Indian leader Jawaharlal Nehru. Introduction

Jawaharlal Nehru was the iconic leader of the struggle for freedom and independence of India and a prominent figure in the political and social life of the country. The leader of the Congress, who became the first prime minister of the proclaimed independent state, is a continuator of traditions and the author of economic, social and political reforms aimed at the transition from colonial rule to republican rule.

Childhood and youth

Jawaharlal Nehru was born in the northwestern province of colonial India on November 14, 1889. Motilal Nehru's father was a wealthy lawyer belonging to the Kashmiri Pandit community and twice served as President of the Indian National Congress. Mother Swarup Rani was a descendant of representatives of the Brahmin caste who settled in Pakistan.

Being the eldest child in the family, Jawaharlal grew up in Allahabad, surrounded by two sisters - Vijaya Lakshmi, who became the first female President of the UN General Assembly, and the future Indian writer Krishna Hutzing.

Nehru's childhood passed in an atmosphere of harmony and tranquility, ensured by the high position of his parents. The boy was educated at home under the supervision of governesses and teachers, and showed an aptitude for science, preferring Theosophy. Jawaharlal read Buddhist and Hindu scriptures, which gave impetus to his intellectual development and was later reflected in the book The Discovery of India, written in prison in 1944.

The events of the Russo-Japanese and Anglo-Boer Wars influenced the formation of the views of the young Nehru. He began to contemplate freedom from European slavery and became an ardent supporter of nationalism. While studying at the private British school Harrow, the young man became acquainted with the history of the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi and became imbued with the idea of ​​the struggle for independence.

In 1907, Nehru entered Cambridge Trinity College in the Faculty of Natural Sciences, while simultaneously studying economics and political science. After receiving his bachelor's degree, Jawaharlal moved to London and joined the Honorable Society of the Inner Temple, which allowed him to take a seat at the bar.

Lawyer Jawaharlal Nehru

Returning to his homeland in the summer of 1912, Nehru became a lawyer in the Allahabad High Court, but did not enjoy practicing law. He began to become seriously interested in politics and soon became a participant in the annual session of the National Congress of India held in Patna.

Policy

In 1912, the young man agreed to work for Mahatma Gandhi’s party, which supported the national civil rights movement, and began raising funds necessary for political activities. Jawaharlal later spoke out against acts of censorship, indentured labor and other forms of discrimination faced by Hindus in the British colonies.

By the end of the First World War, Nehru, who had radical political views, openly spoke about refusing to cooperate with the imperial authorities and was in close contact with aggressive representatives of the nationalists who advocated a transition to self-government.

In 1916, Jawaharlal became the secretary of an organization that demanded imperial dominion status for the country, and 4 years later the young politician led the Non-Cooperation movement. Such activities were strictly punished by the authorities, and Nehru was arrested for anti-government statements.

After his release from prison, Jawaharlal began searching for allies and establishing connections with foreign movements for independence and democracy. In 1927, the Indian activist was invited to the congress of the Congress of Oppressed Peoples in the Belgian capital, designed to plan and coordinate the fight against imperialism, and upon his return he was elected chairman of the INC party.

Nehru became one of the first leaders to call for a decision to finally break relations with the British Empire. His resolution was approved at the Madras session of the Congress in 1927, despite criticism from Gandhi. Activists demanded that the British grant dominion status within 2 years; if the deadlines were not met, Nehru threatened with national unrest and uprising.

The government rejected the colony's claims, and at the beginning of 1929 in Lahore, in front of a large crowd of people, Nehru hoisted the Indian tricolor and read out the declaration of independence. After this, Jawaharlal developed the political doctrine of the Congress and listed freedom of religion, the right of association, equality before the law regardless of origin or religion, protection of territorial languages ​​and traditions, abolition of untouchability, nationalization of industry and socialism as its fundamental goals.

Nehru was elected head of the party, and soon the Indian politician was able to implement many of the strategies he proclaimed. In 1936, Jawaharlal undertook a trip to Europe, during which he became seriously interested in Marxism. Nehru continued studying the principles of this philosophical theory in prison, where members of the working committee of the rebellious Congress were imprisoned.

In 1947, Britain finally agreed to grant independence to the South Asian colony, and Nehru headed India's provisional government, becoming the first prime minister of a free country. The death of Mahatma Gandhi on January 30, 1948 became a national tragedy, which helped strengthen the position of the new government. Congress tightly controlled expressions of grief and suppressed right-wing nationalist movements, arresting about 200 thousand people.

In 1952, the party under the leadership of Jawaharlal gained undeniable superiority in the elections and secured itself a leading position for the next 10 years. In economics, Nehru advocated a mixed type of relationship, in which the government-controlled public sector coexisted alongside private enterprise.

By directing investments in key sectors, the Congress leader promoted the development of steel, iron and steel, coal and power industries. Despite this, India lagged behind other countries due to government controls and regulations that hampered GDP growth. Nehru's agrarian reform, aimed at redistributing land holdings, was also unsuccessful.

In the social sphere, things were better: schools and higher educational institutions were built, where children from poor families could enroll. Nehru's achievements were the introduction of free meals in schools and the opening of educational institutions and cultural centers for adults.

Leading a free India from 1947 to 1964, the Congress leader made the country a recognized member of the global Commonwealth of Nations, on an equal basis with other former colonies. In the international arena, the Indian prime minister became famous as a pacifist and peacemaker, who maintained neutrality in the Cold War and acted as a mediator in the process of resolving differences between the communist powers and the Western bloc.

Unfortunately, Nehru was unable to avoid armed conflict in his homeland. After the Chinese army attacked India's northeastern borders, the country lost some territory, and Nehru was criticized for the government's insufficient attention to defense.

During the conflict, Jawaharlal wrote letters to the American president and asked for aircraft to fight against his Asian neighbor. The United States refused, and relations between the countries cooled. At this time, the Soviet Union came to the aid of India, providing economic support to the young state. From that moment on, the countries set a course for rapprochement and the establishment of economic, political and social ties, continued by the daughter of the Prime Minister.

Personal life

In 1916, Nehru married a young beauty named Kamala Kaul, and a year later their only daughter Indira was born, judging by the photo, very similar to her father. Jawaharlal sincerely loved the girl and dreamed that she would become a strong, educated person who shared his view of world history, set out in the book of the same name.

