Anna Ioannovna's domestic and foreign policy briefly. Anna Ioannovna's domestic policy

In 1722, Peter changed the order of succession to the throne, but died on January 28, 1725 without appointing an heir. Contenders: Catherine, wife, crowned in 1721, which was used as an argument, supported by the guard, Alexander Danilovich Menshikov and Peter's inner circle; Peter Alekseevich born in 1715, grandson of Peter 1, for whom the old family nobility spoke. Under pressure from the guard, Catherine was confirmed as empress, and Menshikov actually ruled under her. In February 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was established with 6 members: Menshikov, Apraksin, Dm. Mich. Golitsyn, Tolstoy, Golovkin, Andr. Iv. Osterman. Menshikov tries to get closer to Pyotr Alekseevich and betroths him to his daughter. On May 6, 1727, Catherine died; according to her testament, Pyotr Alekseevich succeeded her, and in the event of his childless death, Elizaveta Petrovna. At the instigation of the Dolgorukys, who took advantage of Menshikov’s illness, Peter exiled Menshikov. The main influence during the childhood of Peter was the teacher Osterman and Prince. Iv. Dolgoruky. January 19, 1730 Peter dies without a will. The VTS decides to bypass the testament and place Anna Ioannovna, born in 1693, daughter of Ivan 5, a widow, on the throne. Dm. Mich. Golitsyn proposes conditions that limit the power of A.I. in favor of the military-technical cooperation: 1. A.I. does not marry and does not appoint an heir 2. The military-technical cooperation consists of 8 people, without him it is impossible to resolve issues of war and peace, taxes, treasury expenses, grant estates or take them away from the nobles 3. troops and guards are subordinate to the military-technical cooperation 4. A.I. does not deprive nobles of honor and life without trial. On February 3, Anna entered Moscow. The nobles are dissatisfied with the conditions, noble state projects are being created. devices, 12-20 pieces. Basically, they demand an expansion of the number of members of the military-technical cooperation, their election by the nobility, limiting the term of service to 20 years and privileges for the nobility, and the abolition of the decree on unified inheritance of 1714. Discontent with the military-technical cooperation is growing, with Cherkassky at the head of the opposition. On February 25, the gentry came to the palace, demanding consideration of their projects, and later the restoration of autocracy. On the same day, A.I. broke the rules and announced the restoration of autocracy. The military-technical cooperation lost to the guard and the nobility, which constituted it, since it did not have military force. March 1, 1730 A.I. was crowned empress, 1730-October 1740. Since May, the influence of foreigners, in particular Biron, has been noticed.

Domestic policy: Before A.I. in 1727, the power of governors and governors was united, under Peter 2 the Chief Magistrate was destroyed, and city administration was transferred under the control of governors. Under Anna Ioannovna: the MTC was abolished, all its members, except Osterman and Golovkin, were exiled. Minich and Lassi were placed at the head of the army, Osterman at the head of the board of foreign affairs, and Levenvolde at the guard. In 1731, the Cabinet of Ministers was established, replacing the military-technical cooperation, consisting of: Osterman, Mikh. Le Havre Golovkin, Cherkassky, in 1735 the deceased Golovkin was replaced by Yaguzhinsky, and in 1738 by Volynsky. In 1730, the Senate, consisting of 21 people, was restored, but its importance was downgraded by the Cabinet of Ministers.

The position of the gentry has been improved, the reason being the reliance on the guard during the destruction of standards. 1731 the decree on single inheritance was repealed, estates became hereditary possession -> land, previously considered state land, was transferred to the hands of the nobles. In 1731, a noble school was founded - the Noble Land Corps, after training in which nobles were immediately accepted into officer positions. On December 31, 1736, a 25-year service period was established for nobles, after which they had the right to resign.

1731 commissions for collecting arrears receive the right to collect them from the landowner, landowners must collect arrears themselves, landowners can punish peasants, 1734 peasants are prohibited from opening cloth factories. In general, the pressure on the peasants is increasing even more, in the interests of replenishing the budget - the main income comes from direct taxes, and improving the position of the nobility. Since 1736, it was impossible to sell factory-owned peasants separately from the factory.

