Classification of economic cycles depending on duration. Average cycles and their phases

In modern conditions, research on regional development should be carried out at the federal and regional levels. At the same time, analytical studies are aimed at serving the current needs of federal and regional governments, identifying long-term trends in regional development and acute regional problems, substantiating regional forecasts and target programs, and creating an information base for developing a strategy for territorial development and regional policy.
Regional development problems of the country differ significantly from the problems of economic and social development of a separate region. In the first case, the main task is to use the diversity of conditions and capabilities of the regions to achieve the greatest integral effect, i.e. The economic space of Russia should be organized in such a way as to ensure the most appropriate specialization of regions and form their effective economic integration, while maintaining the coordination of federal and regional interests.
In the second case, the task is to structure the economic policy of a subject of the Federation in such a way that stable social development is ensured on the basis of the fullest use of the economic potential of the region and interregional ties while respecting the federal interests agreed upon with the regions. These differences in the content of regional federal policy and the policy of socio-economic development of the region predetermine differences in the tasks and content of analysis at the federal and regional levels.
The objects of analysis of the territorial development of the country at the federal level can be: macrozones (the Northern zone, the European and Asian parts of the country, etc.), large economic regions and interregional associations of economic interaction; regions identified on the basis of solving any major national problem
significance (the problem of reviving the Volga, eliminating the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster, etc.); subjects of the Federation in general and their groups, united on a certain basis (border, depressed, etc.); individual cities and local territories, the development of which, for various reasons, has or is acquiring federal significance (Norilsk industrial district, ZATO, free economic zones, etc.).
The subject of the analysis are processes that are of fundamental importance for ensuring: the territorial integrity of the state and strengthening the common economic space; economic security of Russia; constitutional rights of citizens throughout Russia; approximately equal access to social benefits and a decent standard of living in all regions; rational use of resources and socio-economic potential of the regions in the interests of the entire Federation; environmental safety and sustainable development of regions (Table 35.2).
Table 35.2
Objects and subject of analysis of regional development (federal aspect) Objects of analysis Assessment of the impact on: territorial integrity of the state and strengthening of a single economic space; economic security of Russia; formation of approximately equal conditions for the population’s access to social benefits; rational use of the potential of the regions in the interests of the entire Federation; environmental safety and sustainable development of the regions financial and budgetary
security
regions of the Macrozone (zone of the North, European and Asian parts of the country, etc.) Large economic regions and interregional associations of economic interaction Territories in which a major interregional problem is being solved Subjects of the Federation Groups of subjects of the Federation, identified according to a certain criterion (border, depressed, etc.) etc.) Individual cities and local territories of federal significance (ZATO, free economic zones, etc.) The object of analysis at the sub-federal level is the entire process of regional reproduction, including in full its components: reproduction of the population, social product and natural resources, ensuring the safety of the environment. Therefore, each region develops its own economic, social, environmental, regional and similar policies. Under these conditions, an analysis of the economic and social development of regions should cover a wide range of problems relating to various aspects of life in the territory (Table 35.3).
Table 35.3
Goals and objectives of the analysis of the socio-economic development of the constituent entities of the Federation No. Purpose of the analysis Objective of the analysis 1 2 3 I Assessment of the results and trends of economic development 1. Determine the dynamics of production and changes in the structure of the economic complex of the region, identify the causes of negative trends.
Determine trends in changes in the region's specialization in the territorial division of labor and assess their compliance with available resources and conditions.
Determine the level of complexity of the economy and identify opportunities to increase it.
Determine trends in the performance of economic activities of enterprises and changes in the financial resources of the region.
Identify economic problems that require government support to solve.
Assess the economic efficiency of industrial and agricultural development in the region, including structural changes II Assessing results and identifying problems of social development 1. Assess changes in the standard of living and consumption (including real income) of the population and identify the causes of current trends.
Determine the intensity of stratification of society and the number of people with incomes below the subsistence level.
Assess population and labor force trends.
Assess trends in changes in the employment structure of the population.
Determine the sectoral and territorial structure of unemployment.
Assess the scale of hidden unemployment and underemployment.
Assess the budgetary security of the population, as well as the provision of the budget with its own financial resources III Assessment of the state of environmental management and ecology 1. Assess the degree of use of natural resources of various types.
Assess environmental trends and determine their causes.
Identify cities and territories characterized by excess pollution and other serious disturbances of the ecological balance.
Identify environmental problems associated with economic activities in adjacent regions.
Identify the main sources of pollution in cities and individual territories.
Determine the possible degree of satisfaction of needs for environmental protection measures through own financing IV Assessment of foreign economic relations 1. Assess the dynamics and intensity of interregional relations and their role in the economic life of the region.
Assess the region’s self-sufficiency in means of production and consumer goods, including fuel and food.
Assess the competitiveness of core industries in the regional, domestic and global markets.
Assess the degree and benefits of regional integration in the corresponding large economic region V Assessing the effectiveness of state regional policy 1. Determine the degree of implementation of the main goals of the reform.
Give a general description of the activities of federal target programs implemented in the region, evaluate the progress and results of their implementation.
Assess the degree of completeness of the distribution of legal powers under joint jurisdiction and determine the range of issues on which significant differences remain between the Federation and the region VI Identification of regional crisis situations 1. Identify industries (productions) subject to a deep crisis, identify the causes and possible consequences of this crisis.
Identify cities and areas that are in crisis in the economic, social or environmental spheres. Determine the reasons and possibilities for changing the situation on your own
End of table. 35.3
1 2 3 VII Assessment of prerequisites and potential opportunities for socio-economic development of the region 1. Assessment of the availability and use of natural resources.