In the 1930s, Kamala fell ill with tuberculosis and went to Europe for treatment. Nehru visited his wife in a sanatorium in Switzerland until her death in 1936.

After this, another woman appeared in the personal life of the leader of an independent state, the wife of the royal viceroy Edwina Mountbatten. Their relationship was evidenced by letters discovered in the archives of the Prime Minister of India.

Death

After 1962, Nehru's health began to deteriorate. Some researchers attribute the prime minister's serious condition to worries about the outcome of the Sino-Indian war, which he regarded as a betrayal of trust.

On May 26, 1964, Jawaharlal felt pain in his back and consulted doctors. Describing the symptoms, the politician lost consciousness and died a day later. Experts considered the cause of Nehru’s death to be a sudden heart attack.

After traditional ceremonies, the Prime Minister's body was wrapped in the Indian national flag and put on display for all to see. On May 28, 1964, Nehru was cremated according to Hindu rites at Shantivan and his ashes were scattered over the Jamna River.

The iconic politician's birthday became a national Indian holiday known as Children's Day, and Nehru's name was given to numerous public institutions and cultural centers around the world. A memorial museum was opened in the residence that belonged to the family of the party leader immediately after his death, and a few years later a monument to the great Indian was erected in Delhi.

Bibliography

• 1928 – “Soviet Russia”
• 1928 – “Letters from Father to Daughter”
• 1935 – “Autobiography”
• 1944 – “Discovery of India”
• 1949 – “A Look at World History”

The first prime minister of liberated India received an exceptionally warm welcome in the USSR. He stepped off the plane, greeting those greeting him one by one. A crowd of Muscovites, waving flags and bouquets of flowers in greeting, suddenly rushed towards the foreign guest. The security did not have time to react, and Nehru found himself surrounded. Continuing to smile, he stopped and began to accept the flowers. Later, in a conversation with journalists, Jawaharlal Nehru admitted that he was sincerely touched by such unplanned chaos during his first official visit to Moscow.

Origin and family

Jawaharlal Nehru (a photo of the public figure is in the article) was born in November 1889 in Allahabad, a city in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. His parents belonged to the Kashmiri Brahmin caste. This group traces its ancestry back to the first Brahmins from the Vedic Sarasvati River. Families of caste representatives usually had large families, and due to the high mortality rate among women, many representatives of the stronger sex practiced polygamy. Boys were especially welcome in families, because it was believed that it was possible to achieve moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death, all suffering and limitations of existence) only through the cremation of the father by his son.

Joe Nehru's mother (as he was called in the West for simplicity) was Swarup Rani, his father was Motilal Nehru. Motilal's father, Gangadhar Nehru, was the last Chief of the Delhi City Guard. During the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, he fled to Agra, where he soon died. Then the family was headed by Matilal's elder brothers - Nandalal and Bonsidhar. Matilala Nehru grew up in Jaipur, Rajasthan, where his brother served as chief minister. The family then moved to Allahabad, where the young man graduated from college. He decided to continue his education at Cambridge.

Matilal Nehru took part in the activities of the National Congress of India; he advocated limited self-government within the framework of the British Empire. His views were significantly radicalized under the influence of Gandhi's ideology. The Nehru family, previously leading a Western lifestyle, abandoned English clothing in favor of homespun dress. Matilal Nehru was elected president of the party, took part in organizing the Trade Union Congress, and tried to organize a peasant movement. His house in Allahabad, where Nehru's children grew up, quickly became the headquarters of the struggle for national liberation of the entire country.

Three children were born into the family of Motilal Nehru and Swarup Rani. The first-born was Jawaharlal Nehru, born in 1889. A year later, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit was born, and seven years later, Krishna Nehru Hutheesing. This was one of the most famous families in India. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister of liberated India, Vijaya the first Indian woman to hold a post in the government. Krishna Nehru Hutheesing took up a writing career, in which she was no less successful than her relatives in the political arena.

Early biography

Jawaharlal Nehru received his primary education at home. Motilala Nehru then sent his son, whose name translates as “precious ruby” in Hindi, to a prestigious school in Greater London. In Britain, Jawaharlal was known as Joe Nehru. At twenty-three, the young man graduated from Cambridge. During my studies I studied jurisprudence. While still in Great Britain, Jawaharlal Nehru's attention was attracted by the activities of Mahatma Gandhi, who returned from South Africa. Mahatma Gandhi would later become Nehru's political mentor and teacher. In the meantime, after returning to India, Joe Nehru settled in his hometown and began working in his father’s law office.

Youth Leader

Nehru became one of the active figures in the National Congress, which fought for the country's independence using non-violent methods. He now looked at his native land through the eyes of a man who had received a European education and adopted Western culture. Acquaintance with Gandhi helped him synthesize European trends with the Indian national tradition. Joe Nehru, like other members of the National Congress, was well aware of the doctrine of Mahatma Gandhi. The British authorities have repeatedly imprisoned the active figure. In total, he spent about ten years in prison. Nehru took part in the campaign of non-cooperation with the colonial authorities initiated by Gandhi, and then in the boycott of British goods.

As Chairman

At the age of thirty-eight, Joe Nehru was elected chairman of the INC. That same year, he came to the USSR to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the October Revolution along with his wife Kamala, sister Krishna and father Matilal Nehru. Over the course of ten years, the size of the party increased more than tenfold, but by that time the split between Muslims and Hindus was already clearly visible. The Muslim League advocated the creation of the Islamic state of Pakistan, while Nehru stated that he considered socialism the only key to solving all problems.

First Prime Minister

At the end of August 1946, Joe Nehru became the prime minister of the country's Provisional Government - the Executive Committee under the king, and a year later - the first head of government, minister of defense and foreign affairs of liberated India. Jawaharlal Nehru, at the head of the government, accepted the proposal of the British Empire to divide India into two states, namely Pakistan and the Indian Union. Nehru raised the flag of an independent state over the Red Fort in Delhi.

The last contingents of British troops left the former dominion in early 1948, but the next two years were overshadowed by the war between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. As a result, two-thirds of the disputed state became part of India, while the remaining territories were included in Pakistan. After these events, the majority of the population trusted the INC. In the 1947 elections, Jawaharlal Nehru's associates received 86% of the votes in the government. The chairman managed to achieve the annexation of almost all Indian principalities (555 out of 601). A few years later, first the French and then the Portuguese enclaves on the coast were annexed to India.

