-strong army approached the walls of Paris. The capital of France was defended by the corps of Marshals Marmont and Mortier, as well as units of the National Guard (about 40 thousand people in total). The Battle of Paris lasted several hours. The most fierce battles took place at the Belleville Gate and at the heights of Montmartre. Here the Russian units distinguished themselves and basically stormed the French capital. Russian Emperor Alexander I also took part in the battle for Paris. He was engaged in the placement of an artillery battery in the area of ​​the Belleville Gate. At 5 pm, after King Joseph (Napoleon's brother) fled the city, Marshal Marmont capitulated.

Peace of Paris (1814). The act of surrender of Paris was drawn up and signed on the part of the Allies by the aide-de-camp of Emperor Alexander I, Colonel M.F. Orlov, who received the rank of general for this. The Allies lost 9 thousand people in this bloodiest battle of the 1814 campaign. (two thirds of them are Russian). The defenders of the French capital lost 4 thousand people. The capture of Paris was a decisive victory for the Allies. In honor of this event, a special medal “For the Capture of Paris” was issued. It was awarded to participants in the Foreign Campaign of the Russian Army. After the fall of the French capital, Napoleon abdicated the throne on March 25 and, by decision of the allies, was exiled to the island of Elba. His empire ceased to exist. On May 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded between France and members of the anti-French coalition. The combat losses of the Russian army in the Foreign Campaign (1813-1814) exceeded 120 thousand people. The struggle for the liberation of Europe became the bloodiest Russian campaign during the Napoleonic wars.

“Victory, accompanying our banners, hoisted them on the walls of Paris. Our thunder struck at the very gates. The defeated enemy stretches out his hand to reconciliation! No revenge! No enmity! Brave warriors, to you, the first culprits of success, belongs the glory of the world!.. You have earned the right to the gratitude of the Fatherland - I declare it in the name of the Fatherland." These words of Alexander I, spoken after the surrender of France, drew a line under a difficult decade of wars and cruel trials, from which Russia emerged triumphant. “The universe fell silent...” - this is how the poet M.Yu. Lermontov briefly and figuratively described this victory. 1814 was the peak of success for the army created by Peter's reforms.

Congress of Vienna (1815). In 1815, a pan-European congress was held in Vienna to discuss issues of the post-war structure of Europe. On it, Alexander I achieved the annexation of the Duchy of Warsaw, which served as the main springboard for Napoleonic aggression against Russia, to his possessions. Most of this duchy, receiving the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of the Russian Empire. In general, Russia’s territorial acquisitions in Europe in the first quarter of the 19th century. ensured the external security of the East Slavic world. The entry into the Finnish Empire moved Swedish possessions away from Russian ones towards the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, which made the north-west of the country practically invulnerable against attack from land. The Polish salient prevented a direct invasion of Russia in the central direction. In the southwest, large water barriers - the Prut and the Dniester - covered the steppe spaces. In fact, under Alexander I, a new “security belt” was created in the west of the empire, which then existed for a whole century.

"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

Capture of Moscow and Tarutino march-maneuver

August 27, 1812, without waiting for the promised reserves, M. Kutuzov did not dare to resume the battle of Borodino and gave the order for a further retreat to Moscow. September 1, 1812 In the village of Fili, the famous Military Council took place, at which the plan for further action was discussed. A number of generals (M. Barclay de Tolly, N.N. Raevsky, A.I. Osterman-Tolstoy) insisted on the further retreat of the Russian troops. However, another part of the generals (L. Bennigsen, P. P. Konovnitsyn, D. S. Dokhturov, M. I. Platov) insisted on a general battle near the walls of Moscow. Having familiarized himself with the opinion of his generals, M. Kutuzov, with the power entrusted to him by the sovereign and the Fatherland, gave the order to retreat and abandon Moscow.

Rice. 1. Tarutino maneuver ()

September 21812 Russian troops abandoned Moscow, which was occupied by the French by the end of the day. On the same day, a huge fire began in the city, the causes and culprits of which historians are still arguing about. A number of authors (P. Zhilin, L. Beskrovny) claim that Moscow was set on fire on the orders of Napoleon himself. Other authors (E. Tarle, N. Troitsky) insist that Moscow was set on fire on the orders of its governor-general, Count F.V. Rostopchin, who tried in this way to destroy all arsenals with weapons, ammunition and provisions that were not taken out of it.

Having captured Moscow, September 6, 1812 Napoleon through General I.V. Tutlomin informed Alexander I of his desire to end the military campaign and begin peace negotiations. However, despite all the persuasion of his mother Maria Fedorovna, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, A. Arakcheev, N. Rumyantsev and other influential nobles, the emperor remained adamant and ignored Napoleon’s appeal.

Meanwhile, M. Kutuzov, demonstrating to the French the appearance of his retreat along the Ryazan road, completely unexpectedly made a brilliant march-maneuver onto the Kaluga road and on September 9 set up camp near the village of Tarutino (Fig. 1) . The famous Tarutino march-maneuver significantly influenced the course of the entire military campaign, becoming a turning point in the Patriotic War. On the one hand, M. Kutuzov protected the Tula, Bryansk and Kyiv arms factories and the fertile southern provinces of the country from the enemy. On the other hand, he put Napoleon's main communication line - the old Smolensk road - under constant threat of flank attacks. In addition, M. Kutuzov established a reliable communication channel with the armies of A. Tormasov and P. Chichagov, and by the beginning of October 1812, more than 240 thousand regular troops were assembled in the Tarutino camp (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Kutuzov M.I. ()

Meanwhile, the Patriotic War took on a truly national character. In many districts and volosts of Russia, motley partisan detachments emerged, consisting of peasants, regular army soldiers, militias and Cossacks. Initially, these detachments (Gerasim Kurin, Vasilisa Kozhina, Fyodor Potapov) acted unorganized and fragmented. However, then, appreciating the great importance of partisan detachments in the destruction of the rear communications of the French troops, M. Kutuzov not only took them under his wing, but formed several flying partisan detachments, whose commanders were career officers of the Russian army Denis Davydov, Alexander Figner, Ivan Dorokhov, Alexander Seslavin and many others.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia

IN mid-September 1812 Napoleon sent Alexander I a new proposal to start peace negotiations, but, having not received a response to his letter, he sent the Marquis J. De Lauriston to the Tarutino camp for negotiations with M. Kutuzov. However, he refused to conduct any negotiations with Napoleon’s envoy and sent another petition from the “Corsican monster” to St. Petersburg.

Meanwhile, Napoleon's army indulged in unbridled drunkenness, looting and robbery (Fig. 3). In this situation, Napoleon, without waiting for a response from St. Petersburg, October 7, 1812 left Moscow. Initially, in the hope of capturing food warehouses in Kaluga and weapons arsenals in Tula, Bryansk and Kyiv, he moved his army along the Kaluga road. However, this enemy plan was thwarted by the Russian army.

Rice. 3. Caricature of the French ()

October 12, 1812 divisions of generals D. Dokhturov, A. Konovnitsin and A.P. Ermolov inflicted a crushing defeat on Napoleon’s troops at Maloyaroslavets, after which he was forced to turn onto the old Smolensk road, which he destroyed in the summer of 1812.

Meanwhile, the corps of General P.Kh. began active military operations against Napoleonic troops. Wittgenstein and the Danube army of Admiral P. Chichagov, who began to rapidly advance towards the Berezina River.

October 21-22, 1812 troops of generals M.A. Miloradovich and M.I. Platov defeated the rearguard of the French troops of Marshal M. Ney near Vyazma, and Napoleon accelerated his movement to Smolensk, where he intended to spend the winter. On October 27, the pitiful remnants of Napoleon's army entered the devastated Smolensk, however, finding themselves under the threat of encirclement by the troops of M. Kutuzov, P. Chichagov and P. Wittgenstein, on October 31 Napoleon left Smolensk and began to rapidly advance towards Orsha.

Rice. 4. Expulsion of invaders ()

November 4-6, 1812 In a bloody battle near the village of Krasny, the Russian corps of generals M. Golitsyn and M. Miloradovich surrounded and defeated the French units of Marshals M. Ney and L. Davout. And on November 12, with the remnants of his army, Napoleon approached the Berezina River, where the troops of P. Wittgenstein and P. Chichagov had long been waiting for him. M. Kutuzov hoped that it was here that he would finally put an end to Napoleon’s army, and take the emperor himself prisoner. However, these plans were not destined to come true, since, having deceived P. Chichagov and P. Wittgenstein, Napoleon quickly established crossings across the Berezina in the area of ​​the village of Studenki and with the remnants of his guard escaped from the Russian troops. However, a significant part of the enemy army did not have time to force the powerful water barrier and was defeated in the battle on the river. Berezina (Fig. 4) . November 23, 1812, while in Vilna, Napoleon transferred overall command to Marshal I. Murat, and, abandoning the pitiful remnants of his army to the mercy of fate, fled to Paris.

IN late November - December 1812 Russian troops liberated Vilna, Kovno and Grodno from the French. Then the Austrian and Saxon troops left the borders of Russia, and December 21, 1812 Field Marshal M. Kutuzov informed Emperor Alexander that “the war is over with the complete extermination of the enemy.”

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814.