Foreign policy: 1732 Caspian shore returned to Persia 1733 interference in elections Polish king, for Augustus 3 against Stanislav Leszczynski, supported by France. Russian troops besieged Danzig, over time Leszczynski fled, and the crown went to Augustus 3, who was supported by Russia. 1735-39 Russian-Turkish war. Minikh took Ochakov, Khotin, Yassy; Lassi - Azov. The war was successful, but the Belgorod Peace of 1739 gave modest gains: steppe lands without significant cities and the Turks’ obligation to raze Azov. At the same time, troop losses amounted to up to 100 thousand people; the war was not urgently necessary.

After the death of A.I., the throne was bequeathed to Ivan Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich. A.I. hesitated for a long time in appointing Biron regent, but still did it, beating Anton Ulrich and Anna Leopoldovna. But on the night of November 8/9, 1740, Biron was arrested by Minich’s guards, at the request of Anna Leopoldovna, and exiled to Pelym. Anna Leopoldovna accepted the title of Grand Duchess, but her power was unsteady. The French Ambassador De la Chetardie hoped for the accession to the throne of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter, removed from political life A.I., and tried to organize a conspiracy with the help of the doctor Elizabeth Lestock. On November 24/25, 1741, as a result of a conspiracy by Razumovsky, Vorontsov, Shuvalov and Lestocq, who insisted on a coup and convinced Elizabeth herself, the grenadiers of the Preobrazhensky regiment placed Elizabeth on the throne.

The focus of Russian diplomats was the traditional Black Sea problem and the active protection of conquests in the Baltic.

Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774.

April 1769 - the first two campaigns under the command of A.M. Golitsyn were unsuccessful, although before his departure he still took Khotin (September 10) and Iasi (September 26). Then Russian troops took Bucharest. Soon Moldova swore allegiance to Russia.

After a series of victories by I.F. Medema, Kabarda swore allegiance to Russia.

In 1770 Russia won even greater victories over Turkey. Russian troops occupied Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman and others.

1770, June 25-26; July 7 and July 21 – victories of the Russian fleet at Chesma and P.A. Rumyantsev’s troops at Larga and Kagul.

July 1771 – Yu.V. Dolgoruky was announced about the approval of eternal friendship with Russia, as a result, Russia formed its own peace conditions, which did not suit Austria.

In June 1774 Russian troops again raided the Danube. The Turks suffered several defeats at once.

§ The Crimean Khanate was declared independent;

§ The fortresses of Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn pass to Russia;

§ The Black and Marmara Seas were declared free for merchant ships of Russian citizens;

§ Georgia is freed from the heaviest tribute by young men and women sent to Turkey;

§ Türkiye pays Russia 4.5 million rubles. for military costs.

1783 – liquidation of the Crimean Khanate, the entry of its territory into Russia. Founding of Sevastopol.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791.

August 21, 1787 The Turkish fleet attacked Russian patrols near Kinburn. The defeat of the Turks, the disruption of their attempt to capture Crimea from the sea and destroy Sevastopol.

1788 - the actions of the Russian army focused on the assault on the Turkish fortress of Ochakov, since the main forces of the Turkish fleet were stationed in the harbor. In the battle near Snake Island, under the command of F.F. Ushakov, the Russians won. December - successful assault on Ochakov;

§ Türkiye ceded to Russia all the lands of the Black Sea region up to the Dniester River, gave up Ochakov;

§ Türkiye was obliged to compensate for damages for raids in the North Caucasus;

§ Moldavia, Bessarabia and Wallachia remained in the hands of the Porte, and the question of the protectorate of Georgia was not resolved.

Russian-Swedish war 1788-1790.

Summer of 1788 was created Triple Alliance, directed against Russia (England, Prussia, Holland), finally, Prussia, England and Turkey achieved an attack on Russia by Sweden.

June 1788 - Swedish troops besieged the fortresses of Neishlot and Friedrichsgam, and the Swedish fleet entered the Gulf of Finland;

July 1788 – the battle of the island of Gogland, a Russian victory, thereby the Russians stopped Gustav III’s attempt to take possession of St. Petersburg;

1789 – Russian troops launched an offensive in Finland, Russian victory;

1772 - the first partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Eastern Belarus with borders along the Western Dvina, Druta and Dnieper.