In 1950, India was declared a secular republic. The Constitution included guarantees of all fundamental democratic freedoms, prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of nationality, religion or caste. The main power in a presidential-parliamentary republic belonged to the prime minister, elected by parliament. Parliament consisted of the House of States and the House of the People. Twenty-eight Indian states received internal autonomy and the right to freedom in regulating economic activity, their own legislation and police. The number of states subsequently increased, as several new ones were created along national lines. All new provinces (unlike the old states) had a more or less homogeneous ethnic composition.

Domestic policy

As Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru sought to reconcile all the peoples of India and the Hindus with the Sikhs and Muslims who made up the warring political parties. In economics, he adhered to the principles of planning and free markets. Joe Nehru managed to maintain the unity of the right, left and center factions of the government, balance in politics, avoiding radical decisions. The Prime Minister warned the Indian people that poverty cannot be immediately converted into wealth by using the capitalist or socialist method. The path lies through improved productivity, hard work and organizing a fair distribution of benefits. Jawaharlal Nehru's quote on ways to overcome poverty has become a ray of hope for many millions of citizens. He believed that continuous progress could only be achieved through a planned socialist approach.

Any short biography of Jawaharlal Nehru always mentions that he emphasized his desire to smooth over various class and social contradictions. The Prime Minister believed that this problem could be solved through peaceful cooperation. We must try to smooth out class conflicts, and not aggravate them, so as not to threaten people with struggle and destruction. Nehru proclaimed a course towards creating a socialist society, which meant supporting small businesses, developing the public sector, and creating a national social insurance system.

In the first elections in 1951-1952, the Congress received 44.5% of the votes, more than 74% of the seats in the House. Then Nehru actively strengthened the national sector. In 1948, he proclaimed a resolution that established a state monopoly on the production of railway transport, atomic energy and weapons. In the coal and oil industries, mechanical engineering and ferrous metallurgy, only the state could create new enterprises. Seventeen key industries were then declared nationalized. The Bank of India also came under nationalization, and control was established over private banks.

In the agricultural sector, the previous ones were abolished only in the fifties. Landowners were now prohibited from taking land from tenants. The size of land holdings was also limited. In the 1957 elections, Nehru won again, retaining his majority in parliament. The vote increased to forty-eight percent. In the next election, the party lost three percent of the vote, but at the same time retained control over the governments of most states and parliament.

Foreign policy

Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed great prestige in the international arena. He also became the author of the policy of non-alignment with various political blocs. The basic principles of the foreign policy of liberated India were formulated by him in 1948 at a congress in Jaipur: maintaining peace, neutrality, non-alignment with military-political blocs, anti-colonialism. Joe Nehru's government was one of the first to recognize the PRC, but this did not prevent acute conflicts over Tibet. Discontent with Nehru grew within the country. This led to the resignation of government members who belonged to the left faction. But Nehru managed to maintain his post and the unity of the political party.

In the fifties and early sixties, an important area of ​​work of the parliament headed by Nehru was the liquidation of enclaves of European states in Hindustan. After negotiations with the French government, the territories of French India were included in independent India. After a short military operation in 1961, Indian troops occupied Portugal's peninsular colonies, namely Diu, Goa and Daman. This annexation was only recognized by Portugal in 1974.

The great peacemaker Jawaharlal Nehru visited the United States of America in 1949. This contributed to the establishment of friendly ties, the active influx of American capital to India and the development of trade and economic relations between the countries. For the US, India acted as a counterweight to communist China. In the early fifties, a number of agreements on technical and economic assistance were signed between the countries, but Nehru rejected the American offer to provide military assistance during the conflict between India and China. He preferred to remain committed to a policy of neutrality.

India accepted economic assistance from the Soviet Union, but never became a strategic ally, but advocated the peaceful coexistence of countries with different political systems. In 1954, Nehru put forward five principles of coexistence in peace and harmony. Based on this patch, the Non-Aligned Movement later emerged. Jawaharlal Nehru briefly put forward the following theses: respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, non-aggression, non-interference in internal state affairs, adherence to the principles of mutual benefit and peaceful coexistence.

In 1955, the Indian Prime Minister paid a visit to Moscow, during which he became closer to the USSR. He visited Stalingrad, Tbilisi, Tashkent, Yalta, Altai, Magnitogorsk, Samarkand, Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg). Joe Nehru visited the Uralmash plant, with which India entered into a contract after this visit. The plant supplied more than 300 excavators to the country. As the contradictions intensified, relations between the USSR and India became better, and after the death of Nehru they actually became an alliance.

Personal life

In 1916, on the Hindu festival that marks the arrival of spring, Nehru married Kamala Kaul, who was then only sixteen. A year later their only daughter was born. Jawaharlal Nehru named daughter first met Mahatma Gandhi at just the age of two. Already at eight, she organized a children's home weaving union on his advice. Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi studied government, anthropology and history at Oxford in England. In 1942, she became the wife of a namesake, not a relative, of Mahatma Gandhi. Interracial marriages were considered blasphemous against the laws and traditions of India, but young people got married despite caste and religious barriers. Indira and Feroz had two sons - Rajiv and Sanjay. The children were mainly under the supervision of their mother and lived in their grandfather's house.

"Mistress" of the leader

Kamaoa Kaul died young and Joe Nehru was left a widower. But there was another woman in his life with whom he did not tie the knot. Joe Nehru was deeply involved with Edwina Mountbatten, the wife of Lord Louis Mountbatten - the British Viceroy in India. Edwina's daughter always maintained that the relationship between her mother and Nehru was always purely platonic, although Lord Mountbatten's wife had a history of extramarital affairs. At the same time, various love letters were found, the public also knew that these two loved each other.

Jawaharlal Nehru was twelve years older than Edwina. They and the Mountbatten couple shared similar liberal views. Subsequently, the lord's wife accompanied the Prime Minister of India on his most risky trips. She traveled with him to different parts of the country, torn apart by religious contradictions, suffering from poverty and disease. Edwina Mountbatten's husband was calm about this connection. His heart was broken after the first betrayal, but he was an adequate and reasonable politician who realized the scale of Nehru’s personality.