January 1, 1813 The Russian army under the command of M. Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw. And already on January 20, Austrian Field Marshal K. Schwarzenberg without fail surrendered Warsaw to General M. Miloradovich and signed a truce with him. In February 1813, in the Kalisz region, the division of General F. Winzengerode defeated the corps of the Saxon general J. Rainier, which allowed the main forces of the Russian troops to thoroughly gain a foothold on the Oder. After these events, M. Kutuzov signed the Kalisz Allied Treaty with the Prussian Chancellor K. Hardenberg, which marked the beginning of the creation of the VI anti-Napoleonic coalition (1813-1814).

IN March - early April 1813 the united Russian-Prussian army liberated Berlin, Hamburg, Dresden and other German cities from the French, but on April 16, 1813, Field Marshal M. Kutuzov died in Bunzlau, and Field Marshal P.Kh. was appointed the new commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Wittgenstein.

Meanwhile, Napoleon defeated the allied forces at Lützin and Bautzen and drove them back to the Oder. As a result of these failures, P. Wittgenstein was dismissed, and General M. Barclay de Tolly was appointed as the new commander-in-chief. The unexpected successes of Napoleon and the heavy losses suffered by the Allies in Germany forced them May 23, 1813 sign a truce with the enemy.

Meanwhile in June 1813 Austria became part of the VI anti-Napoleonic coalition, three new armies were formed - Bohemian (K. Schwarzenberg), Northern (J. Bernadotte) and Selesian (G. Blucher) and the Allied Council was created, which included Emperors Alexander I, Franz Joseph I and Frederick William III.

After the failure of the Prague Peace Congress (July - August 1813), the opponents resumed active hostilities. August 14-15, 1813 Napoleon defeated the allied forces at Dresden, and only the defeat of the French at Kulm prevented the inevitable collapse of the coalition. Meanwhile, the corps of Marshal M. Ney began a campaign against Berlin, but on August 25, 1813, the army of J. Bernadotte inflicted a crushing defeat on the French and put them to flight.

The decisive battle of the military campaign took place near Leipzig October 4-7, 1813 In this famous “Battle of the Nations,” in which more than 500 thousand people took part (Fig. 5), Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat, which determined the outcome of the military campaign. At the beginning of January 1814, the allied forces, having liberated the territory of all German states, crossed the Rhine and entered France. On March 10, 1814, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England concluded the Treaty of Chaumont, under the terms of which they agreed not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon.

Rice. 5. “Battle of the Nations” ()

March 19, 1814 Allied forces took Paris by storm, and March 25, 1814 Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba. Then, May 18, 1814 The Treaty of Paris was signed, under the terms of which: a) France returned to the borders of 1792; b) the French throne passed to the representative of the legitimate Bourbon dynasty, Louis XVIII; c) to solve problems related to the post-war structure of Europe, an international congress was convened in Vienna.

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and its decisions

IN September 1814 In the capital of the Austrian Empire, the famous Congress of Vienna began its work (Fig. 6). All European powers were represented at this congress, but the leading role belonged to only five great European powers: Russia (Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode, I.A. Kapodistrias), England (R. Castlereagh), Prussia (Frederick Wilhelm III , K. Hardenberg), Austria (Franz Joseph I, K. Metternich) and defeated France (S.M. Talleyrand).

The participants defined the main goals of the congress as follows:

1. To fairly divide Napoleon's empire and take into account as much as possible the interests of all the great European powers;
2. Restore all legitimate monarchies in Europe destroyed during the Napoleonic wars;
3. Create reliable tools to prevent any new revolutions and military clashes in Europe.

Among all the issues discussed, the most difficult was the problem of dividing the vast Napoleonic empire and, above all, the Polish-Saxon question, which became the main reason for the split in the Allied camp. The essence of the disagreement was as follows: Alexander I, who rightfully considered himself the main winner of Napoleon, openly laid claims to possession of the entire territory of the Duchy of Warsaw. But since these claims conflicted with the interests of England, France and Austria, the Russian emperor decided to enlist the support of Berlin and offered Frederick William III, in exchange for Polish provinces, to support his claims against the Saxon kingdom. However, in addition to Prussia, the Austrian Empire was eager to acquire the Saxon kingdom, so the contradictions between the two leading German states began to grow like a snowball. In this situation September 16, 1814 A secret agreement was signed between Russia and Prussia, according to which all Russian troops were withdrawn from the territory of Saxony and control of this kingdom was transferred to the Prussian military administration.

Meanwhile, French Foreign Minister Charles Talleyrand quickly got his bearings and, taking advantage of the contradictions in the Allied camp, became a full participant in the Big Four meetings. Soon, when the situation at the Congress sharply escalated, he offered his services to Chancellor K. Metternich and Prime Minister R. Castlereagh, and January 3, 1815 A secret Anglo-Austro-French treaty was signed, directed against Prussia and Russia.

Most likely, the most acute contradictions between the largest European powers would have led to another European war, but His Majesty chance again intervened in history.

On March 7, 1815, incredible news was received in Vienna about Napoleon's escape from the Island of Elba and his rapid and triumphant advance to Paris. This circumstance immediately reconciled the warring parties, and March 11, 1815 Eight leading participants in the Congress of Vienna signed a declaration on the creation of the VII anti-Napoleonic coalition.

Rice. 6. Congress of Vienna ()

The outbreak of a new European war forced the participants in the Congress of Vienna to forget their previous differences and compromise. On May 28, 1815, the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed, according to which: 1. Russia received the entire territory of the Duchy of Warsaw and assigned Finland and Bessarabia to itself; 2. Prussia received North Saxony, the Rhineland and Westphalia; 3. Austria restored its power over Lombardy and Venice and returned Polish lands lost under the Treaty of Shernburn; 4. England seriously strengthened its presence in the Mediterranean Sea by annexing Malta and the Ionian Islands.

It must be said that in domestic and foreign historiography (L. Zak, A. Dibidur) a sharply critical attitude has developed towards the nature of the work and the results of the Vienna Congress. However, despite all the negative aspects, it should still be recognized that he created a fairly strong system of international relations, which lasted a hundred years, until the outbreak of the First World War.

Soon after the signing of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, the allied army led by Duke A. Wellington began military operations against Napoleon and June 6, 1815 completely defeated French troops at the Battle of Waterloo. After this defeat, Napoleon abdicated the throne for the second time and was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he ended his earthly journey in 1821.

Creation and activities of the Holy Alliance in 1815-1825.

The logical continuation of the Congress of Vienna was the activity of the Holy Alliance, the act of creation of which was signed September 14, 1815 Russian, Austrian and Prussian monarchs in Berlin. The main goals of the Holy Alliance were: 1. Protection of the new system of state borders enshrined in the decisions of the Congress of Vienna; 2. Protection of restored monarchical dynasties in all European countries; 3. Suppression of any revolutionary and national liberation movements.

During the entire existence of the Holy Alliance (1815-1833), four summit meetings were held:

1. Congress of Aachen (September - November 1818), in which representatives of Russia, England, France, Austria and Prussia took part, was almost entirely devoted to the French question. As a result of this meeting, decisions were made on the withdrawal of all occupation forces from French territory and a significant reduction in military indemnity. But the most important decision was that France became a full member of the Holy Alliance.

2. Tropau Congress (October - December 1820), held on the territory of Silesia, was convened on the initiative of the Austrian Chancellor K. Metternich in connection with the outbreak of revolutions in the Sardinian and Neapolitan kingdoms. These events not only undermined the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, but also created a real threat to Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice. Therefore, already on November 7, 1820, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed a special protocol, which gave them the right to unilateral armed intervention in the affairs of any state to suppress revolutionary uprisings.

3. Laibach Congress (January 1821), held on the territory of Slovenia, was entirely devoted to negotiations between the leaders of Russia, Austria, Prussia, France and England with the Neapolitan king Ferdinand I and other Italian monarchs. As a result of the work of this congress, it was decided to send Austrian troops to Naples and Piedmont, who soon restored law and order there.

4. Congress of Verona (October - December 1822), held in Italy, was dedicated to the problems of the Spanish revolution. As a result of wide discussion of various aspects of the Spanish events, France was given sanction for the armed suppression of the Spanish revolution.

The last ten years, the activities of the Holy Alliance were not particularly active, and after the European revolutions of 1830-1831. it actually ceased to exist and was dissolved in 1833.

Bibliography

1. Beskrovny L.G. Patriotic War of 1812. - M., 1962.
2. Debidur A. Diplomatic history of Europe. - M., 1947.
3. Zhilin P.A. The death of Napoleonic army in Russia. - M., 1974.
4. Zach L.A. Monarchs against peoples. - M., 1966.
5. Lobov V.N. Energy of power. - M., 2012.
6. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - M., 1978.
7. Tarle E.V. Patriotic War of 1812. - M., 1994.
8. Troitsky N.A. Patriotic War of 1812. History of the topic. - M., 1991.

1. Encyclopedia & Dictionaries ().
2. Internet portal Kazaki-belogorja.forumgrad.ru ().
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Foreign campaigns of the Russian army of 1813-1814 - military operations of the Russian army together with Prussian, Swedish and Austrian troops to complete the defeat of the army of Napoleon I and the liberation of the countries of Western Europe from the French conquerors. On December 21, 1812, Kutuzov, in an order to the army, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from Russia and called on them to “complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.”