1793 – the second partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine;

1794 – uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko;

1795 – the third partition of Poland, according to which Russia received Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland and part of Volyn;

With the accession of the Empress Anna (1730-1740 ), according to the expression V. O. Klyuchevsky, “The Germans poured into Russia like rubbish from a leaky bag.” Government policy Anna determined by the chancellor A. I. Osterman, field marshal was in charge of military affairs B. H. Minikh, well, at the court of the empress he reigned E. I. Biron, who later became Duke of Courland. Instead of Supreme privy council was soon created Cabinet of three ministers. The empress generously thanked the nobles who placed her on the throne - December 9, 1730 a decree was issued to cancel " majorate" IN 1731 The poll tax from the peasants was transferred to the hands of the landowners. A December 31, 1736 a manifesto on reducing the term is issued military service nobles under 25 years of age. Since nobles were enrolled in the service in childhood, now a nobleman at the age of 40-45 could concentrate entirely on economic activities on his estates. All this gradually destroyed the “regular state” Peter the Great, Russia increasingly turned into a noble empire.

True, this has not yet affected Russia’s foreign policy prestige and its influence in European affairs. So, in the war for the “Polish inheritance” 1733-1735 Russia managed to place its protégé, the Saxon Elector, on the Polish throne Augusta III, despite open intervention France. Russia was getting closer and closer to England And Austria a counterweight France, Prussia And Turkey, the balance of power was taking shape in Europe, which later served as the starting point Seven Years' War. After Russia became involved in the war for the “Polish inheritance”, Ottoman Empire has repeatedly demonstrated its clear displeasure with this intervention. Russia, for its part, actively supported Persia in the fight against the Turks, even agreeing to an alliance with its ruler Nadir Shah. A collision thus became inevitable, and 1735 The Russian-Turkish war began.

Appointed Commander-in-Chief B. H. Minikh in winter 1735-1736 drew up a campaign plan according to which two armies were formed: one - on Don, for siege Azova, the other - on Dnieper, for a trip to Crimea. Command the last army took over himself Minich. The Azov Army was commanded by the Chief General P. P. Lassi. IN March 1736 the siege began Azova, and already in June the fortress capitulated. IN April the army marched to the south Minikha. Approaching Perekopu, Minich demanded that the Crimean Khan capitulate and recognize the rule of the Russian Empress, and after the refusal he immediately began preparing for the assault. It was undertaken May 20, 1736 and within a few hours it was a complete success. Particularly striking are the insignificant losses of the attackers: less than 100 killed! After this victory Minich led the army further, occupied and ravaged the capital of the Khanate Bakhchisaray, Cafe and others Largest cities, hoping in this way to lead the Crimeans out of the war. However, the field marshal was unable to completely achieve his goal, and large losses, not of a combat nature, but from illness, forced him to July begin a retreat north.

A new blow was aimed at 1737 to the Turkish fortress Ochakov at the mouth Dnieper, which needed to be destroyed for the further development of the offensive to the west. At the end June Minich at the head of the army he approached the fortress and surrounded it, beginning preparations for the assault. The assault actually failed, but Minikha saved by a happy coincidence - the Turks, busy repelling the assault, could not put out the fire in the fortress, and in the morning July 2 the fire reached the powder magazines. Part of the fortifications flew into the air, killing almost 6 thousand defenders, after which the city lost the ability to defend itself and surrendered. The apogee of war and military career Minikha began his trip to Khotyn V 1739 IN August under Stavuchans he was met by an 80,000-strong Turkish army. Numerically inferior to the enemy, Minich decided to divert his attention with deceptive blows, and then go on the offensive and break through to Khotin. This was completely successful, after which the disorderly flight of the Turks began. The Russians occupied the Turkish camp, captured the entire enemy supply and artillery, suffering negligible losses. Path on Khotyn was opened. However, a terrible defeat under Belgrade led to the signing of a separate peace between Austria And Turkey, so that all the victories of the Russian army were devalued. As a result, according to the peace treaty concluded that same fall Russia received Azov, and the Kabardian possessions are on Northern Caucasus who previously recognized suzerainty Istanbul, were now declared neutral, becoming a kind of border barrier between the two states. Moldova Türkiye kept it behind her.