At a farewell dinner on the occasion of the couple’s departure back to Great Britain, Nehru practically confessed his love to the lady. The people of India already loved Edwina. But now she and Joe Nehru lived in different countries. They exchanged letters filled with tenderness. The woman did not hide the message from her husband, because she and Louis broke up. Then Lady Mountbatten realized how much she had fallen in love with India. For her, it was Jawaharlal who personified the former colony. The people of India also noted how much their leader had aged since Edwina's departure. Lady Mountbatten died at the age of fifty-eight in 1960.

Death of Joe Nehru

It is noted that Nehru’s health suffered greatly after the war with China. He passed away at the end of May 1964 in Delhi. The cause of death of Jawaharlal Nehru was a heart attack. The ashes of the public, political and statesman were scattered over the Yamuna River, as stated in the will.

An influential leader of the Indian independence movement and political heir of Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru became the country's first prime minister in 1947. Faced with the challenge of unifying a huge population diverse in culture, language and religion, he successfully introduced various economic, social and educational reforms that earned him the respect and admiration of millions of Indians.

His policy of non-alignment and Panchscheel principles of peaceful coexistence governed India's foreign relations until the outbreak of the Sino-Indian War in 1962, which contributed to his deteriorating health and subsequent death in 1964, ending his 17-year post. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, later served as prime ministers.

Jawaharlal Nehru: early life and family

Jawaharlal Nehru was born into a wealthy Kashmiri Brahmin family in Allahabad on November 14, 1889. Educated at home until the age of 15, Nehru subsequently attended Harrow in England and later Trinity College, Cambridge. After studying law at the London inner temple, he returned to India at the age of 22, where he practiced law with his father and eminent barrister, Motilal Nehru.

In 1949, after zookeepers killed most of Tokyo's wild animals to prevent them from escaping during a World War II air attack, Nehru delighted Japanese children by introducing the Ueno Zoo with an Indian elephant.

In 1916, four years after his parents entered into a suitable agreement, Nehru married 17-year-old Kamala Kaula. The following year, their only child, Indira Priyadarshini, was born.

Jawaharlal Nehru: Political Awakening

Upon learning of the arrest of respected theosophist Annie Besant in 1917, Nehru was moved to the All-Sindia Home Rule League, an organization dedicated to gaining self-government in the British Empire. In April 1919, British troops opened fire on thousands of unarmed civilians who were protesting newly passed legislation allowing the detention of suspected political enemies without trial. The Amritsar massacre, in which 379 Indians were killed and over a thousand others were wounded, outraged Nehru and further strengthened his resolve to win Indian independence.

During the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), led by Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was first imprisoned for actions against the British government and spent a total of nine years in prison over the next two and a half decades.

In 1929, Jawaharlal was elected president of the Indian National Congress—his first leadership role in politics—through which he promoted the goal of complete independence from Britain rather than dominion status. In response to British declarations of Indian participation in the war against Germany at the start of World War II without consulting Indian leaders, members of Congress passed the Secession Resolution on August 8, 1942, demanding political freedom from Britain in exchange for support for the war effort. The next day, the British government arrested all the Congress leaders, including Nehru and Gandhi.

Jawaharlal Nehru: Problems and Legacy of the Prime Minister

On August 15, 1947, India finally gained independence and Nehru became the country's first prime minister. The celebration of newfound freedom also saw significant upheaval. The massive displacement that followed the partition of Pakistan and India, as well as disputes over control of Kashmir, resulted in the loss of property and the deaths of several hundred thousand Muslims and Hindus.

Throughout his 17-year leadership, Nehru advocated democratic socialism and secularism and encouraged the industrialization of India, beginning with the implementation of the first of his Five Year Plans in 1951, which emphasized increasing agricultural production.

He also promoted scientific and technological progress through the establishment of higher education and introduced various social reforms such as free public education and food for Indian children, legal rights for women including the right to inherit property and divorce their husbands, and laws prohibiting discrimination based on based on caste.

During the Cold War, Jawaharlal Nehru pursued a policy of non-alignment in which he espoused neutrality, but was criticized when he refused to condemn the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and later asked for foreign assistance after China invaded India's northern border in 1962

The conflict, known as the Sino-Indian War, had a detrimental effect on Nehru's health, leading to a severe stroke in January 1964 and his death a few months later on May 27

Popular Quotes of Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru was a key political leader of the Indian National Congress Party and the first Prime Minister of India. He was a major figure in international politics after the war, in which he was also considered a leader of Third World interests. He is also well known for his affection for children and is referred to as ChaCha Nehru and Pandit Nehru or Panditji. Here is a list of some of his popular quotes that may inspire you.

“The forces in a capitalist society, if left unchecked, tend to make the rich richer and the poor poorer.”

“Ignorance is always afraid of change.”

“What we really are matters more than what other people think about us.” –Jawaharlal Nehru

“Time is not measured by years, but by what a person does, what he feels and what he achieves.” –

“You don’t change the course of history by turning portraits’ faces toward the wall.”

“People’s art is a true mirror of their mind.”

“Culture is the expansion of the mind and spirit.”

“There is, perhaps, nothing as bad and dangerous in life as fear.”

“Those who are willing to die for any cause are rarely defeated.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

“Democracy and socialism are a means to an end, not the end itself.”

“Let's be a little humble; let us think that the truth may not be entirely with us.”

“Failure comes only when we forget our ideals, goals and principles.” –

“Theory must be identified with reality.”

“Citizenship is a pledge of service to the country.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

“Socialism is not only a way of life, but also a certain scientific approach to socio-economic problems.”

“A man who runs away puts himself in more danger than a man who sits quietly.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

“Democracy is good. I say this because other systems are worse.”

“The only alternative to coexistence is joint destruction.” –

“Our main flaw is that we are more inclined to talk about things than to do them.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

“We live in an amazing world that is full of beauty, charm and adventure. There is no end to the adventures we can have if only we seek them with open eyes.”

“It’s too easy to make suggestions and then try to avoid the consequences of what we say.”

“Without peace, all other dreams fade and are reduced to ashes.”

“It is the habit of every aggressor state to claim that it is acting in defense.” –Jawaharlal Nehru

“A purely propaganda attitude is not enough for a detailed consideration of the topic.”

“Great things and little people get sick together.”

“Every little thing matters in a crisis.”

“Facts are facts and will not disappear because of your sympathies.”

“Too cautious a policy is the biggest risk of all.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru is a global political figure, Prime Minister of India, ally of M. Gandhi, Minister of Foreign Affairs, leader of the Indian national liberation movement (left wing). His daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi were the third and sixth Prime Ministers of India.