Russia's goal was to expel French troops from the countries they had captured, deprive Napoleon of the opportunity to use their resources, complete the defeat of the aggressor on his own territory and ensure the establishment of lasting peace in Europe. On the other hand, the tsarist government aimed to restore feudal-absolutist regimes in European states. After his defeat in Russia, Napoleon sought to gain time and again create a mass army.

The strategic plan of the Russian command was built with the expectation of withdrawing Prussia and Austria from the war on Napoleon’s side as quickly as possible and making them allies of Russia.

Offensive actions in 1813 were distinguished by their large spatial scope and high intensity. They deployed at the front from the shores of the Baltic Sea to Brest-Litovsk, and were carried out to great depths - from the Neman to the Rhine. The 1813 campaign ended with the defeat of Napoleonic troops in the Battle of Leipzig on October 4-7 (16-19), 1813 (“Battle of the Nations”). Over 500 thousand people took part in the battle on both sides: the allies - over 300 thousand people (including 127 thousand Russians), 1385 guns; Napoleonic troops - about 200 thousand people, 700 guns. Its most important results were the formation of a powerful anti-French coalition and the collapse of the Confederation of the Rhine (36 German states under Napoleon's protectorate), the defeat of the army newly formed by Napoleon and the liberation of Germany and Holland.

By the beginning of the 1814 campaign, the Allied forces deployed on the Rhine numbered about 460 thousand people, including over 157 thousand Russians. In December 1813 - early January 1814, all three allied armies crossed the Rhine and began an offensive deep into France.

In order to strengthen the coalition, on February 26 (March 10), 1814, the Treaty of Chaumont was signed between Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia, according to which the parties pledged not to enter into separate peace negotiations with France, to provide mutual military assistance and to jointly resolve issues about the future of Europe . This agreement laid the foundations of the Holy Alliance.

The 1814 campaign ended with the capitulation of Paris on March 18 (30). On March 25 (April 6) in Fontainebleau, Napoleon signed the abdication of the throne, then was exiled to the island of Elba.

The wars of the coalitions of European powers with Napoleon I ended with the Congress of Vienna (September 1814 - June 1815), in which representatives of all European powers took part, except Turkey. The goals of the Congress were: international legal formalization of a new balance of power between European powers; restoration of the political system in Europe, liquidated during the Great French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, and ensuring its stability for a long time; creation of guarantees against the return to power of Napoleon I; satisfaction of the territorial claims of the winners; restoration of overthrown dynasties.

As part of this event, treaties were concluded that consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany and Italy; The Duchy of Warsaw was divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria. France is deprived of its conquests.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army of 1813–1814

The foreign campaign of the Russian army from Tarutin to Paris - from the Oka to the Seine - was repeatedly condemned by many historians and publicists, who viewed it in the light of the misfortunes that Germany, which was subsequently liberated by it, caused to Russia.

Alexander's war with Napoleon was, of course, a fatal mistake. A hut on St. Helena Island for one, the basement of the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg for the great-grandnephew of another were the result of the war of 1812, 1813 and 1814 - a direct result in the first case, indirect in the second.

But the irreparable had already happened in 1811. In the spring of 1812, the die had already been cast. And at that forever solemn moment when Russian troops on the ice of the Neman served a prayer of thanks for the deliverance of the Motherland from “two to ten languages,” it was already too late to go back.

The “uncut forest” threatened to grow. Napoleon, whose shaky throne, like the throne of any conqueror, was maintained only by continuous victories, could never have come to terms with the defeat of 1812. In a year or two, he would again gather the troops of Europe under his control and repeat the invasion again - and, of course, he would try to avoid previous mistakes.

Emperor Alexander Pavlovich knew this - and the last private of his glorious army felt it. Going abroad was an urgent state necessity. The mysticism of the emperor, who saw himself in the aura of the savior of Europe and the human race, only completed these state considerations.

In early December 1812, the Russian army concentrated near Vilna. Having set out from Tarutin with 97,000, Kutuzov brought only 40,000 after a two-month campaign to the border. Of the 620 guns, only 200 were brought. This shows that the pursuit of the French from Tarutin to Vilna cost us a lot. The bloody losses of our main forces during this time did not exceed 12,000, no more than a fifth of the total loss. Chichagov brought 17,000 out of 32,000; Wittgenstein was in a better position, who had 34,000 out of 40,000 under arms.

The autumn and winter campaign, which cost the French 160,000 people (half dead, half captured), cost us up to 80,000, of which only a quarter died in battle. The first half of the Patriotic War - the summer campaign from the Neman to leaving Moscow - cost us 120,000 people (almost all in battles), and the French 200,000 (less than half in battles). In total, 1812 cost us over 400,000 lives, including the losses of the militia and among the population dying from epidemics. In the army, after Kutuzov joined with Chichagov and Wittgenstein, there were not even 90,000 fighters left.

The troops rested for the month of December. A campaign was announced for Christmas - and on December 28, Kutuzov crossed the ice of the Neman. The war was transferred abroad to Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw.

Non-commissioned officer of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, 1809–1812. Colorized engraving

Non-commissioned officer and grenadier of the Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment, 1811–1812. Colorized engraving

M. I. Kutuzov. Artist S. Cardelli

Life Guards Sapper Battalion, 1812. Colorized engraving

The goal of the winter campaign was to destroy the flanking French corps (MacDonald in Prussia, the Austro-Saxons in Poland) and bring Prussia to our side.

The trip was a complete success. In January, all of East Prussia was cleared of the French by Wittgenstein. The Prussians enthusiastically greeted the Russian saviors. Thorn and Danzig are besieged. Kutuzov's main forces (18,000 in total) went to Plock. Schwarzenberg evacuated Warsaw and retreated with Poniatowski to Galicia. Rainier and his Saxons reached out to Kalit, where on February 1 they were overtaken and defeated by the flying corps of General Wintzingerode. At Kalisz, 16,000 Russians defeated 10,000 Saxons. Our damage was 670 people, 1500 Saxons were killed and 1500 with 2 banners and 6 guns were captured.

All of Prussia rebelled against the “French oppressors.” In the spring of 1813, she was experiencing the same upsurge that Russia had experienced a few months earlier. Calls to arms were heard throughout the country, and partisan detachments were formed following the example of the Russians. Derflinger and Lützow followed in the footsteps of Seslavin and Denis Davshchov, and Kerber’s lyre sounded “in the camp of Prussian soldiers” until its strings were broken by a French bullet. The Prussian king could not immediately abandon the psychology of his vassal. Only on February 16, an alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia, according to which Russia pledged to deploy at least 150,000 people and “not lay down weapons until Prussia is restored within the borders of 1806.” Prussia put up “at first” 80,000 - the Tilsit Treaty allowed it to have only a forty-two thousand army, but Scharngorst, by introducing short-term service and universal conscription, managed to accumulate up to 200,000 “trained reserves.” The post-Tilsit Landwehr was the prototype of the post-Versailles Reichswehr.

Prussian troops under the command of the fierce French-hater Blucher (56,000 in total) were subordinated to the Russian commander-in-chief, which was quite natural.

By mid-February, we had already gathered 140,000. To replenish the active army, a reserve army (of Prince Lobanov-Rostovsky) was established in the western provinces - up to 180,000 people.

Kutuzov was opposed to an immediate transition to the offensive beyond the Elbe.

On February 27, Wittgenstein captured Berlin, and on March 15, Dresden was captured. Russian partisans, with the help of Prussian partisans, cleared all of central Germany, even carrying out a raid on Hamburg, where Davout had settled. Chernyshev's raid on Luneburg on March 13 was especially successful.

Chernyshev had 4,100 people in this case. The French division of 4,500 men occupying Luneburg was destroyed to the last. Our damage was only 300 people, 2200 French were killed, and the remaining 2300 with 3 banners and 11 guns were captured.

On April 16, Kutuzov died in Bunzlau. Wittgenstein was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian-Prussian forces.

The position of the new commander-in-chief was not easy. Under his command were his senior corps commanders - Barclay de Tolly, Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, Blucher. Wittgenstein did not have sufficient authority before them. In addition, the sovereign who was with the army gave orders in addition to the commander-in-chief, which further constrained his activities.

Three emperors on the hill. Unknown artist

At the cost of enormous efforts, Napoleon managed to assemble a new army during the winter of 1812–1813, partly from old troops demanded from Spain, partly from untrained recruits. In April, with up to 200,000 men and 350 guns, he invaded Germany. In this entire army there were only 8,000 cavalry. All of Murat's famous cavalry died in Russia.

The Allied army concentrated south of Leipzig in early April, trying to get closer to the Austrian borders.

Negotiations were constantly underway with the Austrian emperor in order to lure him to the Allied camp.