Assessment of socio-historical characteristics and demographic trends.
Assessment of the presence, structure, condition and use of production potential.
Assessment of financial potential.
Assessment of scientific and technical potential.
Human resources assessment.
Assessment of transport-geographical and geopolitical position.
Assessment of the state of production, social and market infrastructure.
Assessing the investment attractiveness of a region When analyzing regional development, various methods are used (Table 35.4), most of which are quite well known. Certain regional specifics are associated with the characteristics of the objects of observation. Depending on what is being studied: the territorial aspect of socio-economic processes at the federal level, or the development of economic regions (zones), or the socio-economic development of the constituent entities of the Federation, the subject of the study and the indicators used in analytical calculations change.
In particular, the dynamics are determined in relation to the economic, demographic and social processes taking place in the regions. At the same time, a much wider range of indicators is used in relation to the subjects of the Federation than for economic regions.
Methods for analyzing regional development
Table 35.4 Methods and areas of analysis Indicators and areas of analysis 1. Study of GRP dynamics, industry, demographic, financial indicators 2. Study of the structure, state of various segments of the regional market Territorial, industry, demographic, social 3. Study of the level of development Economy, social sphere, infrastructure 4. Comparative characteristics of regions Economy, budgets, employment, standard of living, etc. (based on individual indicators and integral assessments of the socio-economic situation of the regions) 5. Characteristics of rows (aggregates) of regions Ranking of regions according to individual indicators, assessment of the range of variation and density of rows 6. Study of the level of resource use Natural, labor resources, production capacities 7. Assessment degree of achievement of standards In the social sphere and environmental safety 8. Assessing the role of regions in the territorial division of labor Inter-district connections, assessing the localization of individual industries and identifying core industries 9. Assessing the degree of influence of territorial factors The closeness of the connection between various processes Structural characteristics at the federal and regional levels describe various processes. At the federal level, the territorial structure of various socio-economic indicators is studied, and at the regional level - the structure of various spheres of the economy and society:
sectoral structure of the economy, gender and age structure of the population, distribution of citizens by income level, etc.
Assessments of the level of development relate mainly to the subjects of the Federation. For this purpose, not absolute, but specific indicators are used. As a rule, for this purpose, so-called per capita indicators are calculated, reflecting the volume of production or the availability of any resource (usually housing, health care and education facilities) per person.
Since the economy and social sphere of the regions are a very complex object, it is difficult to give them a comprehensive, comprehensive assessment. Assessments of the level of development can be made either on the basis of any one (main) indicator, or by integrating a number of indicators into a complex, integral indicator.
Comparative assessments of the level of development of regions are made on the basis of their ranking according to one or another indicator. Often, specific indicators are used as standardized assessments, reflecting the ratio of the regional value of the indicator to the average for Russia or to the minimum (maximum) value of the entire set of regions. Such assessments make it possible not only to compare regions with each other, but also to determine the degree of their differentiation. They are mainly used at the federal, less often at the district level.
The degree of achievement of social standards is primarily a regional indicator. First of all, it is used to assess the level of poverty (the share of the population with incomes below the subsistence level), quality of life (correlation with standard indicators of data on the availability of total living space, shifts of classes in schools, etc.).
The level of resource provision, as well as specialization in the territorial division of labor, are used to analyze the socio-economic situation of the subjects of the Federation. We are talking about the availability of industrial reserves of mineral raw materials and fuel resources, the availability and use of water, forest and land resources, the state and use of fixed assets and production capacities, the availability and employment of labor resources, etc.
Specialization is determined based on a comparison of the share of a particular industry (production) in the regional economy with the corresponding all-Russian indicators.
Well-known methods of analysis include assessing the closeness of the connection between the processes (indicators) under study, as well as the grouping method.
The current trends in the socio-economic development of Russian regions are multifaceted and mostly contradictory. In this regard, there is a need to give a generalized, comprehensive assessment of the processes under study in the economy and social sphere of the constituent entities of the Federation.
Such an assessment should cover various aspects of regional development, including the comparative intensity of economic activity and foreign economic relations, the investment activity of economic entities, the level of development of the regional consumer market, the comparative degree of infrastructural development of the territory, the budgetary and financial security of the region, the level of development of small businesses, economic employment active population, as well as the most important characteristics of the standard of living, including the level and differentiation of income of the population and the comparative degree of development of key sectors of social infrastructure.
The methodology for comparative integrated assessment of the socio-economic situation of regions includes:
determination for each of its aspects (directions) of the most representative criterion indicator (or group of indicators) and reliable calculation methods;
justification for an internally balanced and consistent composition of the indicators used, a rational relationship between those components that are relatively stable and those that are to one degree or another subject to the influence of the current economic situation;
selection of an adequate method for synthesizing particular criterion characteristics into the resulting integral indicator of the socio-economic situation of the regions.
Currently, in the practice of regional economic research, various methodological approaches are used to a comparative integrated (multifactor) assessment of the socio-economic situation of regions and trends in its change. These approaches differ, on the one hand, in the composition and total number of basic indicators used, reflecting individual aspects of territorial development, and, on the other hand, in the way they are synthesized into a summary (integrated) indicator. Each of the methods used has both a number of advantages and certain disadvantages.
One of the most objective and relatively simple methods of integral assessment of the socio-economic situation of regions is the method of ranked scoring, which has become widespread in foreign and domestic practice of regional economic research. Its essence lies in carrying out a continuous, interval-free ranking of all regions taken into account for each basic indicator, converting the resulting ranks into corresponding scores and then summing them up into a composite indicator.