Born in Allahabad on November 14, 1889, his father was the famous lawyer Motilal Nehru, who became one of the first Indian political figures. Jawaharlal Nehru was educated at home and continued his studies at Harrow and also at Cambridge University (Trinity College). Upon completion of his education, he returned to his homeland and worked as a lawyer.

In 1916, he met Mohandas Gandhi, and this meeting played an important role in his biography. Subsequently, Nehru became his closest ally, who used the same methods in the struggle for Indian independence from the British authorities (non-violent resistance). Nehru became a member of the Indian National Congress (INC); Gandhi's mentorship helped him advance to the post of General Secretary of the INC, which he held throughout 1923-1925; During the same period, he was also the co-chairman of the Allahabad Municipality.

In 1929, J. Nehru proclaimed the slogan of independence for his country; two years later, at the party congress in Karagi, he became the head of the creation of an all-Indian program for development in the social and economic spheres. In the 1930s was among those who took a sharply negative position towards militarism and fascism. In the period before 1947, he had to spend a total of more than ten years in prison dungeons.

On August 15, 1947, after his country became independent, he took over as Prime Minister of India, a position he held as the first statesman until his death. Nehru remained in this post as a result of the first all-Indian elections (1951-1952), as a result of which the Indian National Congress returned to power.

It was no coincidence that Jawaharlal Nehru was called the builder of the new India, because it was he who was responsible for developing the main principles of the formation and development of the state, its domestic and foreign policies. They became known as the "Nehru Course". The first prime minister took the position that the state should actively intervene in the national economy, but at the same time did not underestimate the importance of private initiative for the social and economic development of the country, considering it the main engine and incentive. Under his leadership, the Indian government carried out a number of large-scale measures aimed at eliminating the backwardness of the population and the country as a whole. The Indian economy developed according to five-year plans developed under the leadership of Nehru, which were implemented during 1951-1966.

In April 1954, the Indian leader proclaimed “Panchashila” - the name given to the five principles on which the peaceful coexistence of different social systems was based. India chose a course of positive neutrality, which provided for the country's independence equally from the eastern and western blocs. At the same time, Nehru was a supporter of the active development of friendly relations with the Soviet Union. The Indian leader was a participant in tripartite consultations with Josip Broz Tito and Gamal Abdel Nasser, after which the Non-Aligned Movement emerged, which included countries whose economies were radically different from the Soviet and capitalist model.

1. Introduction. Jawaharlal Nehru, short biography

Prominent political and statesman of India. Leader of the Indian National Congress (INC) party.

Born on November 14, 1889 in Allahabad. Comes from a family of Kashmiri Brahmins. Father - Moti Lal Nehru - lawyer, major figure in the reformist wing of the Indian National Congress. He received his education in England. In 1905-1912 studied at the English aristocratic school of Harrow and at the University of Cambridge. Lawyer by profession.

In 1912 he joined the Indian National Congress. Since 1916, he has been actively involved in the national liberation movement of India. With the advent of Mahatma Gandhi to the leadership of the Indian National Congress (1919), Jawaharlal Nehru became his adherent and closest ally. In 1921, he was arrested for the first time for anti-British agitation. In total, he spent over ten years in prison. He was repeatedly elected chairman of the Indian National Congress party (1929-1930, 1936-1937, 1946, 1951 - 1954). In 1946, he joined the provisional government of India as Deputy Prime Minister (the Viceroy was the Prime Minister).

From August 1947, with the formation of independent India, until his death, he continuously held the posts of Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He saw the future of India in socialism, but saw the path to it, following M.K. Gandhi, through social compromise.

Under the leadership of J. Nehru, the Government of India carried out the most important measures aimed at eliminating the economic backwardness inherited from the colonial period. As Chairman of the Planning Commission, Nehru was directly involved in the formulation of India's first three five-year development plans.

In the field of foreign policy, J. Nehru pursued a course of non-alignment with blocs and peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems. Took part in the development of five principles of peaceful coexistence in interstate relations - pancha force. He was one of the initiators and participant of the Bandung Conference of Asian and African Countries (1955).

He considered it necessary to develop Indian-Soviet relations in every possible way. During the Second World War he actively supported the Soviet Union. He visited the Soviet Union several times (in 1927, 1955 and 1961).

In 1955 he was awarded the Order of Bharat Ratna (Pearl of India). Posthumously awarded the highest award of the World Peace Council - the “Golden Peace Medal” named after. Frédérice Joliot-Curie (in October 1970). He died on May 27, 1964 in Delhi at the age of 75.

It should also be noted that Jawaharlal Nehru was a major political figure, one of the outstanding leaders of the national liberation movement, a fighter for peace, democracy and social progress, a staunch opponent of social injustice and national oppression, a sincere friend of the Soviet Union - this is how Jawaharlal Nehru was imprinted in the memory of his contemporaries.

Time moves forward uncontrollably, and now about two decades separate us from the day of the death of Java-harlal Nehru - a distance that allows us to see with greater clarity the entire path of life and objectively assess the significance and consequences of the multifaceted activities of this man. The past years have been full of turbulent historical events. They did not spare many government and party leaders who, having left the political arena, quickly lost their aura of major leaders. This did not happen to J. Nehru. His image as an outstanding leader of India, one of the best exponents of the idea of ​​national liberation and social progress, remained unchanged.

Interest in this large figure continues. To a certain extent, it is supported by the charm of Nehru’s personality, which succumbed not only to those who were lucky enough to meet him, but also to those who became acquainted with his rich literary heritage, with numerous memoirs and scientific publications that captured his image. But the main reason for the unflagging attention of researchers and readers to Nehru and his outstanding historical role is that, as a thinker, he touched upon a lot of problems that concern humanity to this day.

2. Jawaharlal Nehru’s views on socio-economic and political processes in history

2.1 Economic views of Jawaharlal Nehru

This section examines the issue of economic theory and the history of finance in Nehru’s works, studies his views on the economic essence of capitalism, Nehru’s vision of the basic principles of foreign economic relations; The historical and economic foundations of the “Nehru course” are revealed.

Economics, in Nehru’s understanding, is the leading sphere of the historical process, which directly affects all, without exception, areas of human activity.