Not knowing about the concentration of allied forces in the Leipzig region, Napoleon sent his corps to Leipzig in echelon. Wittgenstein, who occupied an extremely advantageous flank position with his army (94,000 with 656 guns), decided to take advantage of this dispersion of the enemy forces and defeat them piecemeal. He attacked Napoleon on April 20 at Lutzen, but was repulsed and retreated beyond the Elbe. 72,000 allies and 100,000 French took part in the Battle of Lucen. For every thousand soldiers of the allied army there were 220 horsemen and 7 guns, the French had only 50 horsemen and 2 guns. The Allies lost 12,000 people, the French - 15,000 and 5 guns. A thousand prisoners were taken from each side. The lack of cavalry deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to use his success and carry out strategic reconnaissance. The Russians retreated directly to the east - to Dresden, the Prussians moved first to the north, fearing for Berlin, then again united with the Russians. Dresden had to be surrendered, and Napoleon again took possession of Saxony. The Allies retreated to a fortified position at Bautzen. On May 7, Barclay destroyed one Italian division at Koenigswarte with a short blow, and in the subsequent two-day battle, on May 8 and 9, at Bautzen, the allied army was again defeated and retreated to Upper Silesia.

At Koenigswart, Barclay's 22 thousand completely destroyed 7,000 Italians. Our damage is 1883 people. Under Bautzen, Wittgenstein's disposition sought to foresee everything in advance, down to the last detail. The Allies had 96,000 with 610 guns, the French 165,000 with 250 guns. The proportion of cavalry and artillery is the same as at Lutzen. Napoleon attacked Miloradovich's vanguard on May 8 and drove him back to the main position. Barclay de Tolly advised not to accept the battle and retreat, but Emperor Alexander, who always agreed with foreigners, agreed with the arguments of the Prussian generals who insisted on battle.

On May 9, Napoleon attacked the Bautzen position with one hundred thousand, and Ney with sixty thousand received orders to bypass the right flank of the Allies and go to their rear, moving “to the Hochkirchen bell tower.” Napoleon demonstrated Oudinot's troops against the left flank of the Allies, forcing all their reserves to be drawn there. Oudinot did not know that this was a demonstration, thought that he was entrusted with the main blow, and acted very zealously. Wittgenstein felt that the main blow would be delivered to the right flank, but the sovereign did not pay attention to his ideas. Ney did not comply with the dispositions, being carried away by private battles, and saved the Allied army from disaster. Allied damage – 12,000, French – 18,000. No trophies were left.

Napoleon sends troops to attack at Lützen. Colorized engraving

Battle of Bautzen. Colorized engraving

Life Guards of the Finnish Regiment. Colorized engraving

On May 23, a truce was concluded in Poischwitz for 6 weeks, then extended for another 3 weeks until July 29. At the same time, through the mediation of Austria, peace negotiations were started. Both sides sought only to gain time and produced new formations with feverish haste.

On July 30, Metternich, notifying the French of the end of the truce, added to this a declaration of war on France. Austria joined the coalition.

By the end of the truce, the coalition forces extended to half a million and amounted to three armies: the main Bohemian Schwarzenberg at Bautzen - 237,000 (77,000 Russians, 50,000 Prussians, 000 Austrians); Silesian Blucher at Schweidnitz - 98,000 (61,000 Russians, 37,000 Prussians) and northern Bernadotte - the Swedish heir to the throne at Berdin - 127,000 (30,000 Russians, 73,000 Prussians, 24,000 Swedes).

The main command belonged to the allied monarchs, but in fact the high command passed into the hands of Schwarzenberg. The coalition included four nations: Russians, Prussians, Austrians and Swedes, and the armies were commanded by a Prussian, an Austrian and a Swede. The Russian troops, who had crushed Napoleon in all his strength and greatness a year before, had to play the role of cannon fodder under the command of foreign generals, who always placed them in the most disastrous, albeit the most honorable, places.

There was one negative trait of Alexander I: always giving preference to foreigners...

The actions of the Allied armies were based on the so-called “Trachgenberg Plan,” named after the city where it was drawn up. According to this plan, the army against which Napoleon would turn was to retreat, avoiding battle, while the other two armies acted at the same time on enemy messages.

Thus, it was not the battle, but the maneuver that received primary importance. Napoleon gathered in Germany by the end of the truce up to 40,000 with 1,200 guns.

Up to 170,000 troops garrisoned various fortresses: Davout with 35,000 occupied Hamburg, Saint-Cyr with 40,000 settled in Dresden, which became the main base of the French army, Rapp with 30,000 settled in Danzig, 35,000 Dutallies were dying of typhus in besieged Torgau... Thanks to this, a little more than half of all forces remained for action in the field.

The three allied armies occupied an enveloping position relative to the French. But Napoleon had the advantage of acting along internal operational lines.

The emperor decided to take advantage of this advantage by taking the initiative into his own hands. He decided to strike the first blow to Prussia, an enemy dangerous in its fury, so that by defeating it it would keep the rest of Germany in subjection.

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich. Artist F. Kruger

Cossacks in Germany. Colorized engraving

Oudinot's group was appointed to march on Berlin. Davout and Girard were supposed to intercept the line of retreat of the Berlin Allied army. Ney's corps was left against Blucher's Silesian army, and Saint-Cyr's corps was left against the Bohemian army, which Napoleon believed to consist only of Austrians.

Napoleon himself with his main forces took a central position in the form of a reserve, ready to support any of these groups - the advancing Oudinot, or the barriers of Ney and Saint-Cyr.

As soon as the French offensive against Bernadotte's northern army became clear, both other allied armies, acting in the spirit of the Trachtenberg Plan, went on the offensive. Blucher was the first to oust Ney. Napoleon immediately moved to the rescue of the latter - and Blucher, not accepting the battle, retreated on August 9.

The campaign against Berlin ended in failure. On August 11, Oudinot accidentally stumbled upon Bernadotte's army at Grosse Beren with part of his forces and was defeated. Heavy rain prevented observation of the surrounding area. Oudinot's Saxon troops were taken by surprise and defeated before the French contingents could come to their aid, the Saxons complained that the French had "exposed them to attack", and the battle had a very unfavorable effect on the morale of Napoleon's young troops.

Allied damage - 2000, Franco-Saxons - 2200 killed and wounded, 1800 prisoners and 26 guns. Girard suffered a separate defeat at Gabelsberg on the 15th, and Davout, seeing this, retreated to Hamburg, where he remained throughout the campaign.

Napoleon replaced Oudinot with Ney, again brought his northern group to 70,000 and ordered Ney to launch a second attack on Berlin.

Meanwhile, disturbing news came from Dresden.

The 200,000-strong Bohemian army crossed the Bohemian Mountains and moved towards Dresden, occupied by Saint-Cyr's corps.

It was necessary to rush to the rescue of Saint-Cyr. Leaving MacDonald against Blucher, Napoleon hurried to Dresden with forced marches and here, in the battle of August 14 and 15, he completely defeated the allies.

On August 13, 87,000 Allies gathered near Dresden against 40,000 French, but Schwarzenberg hesitated to attack.

On August 14, 130,000 gathered, but it became known that Napoleon had come to reinforce Saint-Cyr. Emperor Alexander ordered a retreat, and Schwarzenberg called off the attack. However, the cancellation order was not delivered in time to Wittgenstein, who attacked the heavily fortified outskirts of Dresden and suffered heavy losses. Napoleon did not release the allies and on August 15 inflicted a complete defeat on them, striking the Austrians on the left flank of the army. The rain prevented shooting, and the battle was fought with cold steel.

The French lost up to 12,000. The Allies lost 16,000 killed and wounded, 12,000 prisoners and 50 guns.

After the defeat of Dresden, Schwarzenberg's army moved back to Bohemia. Allied monarchs were also with her. The Austrian contingents were in complete disarray; on the 15th day of the war they no longer had any ammunition or even boots. Fortunately, Napoleon pursued weakly, limiting himself only to sending Vandamme's corps to Bohemia to capture the Allied line of retreat.

Chief officers of the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, 1814–1826. Colorized engraving

Chief officer and private chief officer of the Hussar Regiment, 1812–1818. Colorized engraving

M. B. Barclay de Tolly. Artist J. Doe

Vandamm's movement threatened the death of the allied army, crowded on one road that ran through the mountain defiles of the Bohemian Forest.

The army was saved by the heroic detachment of Osterman - the Russian Guard, which, at the cost of brutal losses, broke the onslaught of an almost three times stronger enemy at Kulm on August 17.

The next day, the 18th, Barclay de Tolly’s reinforcements arrived, and Vandamme’s corps was defeated and captured. Deciding to save the army at the cost of his own death, Osterman-Tolstoy moved straight into the enemy’s mouth.

He had 12,000 to Vandamm's 35,000. In a fierce battle on August 17, the Russians lost 6,000, but held back the enemy. Up to 50,000 allies took part in the battle on August 18, losing 3,500 people. The French lost up to 10,000 killed and wounded, 12,000 with 5 banners and 84 guns - all their artillery - were captured. The Kulm victory shines with glory on the banners of our Guard - it was the favorite victory of Emperor Alexander Pavlovich. The Allies were able to retreat unhindered to Bohemia and organize their troops.

While Napoleon was fighting at Dresden, Macdonald, left behind against Blücher, decided to act offensively. Blücher went on the offensive for his part, and on August 14 the battle of Katzbach took place - the complete defeat of MacDonald. The Neisse River, swollen from the rain, divided the battlefield into 2 parts: on the left bank Blucher himself acted with the Prussian corps of York, which attacked Macdonald head-on, and the Russian corps of Sacken, which entered the flank and rear of the French, defeated them and drove the enemy with bayonets and rifle butts into the flooded Katzbach! The Russian cavalry became famous here. On the left bank, Lanzheron's Russian corps, deprived of most of the artillery abandoned due to poor roads, defeated the enemy with great difficulty.