developing or Third World countries(sometimes they are called agricultural, the basis of the economy is agriculture, the sale of minerals, that is, the raw materials industry is developed, etc.);

industrial (the basis of the economy of these states is industry);

post-industrial (these are modern developed states in which a scientific and technological revolution has occurred; the main wealth of these states is created in the service sector, in the industrial sector).

Depending on the form of government of the state

Monarchy, that is, the power of one person;

Republic:

• Oligarchy, that is, the power of a few;

  Polyarchy, that is, the rule of the majority; another name is liberal democracy.

Jamahiriya.

Depending on the dominant ideology of the state

ideologized;

de-ideologized.

De-ideologized (secular) states- There is no official ideology here. In ideologized states, the entire functioning of the state is determined by the dominant ideology. In particular, a person’s ability to participate in state activities, etc., depends on his views on state ideology. In deideologized states, ideological pluralism is proclaimed, that is, the opportunity to preach and develop any ideology. The state can prohibit extreme forms of ideology, such as racist ones.

Part two

Types of law

Type of law is a set of the most important features of law generated by a certain era. As in the theory of state, in the theory of law there are two approaches to typology: formational And civilizational.

With the formational approach, the most important factor determining the type of law is its class essence, that is, the interests of which class it serves. According to the Marxist theory of social development, each of the class socio-economic formations - slave, feudal, capitalist and socialist - corresponds to a certain historical type of law.

Historical type of law - this is a set of the most essential features characteristic of the legal system of a certain socio-economic formation. There are four historical types of law: slave, feudal, bourgeois, socialist.

Slave law

Slave law - it is the will of the slave-owning class elevated to law. The main objectives of slave law were: securing the private ownership of slave owners in the means of production and slaves, as well as protecting the foundations of the slave state system.