Nehru distinguished economic growth as a purely economic category associated with the improvement of tools, from economic growth as a socio-economic category that arose with the introduction of cooperation. Despite the fact that Nehru tried to overcome the zealous attitude towards bourgeois commercial values, destroy the dilapidated stereotypes of the feudal period and thereby reform the cultural tradition of India, he was unable to deeply understand some issues of monetary policy, he also did not distinguish between the macro and micro levels financial sphere. In his research, Nehru wanted to reveal, first of all, the moral essence of economic processes, to solve the problem of moral legitimation of financial and monetary policies. Nehru determined the dual influence of financial oligarchs on the international economic system, and therefore, in order to support the progress and financial stability of states, he considered it necessary to partially limit and control their activities. Nehru believed that the motive behind capitalist economic management is personal gain, and the main conditions for the existence of capitalism are the free world market and competition.

He pointed out the contradictions of capitalism, as well as the main economic problem of capitalism - the lack of relationship between remuneration and services, that is, the inability to solve the problem of dividing the newly created wealth. Nevertheless, Nehru recognized the progressiveness of capitalism, which solved the problem of production and taught many useful lessons in the field of management. He derived the dependence “production - monetary accumulation”, which, taking into account his tendency to identify relationships (monetary accumulation - production), allows us to assume that he formed elements of a monetary approach. Imperialism, according to Nehru, was a natural outgrowth of capitalism, the essence of which was the violation of free competition and the unlimited pursuit of profit. Nehru distinguished three periods in the development of imperialism in the Indus and noted that with each period, exploitation grew and acquired an increasingly “perfect” form, as a result of which India lagged behind in normal historical development by about a hundred years.

Summarizing Nehru's macroeconomic views, it should be noted: firstly, he believed that national monopolies could exist only within state entities; secondly, Nehru regarded the occupation of a monopolistic position by the state or a transnational company (TNC) in any segment of the world market as a natural victory in fair competition; thirdly, states that wish to enter into competition with a monopolist state or TNC monopolist, according to Nehru, must pursue protectionist policies in order to create equal conditions for all competing parties; fourthly, integration into the world market of developing countries should occur gradually and in a balanced manner so as not to weaken the domestic market. “Socialization of the international structure,” according to Nehru, will ensure in the future coordination, planning and regulation of foreign economic activities of all civilized countries. In the historical and economic justification of his “course,” Nehru focused on the irrationality of the capitalist system, the need to limit competition through the introduction of planning, which embodies the spirit of science and an attempt to apply a thoughtful scientific method that ensures broad regulation and coordination. Nehru realized that industrialization requires large amounts of material resources, which do not pay off at the first stage. However, he believed that the only way to solve the problem of unemployment in Indom was the development of new industries and the creation of large rather than medium-sized industrial enterprises.

2.2 Social division and social relations in the historical views of Jawaharlal Nehru

This subsection analyzes the dynamics of Jawaharlal Nehru's views on socialism, highlights social history in Nehru's studies, as well as the features of the development of the Indian social system as presented by Nehru.

The divergent development of Nehru's historical and political views on socialism determined the prevailing point of view in historiography about the inconsistency of his worldview as a whole.

The internal inconsistency of Nehru’s worldview appears only in the late 20s and 30s, which is explained by the dominance of the Marxist tendency in his political views and the spiritual or moral approach inherited from Fabian socialism in historical views.

In the next period of ideological and theoretical development, Nehru's historical views on socialism acquired further development due to the weakening of his interest in Marxism. In the mid-50s, Nehru's historical concept of socialism saw a final shift in emphasis from the socio-economic aspects to the socio-cultural side of socialism. In the political sphere, Nehru accepts the concept of a mixed economy and is inclined to combine socialist and capitalist paths of development, which should together ensure the transition to the socio-economic prosperity of India. Thus, Nehru’s socialism is a formed ideological concept in which political and historical aspects were organically combined. Nehru rejected the Marxist position on the social hegemony of the proletariat and its unconditional historical progressiveness. In his research, he argued that the middle class is the driving force of social progress.

Nehru paid special attention to the negative social consequences of artificial reforms that are not based on the traditions and characteristics of peoples, as well as to the negative side of objectively progressive innovations that were fragmentary in nature and carried out without additional changes in all areas of socio-economic policy. Nehru was confident that the implementation of socio-cultural policies that limit the incentive for acquisitiveness in society will eliminate many obstacles in the future, and thus ensure a transition to a social system that will develop rapidly. In the history of the development of the social system of India, Nehru saw both periods of greater or lesser progress, and periods of regression. The idea of ​​a group, which has always been the basis of the Indian social system, according to Nehru, is not only not dilapidated, but in the future will acquire increasing scientific, theoretical and practical significance.

Nehru believed that the Indian concept of a cooperative group social system, which is based on the principle of the functionality of social groups, should naturally transform into new, more progressive forms of social structure of society.

2.3 Jawaharlal Nehru’s views on the formation and development of socio-political systems

The subsection examines the theoretical aspects of political history in Nehru's writings, highlighting Nehru's retrospective views on democracy and his study of the historical experience of state building.

According to Nehru, socio-cultural factors should be the driving force behind people's political activities. Nehru associated the absence of any manifestations of democracy during the period of feudalism with the political dominance of the church and considered the divine right of kings to be anachronistic. Nehru viewed the nature of power as eternally vicious, and was confident that not a single person, no matter how big it is, is guilty of standing above criticism. Nehru realized that the “fascist method”, which is to create a broad mass movement, need not come into conflict with the “democratic method”, which involves coercing the minority by the majority.

His categorical rejection of fascism is explained by the fact that he associated the liberal humanistic tradition of the 19th century. more with Marxism than with fascism. Nehru formulated a moral approach to politics and was negative about the authoritarian system of government. Nehru's political credo was high moral principles, which inevitably justify themselves in a global historical perspective. As a result of historical research, the concept of democracy in his worldview experienced a significant transformation from the formal democracy of the 20s - late 30s to political democracy, synthesized with economic democracy in the following period. Nehru's final understanding of democracy emerged in the 1950s in the form of democratic socialism, in which the main emphasis, like Nehru's historical socialism, was on the sociocultural aspect. Nehru considered the dominant middle class to be the subject of democracy, but at the same time warned against the desire to accept communist ideas about democracy, where the mass is a metaphysical concept. In this regard, Nehru did not idealize the law, established even democratically, and considered it necessary to exercise control over legislative activity. Awareness of the growing power of science and enlightenment allowed him to assume that in the future political changes would occur in the direction of “democratically planned collectivism.” Nehru believed that the community in India was the basis of the political system and therefore in the future it should become an administrative and electoral unit within the larger political system. Nehru associated such a negative phenomenon in public administration as bureaucracy with the irresponsibility of officials to the people and the limitations of their worldview. He believed that when the bureaucratic approach in a state becomes dominant, a bureaucratic and despotic system arises, which becomes an accelerator for the subsequent bureaucratization of employees.