The Battle of Katzbach is a striking example of an oncoming battle. It took place during a storm and rain, which made shooting impossible, as at Grosse Beren and Dresden. Despite incessant storms and heavy rains, Blücher pursued until 19 August. French damage: 12,000 killed and wounded, 18,000 prisoners, 2 banners, 105 guns. The Allies lost about 8,000 - a total of 75,000 Allies with 200 guns against 65,000 French with 200 guns.

Napoleon hurried to Macdonald's rescue, but Blucher again did not accept the battle with the main enemy forces and retreated. Meanwhile, Schwarzenberg demonstrated part of his forces to Dresden. Saint-Cyr again asked for help. Napoleon again turned to Dresden - and the allies retreated, avoiding battle.

On August 24, Ney's army marched on Berlin. This campaign was destined to last only three days - in the battle of Dennewitz, Ney was defeated and retreated. At Dennewitz, 55,000 allies, after a stubborn battle, with the loss of 9,000, defeated 70,000 French, who lost 18,000, 4 banners and 60 guns. Ney did not lead the battle at all, focusing only on Bertrand’s corps and abandoning the rest. The brunt of the battle fell on the Prussians, but the most brilliant episode fell on the Russians: the riders and numbers of one of the artillery companies launched an attack on the French infantry and captured the eagle.

P. X. Wittgenstein. Artist J. Doe

Battle of Leipzig. Colorized engraving

A witness to this feat, Bernadotte took off his hat in front of them and said: “For the first time I see artillery taking the banner from the infantry... and, moreover, from the French infantry!” The position of the French in Germany became critical.

The victories of the Bohemian army at Kulm, the Silesian army at Katzbach, and the northern army at Gross Beren and Dennewitz raised the spirit of the allies. These defeats cost the French 80,000 men and 300 guns, and their troops began to become demoralized. The first half of September passed in inactivity. The Allies were reinforced by new Russian contingents - the approaching “Polish” army of Bennigsen, after which they decided to take decisive action.

The Allied armies moved in two masses. Northern and Silesian under the general command of Blucher crossed the Elbe, Bohemian and Polish under the leadership of Schwarzenberg rioted from Bohemia. Bavaria rebelled in Napoleon's rear. Napoleon wanted to wrest the initiative from the hands of the allies and went to Blucher, but he again avoided battle. Then the emperor decided to go to Berlin, but the news of Bavaria's performance forced him to abandon this and retreat to Leipzig. In the last days of September 1813, Leipzig played the role of a huge magnet, attracting both the French army and the allied armies, which in a giant semicircle enveloped the city and Napoleon’s army on three sides. The superiority in the forces of the Allies was more than one and a half times: they had 316,000 soldiers with 1,335 guns, while Napoleon could concentrate at most 190,000 people and 700 guns.

General Bonaparte, of course, would not have accepted the battle under such unfavorable conditions and would have retreated beyond the Rhine, preserving the army. But the French emperor could not decide to take such a step, which left 170,000 French troops locked in German fortresses to certain death.

And the “Battle of the Nations” on October 4, 6 and 7 under the walls of Leipzig ended - despite the deplorable management of Schwarzenberg - with the complete defeat of Napoleon.

On October 2, Wittgenstein undertook an intensive reconnaissance of Lubertwolkowitz, which revealed that only 65,000 French had arrived in the Leipzig region. Despite the triple superiority in forces, Schwarzenberg did not attack, but went on the offensive only on October 4, when Napoleon had already concentrated 172,000 against 193,000 allies. The front moved in an arc of 15 miles, the main blow was delivered that day by the left flank of the allies. The scattered attacks of the allies were unsuccessful, and Napoleon, concentrating 100 squadrons of Murat, broke through the allied position. Emperor Alexander was almost captured, but was saved by a brilliant attack by the Life Guards Cossack Regiment and the Convoy. On the right flank, the Allies had tactical success, while the left had difficulty repelling the attack. On October 5 there was a lull, and 110,000 fresh reinforcements arrived to the Allies. Napoleon did not dare to retreat, and on October 6 his fate was decided. The massacre of that day (the concentric offensive of the Allies) ended with the defeat of the French army. The Saxon contingents betrayed the French. Schwarzenberg built a golden bridge for the retreating French and did not intercept their retreat route, despite the advice of Russian generals.

D. P. Neverovsky. Engraving

On the morning of October 7, the Russians stormed Leipzig and threw the French rearguard into the Elster River. The French lost 40,000 killed and wounded, 20,000 prisoners, 325 guns. The Allies lost 45,000, of which 22,000 Russians, 14,000 Prussians, 9,000 Austrians.

General Saken's 2nd Infantry Corps still had 1,800 men left. There were 180 bayonets left in the Arkhangelsk regiment. Neverovsky was mortally wounded.

The garrisons of the fortresses disappeared, and two-thirds of the field army disappeared. Napoleon was able to save only 60,000, who retreated beyond the Rhine in the twentieth of October. On October 18, he could still defeat the Bavarian army at Hanau, which was trying to block his retreat.

Out of an army of more than four hundred thousand, barely a seventh survived.

In January 1813, Napoleon still ruled Europe - in October he was left with only France.

At the end of October 1813, the Allied armies reached the Rhine. The Northern Army, divided into separate corps, captured all of North-West Germany, except for Hamburg, where Davout held out until the fall of Napoleon, Holland and Belgium. Blucher's Silesian army and Schwarzenberg's main army were located on the Rhine.

By winter, all French fortresses in Germany had fallen. Danzig, besieged by a siege corps led by the Duke of Württemberg, surrendered on November 10. The garrison under the command of General Rapp received permission to return to France, but Emperor Alexander insisted on its unconditional surrender.

1300 guns were taken from the fortress. A similar incident took place in Dresden. The corps of Saint-Cyr, blocked since the end of August, was about to negotiate the right of free exit, but, at the insistence of the sovereign, laid down arms on November 6 in the amount of 34,000 people with 245 guns. There were 35,000 people in Torgau, of whom 5,000 surrendered upon surrender, and 3000 found their grave in this fortress. Their resistance only brought harm to the French army by distracting the garrisons, and their fate was decided in the Battle of Leipzig.

England and Austria were inclined towards peace, which Russia and Prussia were against. Alexander sought to finish off Napoleon. For Prussia, the fight against Napoleon was a matter of life and death.

The opinion of Alexander I prevailed - and at the military council in Frankfurt on November 19, it was decided to continue the war. Austria, whose calculations did not at all include the final destruction of the French Empire, nevertheless insisted on the simultaneous opening of a peace congress in Chatillon.

Imperial Militia Battalion and Life Guards of the Finnish Regiment. Artist I. S. Samokish

Non-commissioned officer of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, 1812–1824. Colorized engraving

Emperor Napoleon I. Unknown artist

The invasion of France was based on a double envelopment of the Vosges - from the north by Blücher's army and from the south by Schwarzenberg's army.

The crossing of the Rhine took the entire month of December. The siege of the Rhine and East French fortresses, the occupation of occupied areas and Schwarzenberg’s exaggerated fears for his messages led to a scattering of forces, and for active action there remained: Schwarzenberg had 70,000, and Blücher only 26,000. In the Russian troops, there were more than a thousand miles from their bases, there was a huge shortage of troops - regiments of 400–500 bayonets were common.

Napoleon was taken by surprise. He did not foresee the winter campaign of the Allies and did not yet have time to gather an army. The available forces were gathered mainly in the north of France, in anticipation of the Allied invasion through Belgium. The emperor hurried to the threatened eastern border and in early January concentrated 41,000 at Vitry.

Schwarzenberg acted extremely sluggishly. Having reached Langres on January 5, he suspended the offensive. The main army took up quarters at Langres.

Blucher moved rapidly from the Rhineland through Lorraine to Champagne, bypassing Nancy. His army quickly reached the Oba River valley and became, as it were, the vanguard of Schwarzenberg's main army.

Napoleon rushed towards Blucher. On January 17, the Battle of Brienne took place - Blucher retreated to Schwarzenberg’s army. At the insistence of Emperor Alexander, Schwarzenberg went on the offensive and supported Blücher. The Allies attacked Napoleon's army at La Rotière on January 20 and won a complete victory, which, however, they did not take advantage of. At Brienne, 26,000 allies initially defeated the French vanguard and settled down for the night. In the evening, Napoleon appeared with the main forces and ousted the allies; Blücher, who had fallen asleep, was almost captured.

Allied damage - 3000 people, French - 3000 and 5 guns. At La Rotière, 72,000 Allies fought 40,000 French. The battle lasted 12 hours. Our damage is 4600 people, the French - 6000 people and 43 guns. The French retreated to Troyes. Schwarzenberg did not dare to go there, but first moved towards Sane.

On January 21, a military council was held, at which it was decided to divide the forces again. The Allies were supposed to move towards Paris in two masses: Schwarzenberg - through the Seine valley, Blücher - through the Marne valley. In the last days of January, Schwarzenberg’s army was brought to 100,000, Blucher’s to 50,000. But the French managed to gather 70,000.