The legal history of the ancient world knows two main slaveholding state legal models: ancient Eastern and ancient. The first model was widespread in the territories of states that existed in the 4th millennium BC. - 1st floor 1st millennium AD on the Asian and African continents (Egypt, Babylonia, India, China, etc.), the second - in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The main difference between these models was that the ancient Eastern legal system was built on the predominance of the state over the individual, and the ancient one, on the contrary, on the freedom of the individual and its autonomy from the state. Such freedom was possible due to the widespread prevalence of private property in ancient states. It was private property that provided citizens with a certain independence from the state, while in the countries of the Ancient East property belonged to the state and was associated with position: in order to become an owner, it was necessary to occupy a certain place in the state hierarchy.

The difference between the two legal systems of slave law was not absolute, but relative. The ancient Eastern and ancient legal systems had more similarities than differences:

1) both systems legally established class-class inequality, that is, inequality not only between free and slaves, but also inequality between separate groups of free people;

2) both systems were closely related to religion. The concepts of sinful and criminal largely coincided, religious norms served as a source of legal norms, and clergy were often at the origins of justice;

3) the legal norms enshrined in most legislative monuments of both systems were records of specific cases from judicial practice - incidents, or instructions for judges, did not contain general rules of conduct and were of a casuistic nature. Crucial importance for legal actions was compliance with a certain form of their implementation;

4) both systems did not know the division of law into branches;

5) with the exception of Roman private law, all ancient law was characterized by a low level of legal technology: strict legal terminology was not developed, legislators used everyday language.

The pinnacle of slaveholding law was Roman law. It was divided into private and public. The classic distinction between public and private law was given by the Roman jurist Ulpian, who wrote: “Public law is that which relates to the position of the Roman state; private - which refers to the benefit of individuals.” Roman law was distinguished by the highest level of legal technology, precision of formulation, validity of decisions, specificity, practicality, and vitality. It reached its highest level of development in the regulation of property relations, primarily property relations. Even after the fall of the Roman Empire, Roman private law continued to exist, exerting a huge influence on the legislation of European countries (in particular, during the formation and development of bourgeois states), on legal thought and the legal history of mankind.

Feudal law

Feudal law represented the will of the dominant feudal class in the Middle Ages, elevated to law. Its main task was to legally formalize and regulate the property rights of feudal lords to land and other means of production, ensuring their political and economic dominance in medieval society. Feudal law was characterized by the following features:

1) the main place in feudal law was occupied by the norms regulating land relations, since it was land that represented the main wealth in the Middle Ages;

2) feudal law was a privileged right that consolidated the inequality of the various classes of medieval society. A person's social status was determined in accordance with the place he occupied in the feudal hierarchy. Each class had its own court; only the peasants were subject to the court of the master, since they were outside the feudal hierarchy. The investigative (inquisitorial) process dominated, built on a system of formal evidence, of which the confession of the accused himself was considered the most perfect evidence. Witness testimony was taken into account taking into account the social status of the witness;

3) feudal law is the right of the strong. It openly recognized violence as a source of law (primarily on the part of the feudal lord in relation to the peasant);

4) feudal law was inherent particularism, i.e., the absence of a unified system of law throughout the country. The law was fragmented; acts of individual feudal lords and local customs prevailed locally;

5) like the law of the ancient world, feudal law retained a close connection with religion;

6) feudal law did not know the division into branches of law. Its components were manorial law, city law, commercial law, canon law and royal law.

As commodity-money relations developed in feudal society, feudal law borrowed a number of institutions and norms of Roman law. This process was called the reception of Roman law. Beginning in the Middle Ages, it continued in modern times - the era of the formation of bourgeois relations.

Bourgeois law

Bourgeois law formed during the period of the XVII-XIX centuries. and represented the will of the bourgeois class elevated to law. In legal science today, this law is also called modern law, since in its main features it is still in effect to this day. Bourgeois law is characterized by:

1) secularism is a right that is not related to religion;

2) high legal technology and the creation of an extensive branch system of law;

3) division of law into private and public;

4) recognition of the law as the main source of law. The main tasks of bourgeois law are the protection of capitalist ownership of land and the preservation of the main means of production in the hands of the bourgeoisie.