Almost everyone was dissatisfied with the results of the war. An expression of growing dissatisfaction with politics Cabinet of Ministers empress Anna not only among the people, but also in the circles of the Russian nobility, a “deed” appeared A. P. Volynsky, a talented administrator who, with a circle of his associates, was preparing a project for new government reforms. Former Astrakhan and Kazan governor, Volynsky quickly moved up the career ladder and 1738 joined Cabinet of Ministers. He maintained close relations with the President of the Commerce Collegium P. I. Musin-Pushkin, Chief Prosecutor of the Senate F. I. Soimonov and other figures who were hostile to German dominance at court. It is clear that Volynsky soon became in very strained relations with Biron, and with Osterman. Although things did not go beyond unpleasant conversations and the development of reform projects, 1740 they were accused of conspiring against the imperial power: some were executed, others were sent to hard labor.

In this turbulent situation she died Anna Ioannovna, leaving the throne to his infant great-nephew Ivan Antonovich, grandson on the female side of her sister. IN November-December 1740 power over the empire belonged Biron, who became regent, and after his arrest and exile - the mother of the emperor Anna Leopoldovna and her husband the prince Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick. It is clear that this state of affairs could not suit almost any of the Russians, who were tired of the German dominance of the previous decade and did not want to see a foreign dynasty on the throne. As a result of another palace coup on the night of 24 on November 25, 1741 the guards placed their daughter on the throne Peter I to Elizabeth. Representatives of the Brunswick dynasty were kept in prison for several decades Kholmogory under Arkhangelsk in the link, and Ivan Antonovich Having reached adulthood, he was transferred to the casemate of the Shlisselburg fortress, where he was killed by guards in 1764 when the lieutenant tries Mirovich release him from prison.

Anna Ioannovna - Russian empress from the Romanov dynasty, niece, who was on the throne from 1730 to 1740. Anna was born on February 7, 1693 in royal family in the Cross Chamber of the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin.

The girl's parents - Tsar Ivan V and Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna - raised two more daughters: the eldest Catherine and the younger Praskovya. WITH early age Anna and her sisters studied Russian literacy, arithmetic, geography, dancing, German and French. The princesses' teachers were Johann Christian Dietrich Osterman (Andrei Osterman's elder brother) and Stefan Ramburg.

In 1696, Ivan Alekseevich died, and the dowager queen and her children were forced to leave the Kremlin chambers and move to the country residence Izmailovo, which was an estate built in the old Russian style. The palace facilities included orchards, numerous ponds, and a winter garden. Performances were regularly staged in the court theater, and musicians gave concerts of symphonic music.

In 1708, the family of Peter I's deceased brother moved to St. Petersburg. The solemn procession arrived in the new capital together with Alexei Petrovich, the princesses Feodosia, Maria and Natalya and the dowager queen Martha Matveevna. In honor of the emperor's relatives, a large feast was held with cannon salvoes and a boat trip along Gulf of Finland. Praskovya Fedorovna settled with her daughters in a palace not far from the place where Smolny now stands. Soon the Swedes began an attack on the northern capital, and the relatives had to return to Moscow.

Peter's troops failed to gain the upper hand in the Northern War. The Russian emperor needed the support of the Prussian and Courland rulers. During the war, Courland experienced political pressure from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, from which it was a vassal. In 1709, Peter managed to turn the tide of action; Russian troops occupied Courland. Diplomatic negotiations took place with the King of Prussia, Frederick William I, at which it was decided to unite the two dynasties.

The Russian princess, Peter's niece Anna, was chosen as the bride, and the nephew of the Prussian king, Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm, was chosen as the groom. After two months of marriage, the young husband died of a cold on the way to Courland. Peter forbade Anna to return to her homeland. The princess arrived in Mitau, where she held the position of dowager duchess for 20 years. The treasury of the duchy was devastated by long-term taxes from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, so Anna had to eke out a modest existence. The Duchess wrote many times to Peter I, and then to his widow, asking for financial assistance.

Beginning of reign

In 1730, Emperor Peter II died, and it became necessary to choose a new ruler. At a meeting of the Privy Council, six candidates were nominated for the Russian throne: the son of the deceased Duchess Anna Petrovna - Peter-Ulrich, the second daughter of Peter I - the crown princess, the first wife of Peter I - Evdokia Feodorovna Lopukhina, and three daughters of Tsar John Alekseevich.

Princes Dmitry Golitsyn and Vasily Dolgorukov proposed inviting Anna Ivanovna, who had been in straitened circumstances for twenty years and could make the necessary concessions to the aristocracy. The Privy Council supported the choice, and a letter was sent to the Duchess with a list of “conditions” - conditions limiting autocratic power in favor of the Privy Council.