Leaving 40,000 on the Seine against Schwarzenberg, Napoleon with 30,000 moved against Blucher, whom he hated. Blucher, having decided to encircle and destroy MacDonald’s corps at Chalons, launched a complex maneuver, scattering his corps on the Marne. These hulls moved without any connection.

Napoleon acted brilliantly. Having crossed the Saint-Gond swamps, he suddenly fell upon Blucher’s troops in the Marne valley - and with a series of short, quick blows he defeated them piece by piece: on January 29, Olsufiev’s corps at Champaubert, Saquin’s 30th corps at Montmiral, 31st corps York at Chateau-Thierry. Blucher hastily began to gather his troops, but on February 2 he was still defeated at Wotan and Etozhe.

Staff officer of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, 1812–1825. Colorized engraving

Non-commissioned officer of the Sumy Hussar Regiment, 1809–1829. Colorized engraving

Officers of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. Colorized engraving

During these five days, he lost almost a third of his army - 16,000 people and 50 guns. Olsufiev's corps consisted of 3,700 people with 24 guns and had only 12 horsemen. He put up desperate resistance all day, losing 2,500 men and 9 guns.

Olsufiev was captured. Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky relayed the conversation between the captive Olsufiev and Napoleon. The Emperor, who considered Olsufiev’s corps to be 4 times the strongest in terms of resistance, at first sneered at Blucher – “here’s your drunkard Blucher!”

He then turned the conversation to 1812 and began to complain that the Russians burned Moscow - “such a beautiful city.” “Russians do not regret their deeds, but are proud of them!” - Olsufiev answered. Napoleon stamped his foot and pointed Olsufiev to the door.

At Montmiral, Sacken's corps lost 3,700 people (2,800 Russians, 900 Prussians) and 8 guns. The French lost 2,000 people.

Having dealt with Blucher, Napoleon turned to Schwarzenberg.

With rapid marches he moved from the Marne to the Seine.

Schwarzenberg meanwhile occupied Troyes. Here he received a secret order from his cabinet not to cross the Seine River. He responded to Emperor Alexander’s demands to speed up the movement with half measures.

On February 2, Platov and the Cossacks made a brilliant raid on Fontainebleau - deep in the rear of the French, causing panic in Paris.

Napoleon, having arrived on the Seine, united with the barrier left here, collected 60,000 and on February 5, at Nangis, defeated Palen's vanguard, and on the 6th, at Montreux, defeated the Württemberg Corps. Palen's vanguard consisted of only 4,300 men with 14 guns.

It was attacked by ten times superior forces and defeated with the loss of over 2,000 people with 10 guns. Prince Eugene of Württemberg had only 10,000 with 40 guns. He lost 5,000 men and 25 guns. The French damage for both of these battles was about 3000.

Both Allied armies, having suffered defeat, united on February 9 at Troyes, and on the 12th they cleared this city.

On this day, it was decided to divide the forces again: Schwarzenberg with 100,000 to retreat to Langre, Blücher with 50,000 to attack Paris.

Blucher moved to the Marne on the same day, the 12th - and Napoleon with 35,000 immediately followed him, leaving the corps of Oudinot and Macdonald on the Seine. The Prussian field marshal set himself the goal of defeating the corps of Marmont and Mortier standing on the Marne one by one, but both marshals retreated beyond the Marne into the Ourca valley, destroying the bridges behind them.

Blücher's army strengthened to 105,000 (65,000 Russians, 40,000 Prussians). Deciding to attack Paris from the north, he moved to the right bank of the Aisne, and the Russian corps of Wintzingerode captured Soissons on February 20.

Tambour major, adjutant, chief officer of the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, 1813–1816. Colorized engraving

Private of the Sumy Hussar Regiment, 1809–1829. Colorized engraving

P. X. Wittgenstein. Artist F. Kruger

Chernyshev's vanguard captured Soissons with the loss of 200 people in the attack. 3,600 French were captured, as well as 13 guns.

Napoleon, for his part, decided to cut off Blucher’s army from Belgium and crossed the Aisne behind it. On February 23, the Battle of Craon took place - an honorable rearguard action for Russian weapons. Blucher went to Laon. Napoleon attacked him on the 25th and 26th at the Laonian position, but was unsuccessful - and retreated beyond the Aisne. Blucher nevertheless suspended his offensive.

At Craon, 18,000 Russians fought 30,000 French all day. The main forces of the Allies did not have time to prepare for the strike. Our damage was 5,000, the French's was 8,000. At Laon on February 25, Napoleon had 44,000, the allies brought about a third of the 100,000 into battle. Taking advantage of the fact that Marmont's corps was separated from the main forces by an impassable swamp, the Prussian corps of York and Kleist carried out an unexpected attack on him on the night of the 26th and completely defeated him (to recognize their own in the dark, the Prussians used the innate inability of the French to speak foreign languages ​​and put the shout “Heyrich!” and the response to it “Erich!”, that is, two words that a French throat cannot pronounce). On the 26th, all Napoleon's attacks were repulsed, and he began to retreat. However, Blucher fell ill, and his deputy chief of staff, Gneisenau, did not dare to pursue, despite all the ideas of the corps commanders and more than double superiority in forces. The Allies lost 2,000 people. Napoleon - 9000, half of whom were prisoners, and 46 guns.

The emperor needed to raise the morale of the army, which had fallen after the Battle of Laon. He quickly moved to Reims, where the Russian corps of Saint-Prix, which had just arrived from the Rhine, and on March 1, attacking this isolated corps, defeated it.

Saint-Prix's corps numbered 13,500 people, Napoleon had up to 40,000. The Russians were taken by surprise and lost over a third of their entire strength.

The French lost only 700 people.

Saint-Prix, a French emigrant, found death here from a French cannonball. On March 5, Marmont and Mortier attacked the Russian detachment of General Rudzevich occupying Soissons, which cleared the city after a stubborn two-day battle and on the orders of Blucher.

Meanwhile, the main army suspended its retreat to Langres after learning that Napoleon had gone after Blücher.

On February 15, Wittgenstein defeated Oudinot and Macdonald at Bar-sur-Aube and on the 19th the Allies again occupied Troyes, and in two-day battles at Arcy-sur-Aube on March 8 and 9 the French were again defeated. At Barsyur-Oba, Wittgenstein's 44,000 defeated Oudinot's 28,000. Our damage is 1500 people, Wittgenstein is wounded; the French lost 3,000. At Arcy, 40,000 allies fought against 30,000 French. Allied losses - 3000, French - up to 7000 and 7 guns.

From Reims Napoleon hurried to the Seine. Blucher also joined forces with Schwarzenberg’s army. Napoleon, after allocating the corps of Marmont and Mortier to Paris, still had 40,000. The allies had 180,000. After the battle of Arcy, the emperor was faced with a dilemma - to retreat to Paris or act offensively against Schwarzenberg’s messages. Knowing the excessive fears of the Allied Commander-in-Chief for “unterkunft” and communications, Napoleon chose the second method of action - the “indirect” defense of Paris. Schwarzenberg decided to take advantage of his enormous numerical superiority to finish off Napoleon's army and gave the appropriate orders, but Emperor Alexander decided otherwise.

Staff officer and non-commissioned officer of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, 1814–1828. Colorized engraving

Chief officer and lower ranks of the Izmailovsky regiment, 1812–1816. Colorized engraving

F. F. Wintzingerode. Artist J. Doe

Entry of Allied forces into Paris. Artist F. Malek

On March 12, in Sommpui, the Sovereign held a military council, at which the Russian commanders ordered to move with all their might to Paris, leaving only a small detachment to occupy Napoleon. Schwarzenberg had to agree.

Wintzingerode's corps was left against Napoleon - all the rest of the forces rushed to Paris: Blucher's army on Cezanne, Schwarzenberg's army on Fère-Champenoise.

On March 13, the Russian cavalry of both armies had a brilliant job at Fer-Champenoise, defeating the corps of Marmont and Mortier and completely destroying the two divisions going to these marshals. Fer-Champenoise – double victory. The cavalry of the main army dealt with the corps of Marmont and Mortier, while the cavalry of the Silesian army cut down the divisions of Pacto and Ame 7 versts away. Both French corps unexpectedly came across Palen's cavalry. The battle lasted up to 3 hours, the marshals were overthrown and finally defeated when they tried to counterattack, mistaking the cannonade in the neighborhood for the approach of Napoleon, while the cavalry of the Silesian army was crushing two French divisions. They lost over 5,000 people and almost all their artillery. At the same time, the cavalry of the Silesian army came across the divisions of Pacto and Ame.

Baron Korf, having only 2000 sabers and 4 guns, attacked these divisions at 2 o'clock, who fought with great courage. The attack was supported and developed by Vasilchikov's cavalry, and Emperor Alexander personally brought here part of the cavalry of the main army. Both French divisions were cut down and their remnants were taken prisoner. In total, at Fer-Champenoise, 12,000 Russian cavalry with 94 guns, with the loss of up to 2,000 people, defeated 23,000 French with 84 guns, losing 11,000 people. And on the 18th, 170,000 allies stood under the walls of Paris!