Nehru believed that the only way to fight bureaucracy and corruption was the Brahmanization of the spirit of civil servants, that is, a significant increase in their moral and ethical level, and therefore showed some tendency towards elitism. Nehru was confident that the goal of any political change, in the end, should be to increase the living standards of the masses and ensure the industrial and cultural development of the nation.

He noted that progress had become a common cause, and if people abandoned international unity and some international organization, then, in his opinion, supranational regions should arise that would function as one huge state. Based on the foundations of his socio-political research, Nehru came to the conclusion that the basis of political unity is historical and emotional unity.

3. The influence of socio-political views on the state activities of Jawaharlal Nehru

3.1 Jawaharlal Nehru and the modernization of India

The subsection covers the implementation of socio-economic modernization of India under the leadership of Nehru; the connection between Nehru’s socio-political views and the political modernization of India is studied.

Nehru purposefully and consistently carried out his socio-economic policy towards the creation of a public sector and agricultural cooperation in Indom.

Under his leadership, the widespread industrialization of India unfolded, and a powerful public sector of the Indian economy was created. Thanks to the implementation of the import substitution policy in the early 60s, the Indian government was able to reduce to some extent the share of the trade deficit. Nehru's policy of introducing agricultural cooperation was the main path to accelerated modernization of agriculture and was supposed to ensure overcoming the dualism of the Indian economy and the successful implementation of the industrialization of India. Nehru actively advocated the development of common cultivation of the land, but believed that at this historical stage, collective cultivation of the land was less effective in production terms.

Nehru's understanding of democratic socialism as a synthesis of political and economic democracy left a direct imprint on the Second Five-Year Plan. It essentially equated cooperative rural management (political democracy) with agricultural cooperatives (economic democracy). Currency crisis 1957–1958 did not allow Nehru to begin the transition to accelerated industrialization - an idea that he nurtured during the 30s and 40s.

Nehru's main mistake was that he ignored the need to unfreeze the gold reserves, which should have sharply raised inflation expectations and prevent a currency crisis from occurring. Despite the explosion in the birth rate in the early 50s and the resulting fall in national income (NI), Nehru managed to achieve long-term growth in net national product (NNP), an indicator that more accurately reflects the level of well-being of people in a dual economy. Nehru wanted to create a society where the people would initiate positive transformations, and not the state, which in most cases is the only organizer and conductor of radical transformations.

The most important levers of power were driven by Indian neo-traditionalism, which promoted a combination of the principles of traditional and charismatic power and limited the potential of rationally legal power, which had been discredited during the years of colonialism. Therefore, Nehru decided to subjugate parliamentary democracy (the mechanism of action of political democracy) to the interests of the executive power, which, according to tradition, was the monopoly of the Indian National Congress (INC). Nehru hoped to realize his concept of democratic socialism not so much through parliamentary democracy, which for him turned into a lever of power, but through the development of democracy at the local level. Thus, the process of strengthening the central power gradually proceeded to a greater extent than provided for by the Indian Constitution. The main levers for strengthening Nehru's power were the majoritarian system and the High Command.

A comprehensive historical approach to nationalism allowed Nehru, while in power, to channel regionalism into the mainstream of nationalism, that is, to combine the process of awakening national consciousness among Indian ethnic groups with the highest goal - the development of a trans-Indian national consciousness, which, in turn, was strengthened by the principles of internationalism. From a historical perspective, Nehru assigned a fairly high, honorable place to nationalism, which it had to occupy in the process of socialization of the international structure.

3.2 The influence of tradition on the socio-political views and policies of Jawaharlal Nehru

The subsection examines the influence of the civilizational approach on Nehru's foreign policy and his sociocultural views on the government's domestic policies.

Nehru gave preference to the strategy of non-alignment because, in his opinion, in the dynamic core of the civilization of every large nation there are “certain traits of greatness”, and therefore the shortest path to the all-round progress of India should be the mutual enrichment of large states (civilizations) and India. Thanks to his civilizational approach, Nehru identified three priority partners for India in the international arena: America, Russia and China.

Thus, the civilizational approach became the ideological and theoretical justification for the policy of non-alignment, and allowed Nehru to more clearly see both the positive and negative features of the USA and the USSR, pushing him to attract the best experience of both states. Nehru's subjective and somewhat pathetic attitude towards Chinese culture, together with his methodological errors in historical research, led to the separation of Nehru's political practice from the self-sufficient historical tradition of China. This was most pronounced in the fact that Nehru viewed Southeast Asia (SEA) as India's sphere of civilizational influence and did not take into account China's traditional geopolitical interests in this region. The armed takeover of the Portuguese colonies of Diu, Goa and Damanu in 1961 was a serious foreign policy miscalculation by Nehru, because, along with the different approaches of India and the PRC to solving the Tibet problem, it became one of the reasons for the PRC's annexation of part of Indian territory in 1962.

Nehru's civilizational approach played a decisive role in the Indian government's decision to leave the Commonwealth. By the way, Nehru’s exclusively personal position determined India’s subsequent stay in the Commonwealth of Nations. Nehru consciously tried to change the socio-cultural tradition of India in order to make it traditionalist, that is, by changing the essence, giving it flexibility and softness to interact with innovations. Nehru made changes to the last two Vedic ashramis (vanaprastha and sannyasin), the appeal to which clearly did not correspond to the modern way of life and could create certain socio-psychological barriers to the modernization of India. It should be noted that he opened India not so much to Europeans, but to a Europeanized Indian elite like him, who were largely cut off from their roots.

Given this, it must be acknowledged that Nehru did not always accurately interpret the socio-cultural tradition with a view to giving it greater flexibility and ability to adapt to the needs of Indian society, which was modernizing. He correctly found the only religious “essence” for India, the philosophical basis - Advaita Vedanta - but could not give it a religious “form”, because this would require a break with the Indian socio-cultural tradition, which sanctified pluralism of thoughts and continuous development through transformation, then there are changes in form. Nehru never managed to connect the religious tradition, which was distinguished by its high functionality, flexibility, and ability for self-development, to the process of modernization of India. Nehru was able to strengthen the state's position in primary and secondary education, which contributed to the weakening of the caste system. He actively promoted the development of higher technical education and basic sciences in India.