Anna signed a document in Mitau on January 25 (Old Art.), according to which she was obliged to take care of the spread of Orthodoxy in Russia, not to marry, not to carry out major foreign policy actions without the consent of the Privy Council, not to change the tax system, not to appoint a successor to at your own discretion. On February 15, Anna Ioannovna arrived in Moscow, where a week later military and senior government dignitaries swore allegiance to her.

But on February 25, the oppositionists of the Privy Council - Andrei Osterman, Gabriel Golovkin, Archbishop Feofan (Prokopovich), Peter Yaguzhinsky, Antioch Cantemir, Ivan Trubetskoy - presented a petition to the queen for the restoration of absolutism. Anna Ioannovna, having heard the petition, tore up the “conditions”, and three days later a new oath of autocratic ruler took place, and at the end of April - Anna’s crowning of the kingdom. The Privy Council was abolished in favor of the governing Senate.

Domestic policy

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, foreign and domestic policy was handled by those close to her - Chancellor Andrei Osterman and the favorite Ernst Johann Biron, who received favor from Anna during the dukedom in Courland. The army was led by Field Marshal of German origin Christopher Minich. Anna did not favor the Russian nobility, preferring to surround herself with foreigners. Contemporaries called the period of Anna Ioannovna’s reign “Birovshchina,” since the empress’s favorite had virtually unlimited possibilities.

Since 1730, according to established tradition, the Treasury began issuing coins with the image of the new empress. In 1731 it was created ruling structure- The Cabinet of Ministers, as well as two new military regiments - Izmailovsky and Cavalry, staffed by foreigners and soldiers from the southern provinces. In the same year, the Land Gentry appeared cadet corps to train noble heirs, officer salaries were increased a year later. A school for training officials and numerous seminaries, including those at the Academy, were opened. The strengthening of Orthodoxy was facilitated by the introduction of a law on the death penalty for blasphemy.

Coins with the image of Anna Ioannovna

In the second half of the 30s it was finally legalized serfdom, factory workers are declared the property of the factory owners. After the introduction of stricter measures, industry growth began, and soon Russia took first place in the world in the production of cast iron. Participants in drawing up the initial demands for the empress were arrested and sent to prison or exile. By the fortieth year, a conspiracy against Anna Ioannovna had matured among the ministers, which was uncovered, and the organizers and participants - minister Artemy Volynsky, architect Pyotr Eropkin, adviser to the admiralty office Andrei Khrushchev - were executed.

Anna Ioannovna herself was not distinguished by her talent for governing the state. The queen spent most of the imperial time on entertainment - creating masquerades, holding balls and hunting. At the court of the empress there were about a hundred dwarfs and giants, jesters and jokers. The history of that time records a humorous wedding arranged at the court of the queen between Prince Mikhail Golitsyn-Kvasnik and a native of Kalmykia, Avdotya Buzheninova. Anna Ioannovna favored theatrical art. During her reign, a fashion for Italian opera began in Russia, a theater with 1000 seats was built, and the first ballet school was opened.

Foreign policy

Foreign policy affairs were handled by A. Osterman, who in 1726 had already achieved a peace treaty with Austria. Thanks to Russia's victory in the military conflict with France over the Polish heritage, King Augustus III was enthroned in Warsaw in 1934. The four-year war with Turkey ended in 1739 on unfavorable terms for Russia, signed in Belgrade.

Personal life

In 1710, Anna married the Duke of Courland, Friedrich Wilhelm. In honor of the wedding, Peter I organized a celebration that lasted more than 2 months. During feasts, the nobility were satiated with food and wine. Before going home, the Duke fell ill, but did not attach any importance to the illness. Having left with the crew, Wilhelm died on the first day of the trip. Unable to return to her family, Anna Ioannovna was forced to settle in Courland.

The courtiers were hostile against the young widow, and the only friend and then favorite of the duchess was the Russian resident Pyotr Mikhailovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin. In 1926, Anna intended to marry Count Moritz of Saxony, but the wedding was upset by Prince Alexander Menshikov, who planned to become Duke of Courland himself.

In 1727, the prince was recalled to Russia, and Ernst Johann Biron became Anna's new favorite. It is assumed that the future Russian empress gave birth to a son from Biron. Anna Ioannovna later took her favorite to Russia and made her co-ruler.