Socialist law

According to Marxist theory socialist law represents at the first stage - the stage of formation and development of the socialist state - the will of the proletariat, peasants and working intelligentsia raised into law, and at the second stage - the stage of developed socialism - the will of the entire people raised into law. It is not eternal: having arisen together with the state as a class institution, socialist law will die out along with it. In reality, socialist law was of a declarative nature and was subordinated to the state.

Currently, the formational approach to the typology of law is subject to serious criticism. The understanding of law solely as the will of a single, dominant class elevated to law is outdated. Modern legal science sees in law the state-established ideas of society about what is lawful and unlawful, permitted and prohibited. Law is not a tool of class domination, but a means of achieving social compromise. At the same time, the civilizational approach to the typology of law directs researchers to study the specifics of the law of each civilization. However, such a methodology does not allow us to identify common features and patterns of development of the legal development of mankind and model a unified classification. Therefore, modern legal science, studying the history of law, prefers such scientific categories as the legal system and the legal family to the concept of “type of law”.

Vocabulary lesson

Canon law - right of the Christian church. Manorial law - a set of legal norms that regulated relations in the feudal estate between peasants and feudal lords.

Formal proof system - a procedure in which the value of each piece of evidence is determined by law and depends on the social status and religion of the witness.

Question number 2 part two

Depending on the duration, cycles in the economy are divided into short, medium and long (long).

Short cycles are called Kitchin cycles, after the English economist and statistician Joseph Kitchin. He explained the small cycles by the periodicity of fluctuations in gold reserves and determined their recurrence with a periodicity of three years and four months.

The founder of econometrics, Wesley Mitchell, saw the reason for small cycles in the sphere of monetary circulation and determined their duration at 40 months, that is, also three years and four months.

Small (short) cycles are associated with disruption and restoration of equilibrium in the consumer market.

The reason for the short cycles is the changes taking place in the credit industry. That is why they manifest themselves as credit crises.

Average cycles also called Clement Juglar cycles (named after the French economist who studied middle cycles in the second half of the 19th century). He believed that the reason for average cycles also lies in the field of credit, and determined their frequency at 8-10 years. This periodicity coincides with the duration of average cycles, the reason for which scientists saw in the same frequency of renewal of fixed capital.

The middle cycles include the so-called construction Simon Kuznets cycles(named after the American scientist, Nobel Prize winner). He believed that cyclical fluctuations were associated with the periodic renewal of housing and certain types of industrial structures and determined their duration (frequency) at 15-20 years.

The existence of long waves (long cycles) is associated with changes in basic technologies, energy sources and infrastructure. They are also called Kondratiev cycles (in honor of the Russian scientist Nikolai Kondratiev). His research was based on statistical data on the dynamics of production of iron, lead, coal, as well as the average level of prices, wages and interest rates, foreign trade turnover and other indicators in England, France, Germany and the USA for the period from the 80s of the 18th century. until the 20s of the XX century. Based on economic analysis, he identified two and a half long waves with a duration of 54-55 years with an ascending and descending phase.

Descending phase of the major cycle is a period of change in basic technologies and technological structures, lasting 20-25 years. During this phase, small and medium cycles occur, which creates the basis for the most significant changes in technical re-equipment.

Rising phase of the major cycle- this is a period of growth in the economic, scientific and technical development of society, lasting 25-30 years, during which cyclical fluctuations associated with the renewal of fixed capital, the massive spread of new technologies, the emergence and development of new sectors of the economy are also possible.

Let's take a closer look at the average cycles, which are also called industrial cycles.

Industrial (economic) the cycle is the most acute form of manifestation of the contradictions inherent in a market (capitalist) economy and at the same time a very tough but effective way to resolve them.

The material basis of the industrial cycle, in accordance with Marxist theory, is the periodic renewal of fixed capital.

The frequency of cycles is thus determined by the time of renewal of fixed capital. The faster this renewal is carried out, the more often crises occur. At the time described by K. Marx, the frequency of renewal of fixed capital was 10-11 years. This was also the periodicity of the average (industrial) cycles.

The classic business cycle diagram includes four phases (Fig. 16.1).

Let us give a brief description of each phase of the business cycle.

Features of the economic crisis:

• - overproduction of goods in relation to effective demand for them;
• - significant reduction in production volumes;
• - falling prices;
• - shortage of available funds necessary to make payments;
• - stock market crash and bankruptcy of enterprises;
• - increase in unemployment rate;
• - reduction in wages;
• - drop in profit level;
• - mass destruction of consumer goods, equipment, etc.;
• - disorder of the credit system.