4. Conclusions. Generalized characteristics of the political ideas of Jawaharlal Nehru

The partial discrepancy in the development of Nehru’s historical and political views led to the incorrect, but dominant point of view in domestic and foreign historiography about the inconsistency of his worldview as a whole. Nehru formulated a moral approach to politics, behind which moral principles inevitably justify themselves in a global historical perspective. Based on historical research, Nehru came to the conclusion that the middle class is the driving force of social progress, and therefore tried to provide favorable conditions for its development, both by limiting the interests of big capital, which was striving for power, and by actively combating the poverty of the majority of Indians. In the process of his socio-political studies, Nehru acquired a strong belief in the progressiveness of democracy, and therefore rejected dictatorship or harsh authoritarianism.

Under his leadership, a broad political modernization of India began, which covered the entire socio-political system of the country, including social and state ideologies. A feature of India's political modernization was Nehru's policy of strengthening democracy in India. It provided for the maximum possible concentration of power at the highest state level while maintaining parliamentary democracy in combination with maximum democratization and decentralization at the lower levels of government, that is, at the level of local government. Nehru wanted to create a civil society in which the people would be the source of sustainable positive change, rather than the state, which, as a rule, is the main initiator and conductor of radical transformations. Democratic socialism became the state ideology in Indom, which included building a mixed economy, strengthening democracy and introducing broad social programs.

Nehru left nationalism as a public ideology, under the conditions of its multi-level awareness. A comprehensive historical approach to nationalism allowed Nehru, while at the helm of power, to channel regionalism into the mainstream of nationalism, that is, to combine the process of awakening national self-awareness among Indian ethnic groups with the highest goal - the development of a trans-Indian national consciousness, which, in turn, he strengthened with the principles of internationalism. The result of Nehru's socio-political research was the creation of his own concept of socialism. The main content of this theoretical concept was the creation of a progressive, harmonious society, which is based on the principles of equal opportunity, social justice, democracy and public (state) ownership of the main means of production.

A feature of Nehru's socialism is the priority in the historical perspective of sociocultural factors over economic factors of social development, which made social progress directly dependent on the degree of spiritual and moral improvement of people. Nehru considered the main way to build a more perfect society to be a combination of a scientific approach based on empirical experience, with philosophy, which is based on logical conclusions, and with religion, which is inextricably linked with intuition. Nehru's religious, philosophical, historical, socio-economic and political attitudes create a unique but consistent ideological system, which can be defined as new socialism or neo-socialism.

The main task of the “Nehru course” was to overcome the spontaneity of the capitalist system through the development of the public and private sectors of the economy, and the transition to planned regulation. Nehru's understanding of economic growth as a socio-economic category, the essence of which is cooperation, determined his disposition towards the idea of ​​​​introducing a cooperative system in Indian agriculture, supporting the cooperative movement in handicraft industry and small business. Nehru's policy of introducing agricultural cooperation was supposed to ensure overcoming the dualism of the Indian economy. Nehru's insufficient knowledge of the fundamentals and experience of implementing financial and monetary policies explains the failure to carry out accelerated socio-economic modernization in India. Currency crisis of 1957-1958 c Indom did not allow Nehru to begin the transition to accelerated industrialization. The trench of accelerated industrialization led in the early 60s to an unexpected increase in employment in small businesses for the Indian government, which successfully served the needs of the market and the public sector.

The civilizational approach became the ideological and theoretical justification for the policy of non-alignment in Nehru’s worldview. This approach allowed Nehru to see the historical need to preserve India’s connection with the British Commonwealth of Nations, deepen financial, economic, scientific and technical cooperation from the USSR and the USA, and extend civilizational influence to the PSA. For Nehru, the policy of non-alignment was not only the most profitable foreign policy strategy for India, but also one of the methods for building a “modern civilization”, which was supposed to create conditions for the full development of all nations. Nehru's subjective and somewhat pathetic attitude towards Chinese culture, combined with methodological errors in his historical research, led to the separation of Nehru's political practice from the self-exclusion of the historical tradition of China. Along with Nehru’s failure to include the religious tradition in the process of modernization of India, Nehru’s significant miscalculations also include the fact that he was unable to ensure the continuity of his ideological and political line.

The modernization of India under the leadership of Nehru became the empirical basis for the formation of more mature concepts of modernization, in which scientists abandoned “Westernization,” that is, solving the problems of modernization in a positivist sociological perspective. On the foundations of his historical research, Nehru came to understand the specificity, originality and historical heritage of not only India, but also other countries and peoples. This allowed him to maintain stability and maintain the relative political unity of Indian society, to control the pace set by the transformation while keeping the structure of reforms unchanged.

Thus, thanks to his extensive experience in socio-political research, Nehru was able to creatively approach the politics of modernization and in his political activities surpass the concepts of modernization that were proposed by the sociological and political sciences of his time.

List of used literature

2. Evtushenko A.B. Transcendental in the formation of the political culture of a statesman: analysis of the views and activities of Jawaharlal Nehru // Moscow, ed. Leader 1999

3. Lenko O.V. Jawaharlal Nehru on the essence, place and task of nationalism // Eastern world. – Kyiv 2000

5. Yuryev A.Yu., Vavilov V.V. Political portraits of fighters for national independence. Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1983.

Ulyanovsky R.A. Three leaders. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indrina Gandhi. Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1986.

Yuryev A.Yu., Vavilov V.V. Political portraits of fighters for national independence. Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1983.

Vinokurov Yu.N., Khoros V.G. The concept of the model of “Indian socialism” by Jawaharlal Nehru Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1989.

Ulyanovsky R.A. Three leaders. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indrina Gandhi. Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1986.

Lenko O.V. Jawaharlal Nehru on the essence, place and task of nationalism // Eastern world. – Kyiv 2000

Vinokurov Yu.N., Khoros V.G. The concept of the model of “Indian socialism” by Jawaharlal Nehru Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1989.

Ulyanovsky R.A. Three leaders. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indrina Gandhi. Moscow, ed. "Political Literature", 1986.

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