Death

Empress Anna Ioannovna died on October 17 (old style) 1740 in St. Petersburg. The cause of the queen's death was kidney disease. The queen's grave is located in the Peter and Paul Cathedral. In her will, the empress indicated the descendants of her sister Catherine of Mecklenburg as heir to the throne.

Memory

The events of the 18th century are of interest not only to historians, but also to filmmakers. More than once the biography of Empress Anna became the basis of the plot of historical documentaries or feature films. In the 80s, in the films “The Ballad of Bering and His Friends”, “The Demidovs”, “” the role of Anna Ioannovna was played by the actress Maria Polizeimako.

In the multi-part series “Secrets of palace coups. Russia, XVIII century”, which was released in the early 2000s, Queen Anna played, and in 2008 her role was performed by.

Foreigners who lived at Anna's court wrote about her character, appearance and court life, but they were also interested in the structure of the country and the policies pursued by Anna. This interest in the structure of the country also had political goals for the rulers of those countries from which foreigners came. Foreigners who wrote about Anna paid a lot of attention to court life and less to politics, since the empress’s court was more interesting to them. Even in politics, foreigners are interested in the court part of it, that is, appointments to various positions, gifts and orders that were presented by the empress.

General characteristics of the policy

Generally, foreigners pay great attention to the church and issues of faith in Russia. All foreigners were surprised by Russian religious tolerance, but they were also surprised by the ignorance, rudeness and lack of education of some priests: “As for the Russian clergy, the majority are as inadequate in intelligence and education as in appearance.” Foreigners were also struck by the Russians’ rejection of faiths other than Orthodoxy.

People such as Burchard Christopher Minich and Ernst Minich pay a lot of attention to foreign policy, military campaigns and the structure of the army. Because their activities were closely related to these issues.

Foreigners assess Anna's activities as continuing Peter's policies. “She tried most carefully to put Peter the Great’s unfinished projects into action.”

Assessments of Anna’s activities are sometimes contradictory, one of them is negative: the internal situation of the country during the “Bironovschina” in the notes is characterized as very dramatic: “This terrible rule was in the most brilliant era, for all government units, ranks and positions were then in the hands of famous foreigners , whom Peter I chose during his travels." But Ernst Minich’s point of view is not biased, since his father was in a personal feud with Biron. However, the data of many historians, especially modern ones, prove the opposite, namely, that ideas about the decline of trade are not based on anything. Russia's foreign policy during Anna's reign did not undergo significant changes compared to Peter the Great's period and was not a deviation from the principles of the transforming tsar.

There is also no consensus in assessing Anna’s participation in policy implementation. Some foreigners, one of them Burchard Christopher Minich, believe that it was Biron who decided all the affairs of the state, and that Anna stopped being involved in the state. “If someone did not please the duke, then from the eyes and meeting of the monarch he could immediately notice a sensitive change. All favors had to be sought from the duke, and through him alone the empress decided on them.” But foreigners who adhere to this point of view agree that Anna participated in the affairs of the state, but could not do anything without the approval of her favorite. Another point of view is that Anna Ioannovna herself actively participated in governing the state. Foreigners who lived at Anna's court agree with this point of view. Ernst Minich wrote: “She was gifted with a good mind, had an unparalleled memory and spoke her native language perfectly.” Foreigners note her inherent “clarity of view and correctness of judgment, constant search for the truth,” “methodical mindset, love of order... She not only listened to the cases proposed to her every day with great attention and patience, but did not neglect to diligently inquire about their implementation.”

People who held high positions at her court Biron, B.K. Minich, A.I. Osterman, the Levenwolde brothers and others participated in the struggle for political influence on the empress along with Russian nobles, without forming a single “German party.” The number of people convicted in these years by the Secret Chancellery, on average, did not differ much from similar indicators of the previous and subsequent times, and among them there are practically no cases related to anti-German sentiments.

But despite the disagreements, all foreigners agree that the main role at the empress’s court was played by Ernst Johann Biron (1690–1772), a minor Courland nobleman, her favorite since 1727. About the relationship between the empress and Biron, one of his contemporaries wrote: “Never in the world, Tea, there has never been a friendlier couple, mutually accepting complete participation in amusement or sorrow, like the Empress and the Duke of Courland. Both were almost never able to pretend in their appearance. If the Duke appeared with a gloomy face, then the Empress at the same moment took on an alarmed look. Even though he was cheerful, pleasure was evident on the monarch’s face. If someone did not please the duke, then from the eyes and meeting of the monarch he could immediately notice a sensitive change. All favors had to be sought from the duke, and through him alone the empress decided on them.”