Traits of depression:

• - "stagnation" of production;
• - low price level;
• - “sluggish” trade;
• - low interest rate;
• - liquidation of surplus goods.

Revive Traits:

• - expansion of production until the pre-crisis level is restored;
• - rising prices;
• - increasing the rate of profit;
• - increasing employment levels;
• - revival of trade;
• - strengthening of optimistic expectations.

Lifting features:

• - exceeding the maximum production volume of the pre-crisis level;
• - rapid growth in employment;
• - growth in wages and other types of income;
• - credit expansion;
• - artificial stimulation of aggregate demand, caused by intermediaries’ expectations of rising prices and their desire to buy more goods at lower prices;
• - an increase in supply, which will eventually exceed demand and create conditions for the next crisis.

With the acceleration of scientific and technical progress and increased state (governmental) intervention in the economic life of society, the industrial cycle is modified (Fig. 16.2).

Modern economic theory distinguishes two phases of the economic (industrial) cycle:

• - recession, including crisis and depression;
• - climb, including revival and boom.

Recession- this is a phase of the economic (business) cycle, characterized by a relatively moderate, non-critical decline in production or a slowdown in economic growth. It is located between the top and bottom points.

Rise (expansion) of production- the phase located between the bottom (lowest point) and boom (highest point of the cycle).

According to the US National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), a recession is a period of decline in the level of aggregate output, income, employment, and trade, lasting from six months to one year and characterized by a significant decline in many sectors of the economy.

American scientists Arthur Burns and Wesley Mitchell, studying the cyclical fluctuations of the modern economy, came to the conclusion that the dynamics of the output and employment series determines economic growth, called an increasing trend, and fluctuations in business activity around the trend form industrial cycles.

Thus, a trend can be considered as a result of the action of factors that determine long-term economic growth (savings level, increase in labor resources, technical changes, etc.), and a cycle can be considered as a temporary deviation from this trend.

Economic cycle (Business cycle, or business cycle)- these are regular fluctuations in the level of business activity (usually represented by fluctuations in national income), in which, after an increase in business activity, it decreases, after which its increase is observed again.

Modern economic cycles differ significantly from the cycles of the late 19th - first half of the 20th centuries.

• 1. They do not have a depression phase as obligatory, but if the fall is very deep and long-lasting, then the recession phase is called depression.
• 2. There is no clear boundary between revival and recovery. These phases are combined into one. This is called the expansion phase of production. There are top (boom) and bottom (bottom) points of the business cycle.
• 3. The resultant of long-term economic growth is determined - a trend, fluctuations around which form a cycle.
• 4. Economic indicators in the phases of the cycle have also changed.

Economic dependence– a state in which market objects and their development have a close relationship, the violation of which leads to serious consequences for both parties. On the scale of the modern economy, all states and objects are to one degree or another dependent on each other. This is expressed in the need to sell raw materials and finished products on the world market, as well as in the presence of foreign capital in many industries.

Economic dependence and ways of state development

In fact, economic dependence is a term that characterizes modern relations in the market. Despite the desire of the government of each state for political sovereignty, none of them seeks to limit economic routes, exports of products, and business relations with foreign investors.

A typical example of an autonomous, “closed” and independent path of economic development is the consequences of the collapse of the Soviet Union. The country behind the Iron Curtain at a certain point was unable to meet its needs and follow the planned development plan. No less sad is the fate of the Third World colony states that were isolated experimentally.

No one has yet succeeded in creating a successful closed economic model, so the main task is not to gain economic independence, but to ensure international economic security - a condition under which no state will be subjected to intentional damage from other market participants.

Levels of economic dependence

There are a number of factors that determine the level of economic dependence, among which the level of development of the subject comes first. Young developing companies and rapidly developing industrial powers are in greater need of an influx of capital and the presence of stable markets. Thus, imposing a trade embargo on China could cause the total destruction of its economy, and all other powers would suffer significant damage.

The partner states are also in close economic relationships, having divided production areas and clearly defined supply priorities (China and Hong Kong, Russia and Belarus, Japan and the USA).