On March 19, Russian troops stormed the Belleville Heights and Montmartre. Paris was at the feet of the Russian Tsar - and the next day the Russians and their allies solemnly entered the capital of France. Up to 100,000 people took part in the assault on Paris. The capital was defended by 40,000 French - the corps of Marmont and Mortier, defeated at Fer-Champenoise, and the national guard.

The losses of the attackers were high - 8,400 people. This is the bloodiest affair of the entire 1814 campaign. 1000 prisoners and 126 guns were taken. The defenders of Paris also lost 4,000 killed and wounded.

Napoleon, who defeated Wintzingerode at Saint-Dizier on March 14, only then learned of the Allied campaign against Paris. He rushed to his capital, but it was too late. On the day of the assault on Montmartre, he only reached Fontainebleau. Here he received the fatal news and on March 30 abdicated the throne, only to try his luck again a year later.

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich. Unknown artist

Entry of Russian troops into Paris; Artist A. D. Kivshenko

A. P. Ermolov. Artist J. Doe

All military decorations awarded for the Patriotic War have one common inscription: “For distinction in the defeat and expulsion of the enemy from Russia in 1812.” In this way, the troops were rewarded for the valor they showed from the first to the last day of this glorious campaign: no awards were given for exploits performed in individual battles. The exception is the difference between the 3rd Pernovsky Grenadier Regiment (for Vyazma), the 11th Pskov Infantry Regiment, the 61st Vladimir Infantry Regiment (both for Gorodechnya) and the 5th Cavalry Battery (for Krasny, where numbers and riders led by Lieutenant Nikitin went on horseback to attack and captured the French battery). Smolensk, Borodino and Polotsk are not mentioned even once.

Many awards given for the campaign of 1814 have the inscription: “For distinction in the past campaign, successfully completed,” without explanation for which “past” campaign - as if after 1814 there were no more fights to be fought.

The capture of Paris was the apogee of Russian glory - the crown of the heroic work of five generations. The Don mashtachki drank the water of the Seine, and the great-great-grandsons of the Narva fugitives and Poltava victors, the sons of the Rymnik miracle heroes, having defeated Europe, became a bivouac on the Champs Elysees!

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Retreat of the Russian army On August 27 (September 8), 1812, at six o’clock in the morning, the Russian army withdrew from its positions and began to retreat. General Dessay’s adjutant Felix Giraud de l’Ain: “General Kutuzov could calmly retreat, taking with him all the guns and crews and traveling hospitals,

The campaign of 1813 was a new, now forgotten by our people, page of the Glory of Russian weapons. The inspirer and organizer, as well as the binding link of the VI anti-Napoleonic coalition, was certainly Emperor Alexander I.

AlexanderI

Having already completed the victorious campaign of 1812, the Emperor decided for himself that leaving Napoleon in the state he was in after the defeat in the Russian campaign of 1812 was unacceptable and dangerous, because. his shaky Throne, like the Throne of any conqueror, was maintained only by continuous victories, and Bonaparte, after a year or two, having again gathered the troops of the subjects of Europe, would again repeat the invasion of Russia and would try to avoid his previous mistakes. Thus, the campaign in Europe was not so much the willfulness of Alexander I, but also a state necessity.

In early December 1812, the Russian army concentrated near Vilna (Vilnius). Having left the Tarutino camp with an army of almost 100 thousand, Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov brought only 40 thousand soldiers to the borders of the Russian Empire, and out of 620 guns, only 200 were delivered. Thus, the autumn-winter campaign of 1812 cost Napoleon 160,000 people (killed and captured), and the Russian army lost up to 80 thousand people in this period (only one fourth of this composition was killed in action). By the end of December 1812, units of Admiral P.V. joined Kutuzov’s army. Chichagov and the building of Count P.Kh. Wittgenstein, thus forming an army of 90 thousand. Already on December 28, 1812, Kutuzov’s army crossed the river. Neman and entered the territory of Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw.

M.I. Kutuzov-Golenishchev

The main goal of the winter campaign of 1813, Alexander I set the destruction of the flanking corps of Magdonald in Prussia and the Austro-Saxon corps of Schwarzenberg and Rainier in Poland. These goals were soon achieved. In January 1813, all of eastern Prussia was cleared of the French by the army of Count P. Wittgenstein; the Prussians enthusiastically greeted the Russian liberators. Soon the cities of Thorn and Danzig were besieged by Russian troops. Units under the command of Prince Kutuzov-Smolensky began an attack on the city of Polotsk, which forced Schwarzenberg to evacuate units from Warsaw and retreat with Poniatowski’s corps to Galicia. The Saxon corps of General Rainier retreated to Kalisz, where on February 1, 1813 it was defeated by the corps of General Wintzingerode.

The actions of the Russian army in East Prussia became the spark that ignited the fire of the patriotic struggle of the people of Prussia against the Napoleonic occupation. After some hesitation, King Frederick William III concluded a military alliance on February 16, 1813, according to which Russia was obliged to form an army of 150 thousand and a decision was made by the allied monarchs (Russian and Prussian) “not to lay down weapons until the restoration of Prussia within the borders of 1806” . Prussia, for its part, was obliged to field an 80 thousand army, but at the beginning of the union, the Prussian army of General Blucher had only 56 thousand soldiers. By the end of February 1813, the Russian army already had 140 thousand, and a reserve army was also being formed in Belarus and Ukraine, reaching up to 180 thousand soldiers. On February 27 (March 11), 1813, Count Wittgenstein's army occupied Berlin, and on March 15 (27), 1813, Dresden was captured by Russian troops.

Peter Christianovich Wittgenstein

On April 16 (28), 1813, His Serene Highness Prince Kutuzov-Smolensky dies in the city of Bunzlau. Count Peter Wittgenstein was appointed the new commander of the united Russian army. His position was quite difficult, because... Under his command were more senior and experienced corps commanders, once his direct superiors: M.B. Barclay de Tolly, Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich and Field Marshal Blucher.

Gebhard Leberecht Blücher

Wittgenstein did not have sufficient authority before them. In addition, there was an imperial headquarters under the Russian army, which also gave its own orders, bypassing the commander-in-chief of the army.

At the cost of enormous efforts, Napoleon assembled a new French army during the winter of 1812-13, numbering about 200 thousand people, with 350 guns, and in April 1813 he invaded German territory. Bonaparte's new army had only 8 thousand cavalry; all the famous cavalry of Marshal Murat died in the Russian company of 1812 (at Borodino and when crossing the Berezina River). The Russian-Prussian army in early April 1813 concentrated south of Leipzig, trying to get closer to the Austrian border, because. There were constantly secret negotiations with Austria with the aim of joining it to the anti-Napoleonic coalition. Not knowing about the concentration of Allied troops near Leipzig, Napoleon sent his troops to it in echelon. Count Wittgenstein, with 94 thousand and 650 guns, tried to launch a flank attack on the dispersed parts of the French and attacked Napoleon on April 20 (May 1), 1813 at Lucin.

But this attack was repulsed by the French army, and the allied troops retreated across the river. Elba. Of the 72 thousand allies, the losses amounted to 12 thousand people, and of the 100 thousand French - 15 thousand. The lack of cavalry deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to build on his success and carry out strategic reconnaissance on the flanks. Despite Count Wittgenstein's attempts to attack Napoleon from the flanks, the Allies were soon forced to abandon Dresden and all of Saxony.

On May 8 (20) and 9 (21), 1813, near the city of Bautzen, the allied Russian-Prussian army was again defeated and retreated to upper Selesia. Under Bautzen, the balance of forces was as follows: the allied Russian-Prussian army numbered 96 thousand soldiers and 610 guns, the French had 165 thousand with 250 guns, i.e. The French had an almost twofold superiority in manpower, while the allied army had a twofold superiority in artillery. On May 8 (20), 1813, Napoleon attacked the units of General Miloradovich and threw him back to the main positions of the Allied army. After this, General M.B. Barclay de Tolly advised not to accept the battle and retreat, but Alexander I supported the arguments of the Prussian generals and insisted on a battle. On May 9 (21), a 100 thousand army led by Napoleon attacked the allied army in the front (frontal attack), and Ney's 60 thousand corps bypassed the right flank and created a threat to the rear of the entire allied army. Napoleon carried out a diversionary maneuver on the left flank, forcing reserve units to be transferred there. Count Wittgenstein warned of a possible attack on the right flank, but Alexander I ignored his warning. The situation was saved by the fact that Marshal Ney never completed his task and was carried away by private, rearguard battles and thereby saved the Allied army from complete disaster. The losses of the allied army were: 12 thousand killed and wounded, the French lost 18 thousand soldiers and officers.

On May 23 (June 4), 1813, a 1.5-month truce was concluded between the Russian-Prussian alliance and Napoleon, which was later extended until July 29 (August 9), 1813. On July 30 (August 10), 1813, after the end of the truce, the Austrian Empire announced a break with France, joining the anti-Napoleonic coalition and thereby declared war on Napoleonic France.