Biron, who by chance was elevated to the pinnacle of power, behaved like many of his contemporaries, thinking about career, power, and wealth. “Count Biron, chief chamberlain and favorite of Queen Anna, is a Kurdish by birth, who served Her Majesty for a long time with the greatest loyalty. He was very polite in his manners and had good upbringing, loved the glory of his empress and wanted to be pleasant to everyone, but he had little intelligence and therefore allowed others to control him to the point that he could not distinguish bad advice from good. Despite all this, he was courteous in his manners, his appearance was pleasant, he was dominated by ambition, with a greater admixture of vanity.” Having become the favorite of the Russian Empress, he received the rank of actual privy councilor (according to the military hierarchy - general-in-chief), and the highest Russian order - St. Andrew the First-Called. But his most cherished dream came true in 1737, when he became Duke of Courland and Semigalsky. There, in Courland, he built palaces for himself, thinking about his future life; huge sums from the Russian budget were spent on this. Under Anna Ioannovna, Biron is a handsome young man, physically a very strong person. K. K. Ruliere wrote about him: “He did not have that mind that is popular in society and in conversation, but he possessed a certain kind of genius, or common sense, although many denied this quality in him. The saying can be applied to him that deeds make the man. Before his arrival in Russia, he hardly even knew the name of politics, and after several years of being in it he knew quite thoroughly everything that concerns this state... Biron’s character was not the best: arrogant, ambitious to the extreme, rude and even impudent, selfish , in enmity, irreconcilable and cruel punisher.”

In general, foreigners evaluate Anna's reign as the reign of one of the greatest empresses. But they turn their attention mainly not to state policy, but to the distribution of positions, orders and lands. But although all conditions had already been created for foreigners, they were dissatisfied with attempts to equalize them and Russians.

Domestic policy of Anna Ioannovna

When Anna Ioannovna ascended the throne, she promised to continue the policy of Peter I. And at first it seemed to everyone that Anna was continuing this policy, abolishing the Supreme Privy Council, and restoring the Senate. However, a small council was soon created under the empress, which received the name Cabinet of Ministers in a decree of October 18, 1731. The Senate soon begins to divide into departments and loses its dominant role. The Cabinet of Ministers included Osterman, Count G. I. Golovkin and Prince A. M. Cherkassky; after Golovkin’s death, he was successively replaced by P. I. Yaguzhinsky, A. P. Volynsky and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. In fact, the Cabinet was the direct successor to the Supreme Privy Council. “The establishment of the Cabinet was something new in Russia and was not to everyone’s taste, especially since Osterman was considered a double-minded person, and Cherkassky was very lazy; then they said that “in this office Cherkassky was the body, and Osterman was the soul, not too honest.” The Senate was thus almost reduced to nothing; the old senators did not go to the Senate, making the excuse of illness.”

During Anna's reign, there was a further strengthening of the relative independence of absolutist power. This was facilitated by the transformation of the public administration system. They began under the sign of a return to the covenants of Peter I: on March 4, 1730, a manifesto followed on the abolition of the Supreme Privy Council and the restoration Governing Senate“on the same basis and in such strength as it was under Peter the Great.”

The line of subordination of the church to the state and the transformation of the clergy into a specific type of bureaucracy obedient to the autocracy was continued. Thus, on April 15, 1738, the College of Economy was removed from the department of the Synod and transferred to the Senate. Along with it, the Dvortsovy and Kazenny orders that existed under the Synod were also transferred there. In essence, the Synod became a bureaucratic institution that could only be supported by salaries from the general state treasury. Previously, the Russian Church prohibited foreigners from building their churches in Russia. But Anna allows the construction of temples of other faiths. Thus, the only obstacle to contacts between Russians and foreigners was removed. “Foreigners of other Christian faiths were given the freedom to build their own churches and worship in them.”