The most significant factors determining the level of economic dependence of partners are:

Need for investment

Economic benefits and loans provided by a stronger and more stable power

Risk diversification guaranteed by the trading

Exports of a single product that determine countries as a whole

Geography and climate, availability of natural resources

The most vulnerable becomes those forced to maintain a monopoly on one product. A change in price on a commodity exchange or a decrease in demand can provoke dire consequences for the entire country.

Not only partners and developing countries, whose enterprises require large investments, are economically dependent, but also entities with a similar direction. A typical example is the United States and Germany; uncoordinated changes in the economic direction of one of the powers can upset the economic balance of the second.

The economic interdependence of a number of states makes it necessary to coordinate every change in the banking and credit systems, taxation and cash flows.

International forms of partnership

The economies of several powers often end up in the same harness not by chance, but according to the chosen line of economic policy and the organization of international forms of cooperation. The placement of industries or production of narrow specialization on the territory of one state with subsequent stable supplies to the international one is called international specialization.

Most often, such trust is due to the presence of scientific and technical potential, geographical and climatic features, and comfort of accommodation.

International specialization significantly increases the competitiveness of the product on the market and is characterized by a number of factors:

Influx of investment in production

Equipped with innovative equipment

Development of unique technologies

Highly qualified employees of an enterprise of international importance

International cooperation is a form of economic interaction in which enterprises from different countries take part in the production of the final product. A typical form of this relationship is detailed production followed by assembly.

Economic dependence is a typical characteristic of the modern market, which has a number of positive properties, such as the formation of a system of international payments, regulation of prices in the market, dynamic development and implementation of new technologies. The most important issue in international cooperation remains ensuring consistency and security of interaction.

Stay up to date with all the important events of United Traders - subscribe to our

September 13, 2019, Trade regulation. Consumer rights Protection A decision was made to conduct an experiment on marking bicycles and bicycle frames Resolution of September 11, 2019 No. 1183. From September 16, 2019 to May 31, 2020, an experiment will be conducted on marking with identification tools for bicycles and bicycle frames. The purpose of the experiment is to test the functioning mechanisms of the traceability system for the circulation of bicycles and bicycle frames in Russia, to create conditions for protecting the interests of manufacturers and consumers of such products.

September 12, 2019, Migration policy The procedure for entry into Russia has been simplified for foreign citizens from 53 countries through checkpoints in St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region Order No. 2021-r dated September 10, 2019. A list of 53 countries has been approved whose citizens can enter and exit Russia through checkpoints in St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region on the basis of ordinary single-entry business, tourist and humanitarian visas in the form of electronic documents.

September 10, 2019, Humanitarian ties with foreign countries (except the CIS). Compatriots On the signing of the Cooperation Program between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Slovenia in the field of culture, science, education, sports and youth policy for 2019–2021 Order No. 2009-r dated September 7, 2019

September 7, 2019 Awarded the Russian Government Prize in the field of education for 2019 Order No. 1944-r dated August 31, 2019. 10 applicants became award winners in 2019. The prizes were awarded for the development of a digital educational complex in theoretical and engineering mechanics, textbooks and scientific and practical manuals on geotechnics, as well as for educational and scientific publications in the field of modern information, measuring and control radio-electronic systems.

September 7, 2019, State policy in the field of scientific research and development The size of Russian Government awards in the field of science and technology for young scientists has been increased Resolution of August 31, 2019 No. 1121. Since 2020, the amount of the monetary part of the Russian Government awards in the field of science and technology for young scientists has been increased from 500 thousand rubles to 1 million rubles.

September 7, 2019, Organization of the healthcare system. Health insurance The Federal Statistical Work Plan has been supplemented with information on the dynamics of wages for junior medical personnel Order No. 1988-r dated September 5, 2019. The collection of official statistical data will make it possible to monitor the increase in wages for junior medical personnel, taking into account the ongoing indexation.

September 6, 2019, Circulation of medicines, medical devices and substances Changes have been made to the procedure for monitoring the movement of drugs for medical use Resolution of August 30, 2019 No. 1118. From January 1, 2020, mandatory labeling of medicinal products for medical use with means of identification will be introduced. The signed decree introduced changes to the Regulations on the system for monitoring the movement of medicinal products for medical use, which will allow drug manufacturers to implement the system within the established time frame.