By the end of the Armistice VI, the coalition numbered up to 0.5 million people, and consisted of three armies: the Bohemian, the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, located near the city of Bautzen - 237 thousand (77 thousand Russians, 50 thousand Prussians, 110 thousand Austrians) , the Silesian General Blücher at Schweidnitz - 98 thousand (61 thousand Russians and 37 thousand Prussians), and the northern army of the former Napoleonic Marshal Bernadotte (then already known as Crown Prince Karl Johan of Sweden) at Berdin - 127 thousand (30 thousand. Russians, 73 thousand Prussians and 24 thousand Swedes). Formally, the commanders-in-chief were the monarchs of Russia, Prussia and Austria, but de facto the commander-in-chief of the allied army was the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg...

Carl Philipp Schwarzenberg

Thus, all Russian units were subordinate to foreign commanders. To defeat Napoleon, the Allies adopted the so-called. The “Trachtenberg Plan”, according to which the main thing was not a battle, but a maneuver... The Allied army, which Napoleon attacked, would have to retreat, and the other two would have to carry out flank attacks on the extended communications of the French.

By this time, Napoleon had concentrated up to 40 thousand active forces in Germany, and another 170 thousand were in the garrisons of Hamburg, Dresden, Danzig and Torgau. Thus. Napoleon's active army was little more than 100 thousand. Napoleon saw his main task as entering Berlin and the surrender of Prussia, for which purpose the 70 thousand corps of Marshal Oudinot was sent to the Berlin direction, and the units of Marshal Davout and Girard (about 50 thousand) were supposed to block the retreat of Bernadotte’s northern army. Ney's corps acted against Blucher's army, and General Saint-Cyr's corps acted against Schwarzenberg's army. Napoleon himself led the reserve army, which should immediately approach the French corps against which the main blow would be delivered. On August 11 (22), Marshal Oudinot's army collided with Bernadotte's army at Grosberen and was defeated, i.e. the attack on Berlin failed...

Soon the next battle of Dresden took place on August 14-15 (26-27), 1813, at first on August 13 (25) Schwarzenberg had a two-fold superiority (87 against 40 thousand Frenchmen of Saint-Cyr), who could not decide to fight the French, and when on August 14 (26) the allied army increased to 130 thousand, the French reserve army led by Napoleon approached Dresden. Based on this, Emperor Alexander I ordered a retreat, but the order did not reach the army of Count Wittgenstein in time, who launched an attack on the outskirts of Dresden and suffered significant losses. On August 15 (27), Napoleon dealt a crushing blow to the allies, sending his units against the Austrians on the left flank. The battle was accompanied by heavy rain, and the battle was fought with cold steel. The French lost 12 thousand soldiers, the Allies 16 thousand and 50 guns. After the defeat at Dresden, Schwarzenberg's army began to retreat to Bohemia, his task was to cover the direction to Vienna and prevent the French army from entering the capital of the Austrian Empire.

In order to cut off the allies’ retreat route through the mountain valleys (the Ore Mountains region), Napoleon, on August 14 (26), 1813, sent General Vandam’s 1st Army Corps in a roundabout maneuver from the left to the city of Teplitz (Bohemia), which was to be supported by the corps of Marshals Saint-Marshals. Sira and Marmona (but Vandam never received support). If Vandam successfully completed his task, an extremely dangerous and even critical situation would have developed for the allies, both militarily and politically. In the military because if Vandam's corps reached Teplitz, it blocked the narrow path through the Ore Mountains, and then the Bohemian army (which included the Russian Emperor and the King of Prussia) was threatened with encirclement and complete defeat. Politically, there was a real threat of the collapse of the allied coalition. Already after the defeat at Dresden, Austria was inclined to withdraw from the VI anti-French coalition, and its Chancellor Mitterrich was already planning to send his representatives to negotiate with the French...

The path of the 35 thousand French corps of Vandam near the city of Kulm (Bohemia) was blocked by a detachment of the Russian Guard of Count Osterman-Tolstoy, which included the 1st Guards Infantry Division of General A.P. Ermolov and the remnants of the 2nd Army Corps of Prince Eugene of Württemberg - a total of 10-12 thousand soldiers of the Russian Guard.

On the first day of the battle, August 17 (29), 1813, the French units, having almost three times superiority, constantly attacked, but all their efforts were defeated by the steadfastness of the Russian guard. The Life Guards Semenovsky Regiment stubbornly defended itself, but lost almost 1,000 people (out of 1,600 initially). His second battalion lost all its officers. The lifeguards also distinguished themselves. The commander of the Russian corps, Count Osterman-Tolstoy, was out of action; his left arm was torn off by a cannonball. General A.P. took command of the Russian units. Ermolov. At 17.00 hours the French managed to achieve success in the center of the position. In A. Ermolov’s reserve there were only two companies of Preobrazhentsy and Semyonovtsy left, and when it seemed that the French would be able to win, reinforcements arrived - dragoon and uhlan regiments, under the command of General I.I. Dibich, they entered the battle from the march... Next came the heavy cavalry - the 1st and 2nd cuirassiers, the 1st Grenadier and 2nd Guards divisions. The Russian units lost about 6 thousand people that day, but the combat mission was completed - the movement of the allied army through the Ore Mountains was ensured.

On August 18 (30), the battle of Kulm continued. Now the Allies had numerical superiority and attacked the French units from three sides. As a result of this attack, Vandam's corps was almost completely destroyed, General Vandam himself with four generals surrendered, and the other two generals of his corps remained in the fields near Kulm. More than 12 thousand French soldiers and officers were captured. Also captured were 84 guns, two imperial eagles, five banners, and the entire French baggage train. As noted by the Russian military historian in exile A.A. Kersnovsky: “The Kulm victory shines with glory on the banners of our guard - it was the favorite victory of Emperor Alexander Pavlovich.” In honor of the victory at Klm, the King of Prussia, Frederick William III, established the “sign of the Iron Cross,” which in Russia became known as the Kulm Cross.

After the victory at Kulm, the allied army moved to Bohemia to replenish reserves. After the end of the war with Napoleon, all regiments of the Russian Guard were given St. George's banners with the inscription embroidered on them: “For their heroic deeds in the battle of Kulm on August 17, 1813.”

On the eve of the Battle of Kulm, on August 14 (26), the Franco-Prussian battle of Katzbach took place, as a result of which Blucher’s army completely defeated Macdonald’s corps (the balance of forces was as follows: 75 thousand allies against 65 thousand French and 200 guns on each side) . Napoleon's army moved to help MacDonald, but Blucher avoided battle even then.

On August 24 (September 5), Marshal Ney’s army launched a new attack on Berlin, but was defeated in the Battle of Dennewitz and retreated. After the defeat of Ney's army, the position of the French army in Germany became critical. The victories of the Bohemian army at Kulm, the Silesian at Katzbach, the northern at Grosberen and Dennewitz undermined the faith of the French army in victory, and Napoleon’s losses amounted to 80 thousand soldiers and 300 guns... In September, the army of the VI coalition received reinforcements in the form of a 60 thousand army (formed in Poland) Count Bennigsen.

In mid-September, the offensive of the Allied armies began, which was divided into two groups: the 1st Northern and Selesian armies led by Blücher and Bernadotte, the 2nd Bohemian and Polish under the command of Schwarzenberg. Napoleon tried to break through to Berlin again, but soon learned of an uprising in the Kingdom of Bavaria, which threatened to block the route of retreat, and turned to Leipzig. Soon the main forces of Napoleon and the allies gathered near Leipzig, and from October 4 (16) to October 7 (19), 1813, the “Battle of the Nations” took place at Leipzig.

The balance of forces according to A. Kersnovsky in his “History of the Russian Army” is given as follows: 316 thousand and 1335 guns for the forces of the anti-Napoleonic coalition and 190 thousand and 700 guns for Napoleon. The front of the Battle of Leipzig stretched over 16 kilometers. Despite the rather mediocre command of Schwarzenberg, the allies managed to break Napoleon’s resistance during two days of fighting, but in the heat of battle Alexander I was almost captured; he owed his salvation to the attack of the Life Cossacks of Orlov-Denisov and His Majesty’s Own Convoy. After a bloody battle on October 7 (19), Schwarzenberg was unable to cut off the retreat routes for the French units, but despite this, Leipzig was taken by Allied troops. The French lost 40 thousand (1/5 of their army), 20 thousand prisoners (10%), and more than 300 guns (40% of artillery). The Allies at Leipzig lost 45 thousand (15%), with half of the losses falling on the Russian contingent - 22 thousand, the Prussians lost 14 thousand and the Austrians lost 9 thousand. Napoleon was able to withdraw only 60 thousand soldiers from his 190 thousand army across the Rhine. But even these forces were enough for him to defeat the army of the Bavarian King at Hanau, which blocked his route of retreat to France. At the same time, Russian units led by Prince Alexander of Württemberg occupied Danzig, thereby ending the 1813 campaign with the liberation of the Kingdom of Prussia.

The campaign of 1813 had the character of a war of mass armies and armed peoples, at the same time, the very attitude of the opponents to each other had the character of the traditions of chivalry, and there could be no talk of concentration camps for prisoners of war! Even the attitude towards prisoners was emphatically polite and respectful, as on the part of the Napoleonic army, but especially on the part of the Russian soldiers. It must be admitted that the entire campaign of 1813 was entirely the merit of the Russian army; it showed miracles of valor and fortitude, just as Emperor Alexander I showed enviable tenacity in the fight against Napoleon, and did not make any concessions or negotiations with Bonaparte.