Anna in 1731 began to actively distribute land to Russian and foreign nobles. Foreigners liked this measure, and they began to strive to receive these lands from the empress. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the right to dispose of estates was returned to the nobility, which allowed them to divide their estates among all children. From now on, all estates were recognized as the full property of their owners. The collection of poll taxes from serfs was transferred to their owners. The landowner was now obliged to monitor the behavior of his serfs. In addition, however, the government obliged landowners to feed their peasants in lean years. The measure that Russian nobles liked most was the 1736 manifesto on the abolition of indefinite service for nobles. One of the sons did not have to serve at all, but the rest served for 25 years. Thus, we can conclude that, in general, the absolutist state pursued a pro-noble policy - the nobility was its social support. Although these measures increasingly elevated the nobles above other people, the foreign nobles did not like the privileges given to the Russian nobles, since these measures increasingly shortened the distance between foreigners and Russians.

Some positive changes took place in the field of education: the Land Noble Cadet Corps for nobles was established, a school for training officials was created under the Senate, and a seminary for 35 young men was opened at the Academy of Sciences. The organization of postal services dates back to this time, as well as the introduction of police units to maintain order in large cities. A lot of manufactories appeared: leather, metalworking and processing of wool and other types of fabric. Care for the breeding of horse breeding plants was a peculiar feature of Anna Ivanovna's reign, under the influence of her favorite Biron. In 1731, the stable office or stable order was established. And until her death, Anna Ivanovna showed great concern for the success of horse breeding in Russia. “In order to supply the Russian cavalry with suitable horses, she ordered a great many of the best foreign horses to be registered and to establish many horse factories.”

But there were a lot of negative aspects to Anna’s reign. State expenditures on holidays and luxury were so increased that arrears increased several times. But foreigners did not care about these expenses, they were only surprised by this luxury.

During Anna's reign, the Russian nobility, its most noble families, such as the Dolgorukys, Golitsyns and Volynskys, fell into disgrace. They were exiled along with all their families and some were executed. These people were not so angry with the empress as with her favorite Biron. “If she weren’t so angry with us, but her favorite, who was constantly with her, he tried to exterminate our family so that he would not exist in the world.”

Thus, foreigners supported Anna's policy, seeing in it a continuation of Peter's policy. Just like Peter, Anna continued to give privileges to foreigners. Anna herself carried out all events under the influence and control of foreigners, mainly Biron. But it would be unfair to attribute solely to Biron’s influence all the persecutions, exiles, tortures and painful executions that took place during her reign: they were also determined by Anna’s personal qualities. “Even nothing would darken the radiance of this empress, except that she followed her own anger more than laws and justice.”

Foreign policy of Anna Ioannovna

Foreigners paid a lot of attention to the army and navy. Ernst Minich and his father Christopher Minich, since they served in Russian army, then described wars and the structure of the army. In the army and navy, in many regiments, only foreign officers were hired. Anna believed that only foreigners could be good commanders. “The infantry regiment is not made up of real Russian recruits, but from so-called odnodvortsy or Ukrainians, and the officers chosen are none other than those from Livonia or other foreigners. She deliberately multiplied the troops and brought in better discipline and order than before: the army has never had the most skillful foreign generals and officers, as in its reign. As for the fleet, although she intended to make some new orders in it, she was not able to see the execution of them during her lifetime.”

After the death of Peter I, Russian foreign policy ended up in the hands of Baron A. I. Osterman for a long time. In 1734, Russia entered into a military conflict with France over the “Polish inheritance.” The Russian victory contributed to the establishment of King Augustus III on the Polish throne. In 1735, a war with Turkey began, ending in 1739 with the signing of the Belgrade Peace Treaty. Despite the successes of the Russian army, Russia was forced to make serious concessions: it received the Azov fortress without fortifications and without the right to maintain a garrison there; Russia was prohibited from keeping a fleet in the Black Sea. The wars that Russia waged during the reign of Anna Ioannovna did not bring benefits to the empire, although they raised its prestige in Europe. Foreigners, such as B. H. Minich and his son, supported the wars, but everyone was against the unfavorable Belgrade Peace.

Thus, foreigners supported Anna’s foreign policy, but did not always agree with her and Biron’s decisions. Foreigners still perceived Russia as a barbaric country, but already strong enough to compete with the European powers.

Foreigners were positive about Anna's policy, as it gave them many privileges. Although foreigners often did not agree with the empress’s decisions. They were little interested in issues of domestic and foreign policy, but mainly only in events at court.