September 6, 2019, Telecommunications. Telecommunications The concept of creating a state unified cloud platform has been approved Order of August 28, 2019 No. 1911-r. The concept provides for a phased transfer of information systems of state authorities and local governments to a unified state cloud platform. This will improve the efficiency of use of information technology and communication infrastructure created to provide state and municipal services in electronic form.

September 5, 2019, Food industry The Strategy for the Development of Mechanical Engineering for the Food and Processing Industry until 2030 has been approved Order No. 1931-r dated August 30, 2019. The implementation of the Strategy will contribute to the opening of new production capacities, the creation of high-performance jobs, the technological independence of the food industry from imported engineering products, and the growth of export supplies of Russian machines.

September 5, 2019, Quality of regional and municipal governance The Federal Statistical Work Plan has been supplemented with information on the effectiveness of the activities of senior officials and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Federation Order of August 27, 2019 No. 1873-r. The Federal Statistical Work Plan includes 15 indicators for assessing the effectiveness of the activities of senior officials and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Federation. The collection of statistical data on these indicators will make it possible to obtain a reliable assessment of the effectiveness of the activities of senior officials and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Federation.

September 3, 2019, Technological development. Innovation On the signing of an Agreement of Intent between the Government of Russia and the Management Company of the Russian Direct Investment Fund in order to develop the high-tech field of Artificial Intelligence in Russia Order No. 1964-r dated September 3, 2019. The signing of the Agreement is aimed at attracting mutually beneficial cooperation between industrial, scientific, educational and other organizations, the pooling of efforts of which is necessary to achieve the target indicators of technological development in Russia.

September 3, 2019, Automotive and special equipment On updating the fleet of emergency medical vehicles and school buses in the constituent entities of the Federation Order No. 1963-r dated September 3, 2019. An additional supply of more than 1.55 thousand emergency medical vehicles and more than 2.45 thousand school buses to the constituent entities of the Federation is planned.

September 3, 2019, Law Enforcement Monitoring Law enforcement monitoring plan for 2020 approved Order No. 1951-r dated August 31, 2019. Law enforcement monitoring involves the collection, compilation, analysis and assessment of information for the adoption, amendment or invalidation of regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, regulatory legal acts of constituent entities of the Federation and municipal legal acts.

31 August 2019, Inland water transport and maritime activities A new edition of the Strategy for the Development of Maritime Activities of the Russian Federation until 2030 has been approved Order No. 1930-r dated August 30, 2019. In the new edition of the Strategy, taking into account the current political and socio-economic situation in the country and the world, the priorities, goals and objectives of Russia’s maritime activities for the long term are determined, the forecast values ​​of the target indicators of the second stage of the Strategy are clarified and the forecast values ​​of the target indicators of its third stage are determined (in the previous there were no editions of target indicators - only promising development paths).

August 31, 2019, Professional qualifications The plan of main activities for the preparation and holding of the European Championship of Professional Skills according to WorldSkills standards in St. Petersburg in 2022 has been approved Order No. 1949-r dated August 31, 2019. The plan includes 51 events related, in particular, to the fulfillment of international obligations for the preparation and holding of the championship, the preparation of urban infrastructure facilities, and the development of competition and business programs.

August 31, 2019, Literature and book publishing. Libraries The development plan for the federal state information system “National Electronic Library” has been approved Order of August 28, 2019 No. 1904-r. The plan, in particular, provides for legal regulation of the work of the New Library, improvement of the information technologies used in it, selection and encyclopedic systematization of knowledge from book, archival, museum and university collections, ensuring the inclusion in the New Library of electronic copies of 100% of Russian publications as legal deposit.

August 30, 2019 An organizing committee has been formed for the preparation and holding of the Second Caspian Economic Forum in Astrakhan in 2021 Order No. 1929-r dated August 30, 2019

August 29, 2019, State program “Development of Culture” for 2013–2020 On budgetary allocations for the reconstruction of cultural objects in the constituent entities of the Federation Order No. 1924-r dated August 29, 2019. The targeted (object-by-object) distribution of subsidies provided in 2019–2021 to the budgets of the republics of Buryatia, North Ossetia-Alania, Khakassia, Tyva, the Udmurt Republic, Trans-Baikal Territory, Astrakhan, Murmansk, Omsk and Pskov regions for co-financing capital investments in the reconstruction of cultural objects has been approved. Resolution of August 29, 2019 No. 1117

1