Basics of scientific research course. "Fundamentals of Scientific Research

Series “Educational publications for bachelors”

M. F. Shklyar

RESEARCH

Tutorial

4th edition

Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co."

UDC 001.8 BBK 72

M. F. Shklyar - Doctor of Economic Sciences, Professor.

Reviewer:

A. V. Tkach - Doctor of Economics, Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation.

Shklyar M. F.

Ш66 Basics scientific research. Textbook for bachelors / M. F. Shklyar. - 4th ed. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2012. - 244 p.

ISBN 978 5 394 01800 8

In the tutorial (taking into account modern requirements) describes the basic provisions related to the organization, formulation and conduct of scientific research in a form suitable for any specialty. The methodology of scientific research, methods of working with literary sources and practical information, and the features of preparing and formatting coursework and dissertations are described in detail.

For undergraduate and specialist students, as well as graduate students, degree seekers and teachers.

INTRODUCTION ..................................................... ........................................................ ........................................
	1. SCIENCE AND ITS ROLE
IN MODERN SOCIETY...........................................................
1.1. The concept of science................................................... ........................................................ ..............
1.2. Science and philosophy........................................................ ...................................................
1.3. Modern science. Basic Concepts........................................................
1.4. The role of science in modern society.................................................... ..........
	2. ORGANIZATION
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH WORK ................................
2.1. Legislative framework for science management
and its organizational structure.................................................. ...........................
2.2. Scientific and technical potential
and its components................................................... ........................................................ ........
2.3. Preparation of scientific
and scientific and pedagogical workers.................................................. ...............
2.4. Academic degrees and academic titles......................................................... ...............
2.5. Student scientific work and quality improvement
training of specialists........................................................ ...........................................
Chapter 3. SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ....................................
3.1. Sciences and their classification................................................................. ...............................
3.2. Scientific research and its essence................................................................. .....
3.3. Stages of implementation
scientific research works........................................................ ........................
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. ...

Chapter 4. METHODOLOGICAL BASIS
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH............................................................
4.1. Methods and methodology of scientific research.................................................
4.2. General and general scientific methods
4.3. Special methods of scientific research................................................
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. ...
Chapter 5. CHOOSING A DIRECTION
AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC TOPIC
RESEARCH .................................................... ........................................
5.1. Planning
scientific research........................................................ ...................................................
5.2. Forecasting scientific research........................................................
5.3. Choosing a research topic.................................................................. ........
5.4. Feasibility study of the topic
scientific research........................................................ ...............................................
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. .
Chapter 6. SEARCH, ACCUMULATION AND PROCESSING
SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION..............................................................
6.2. Search and collection scientific information........................................................
6.3. Maintaining work records................................................................... ...................................
6.4. Studying scientific literature................................................................... ...............
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. .
Chapter 7. SCIENTIFIC WORKS........................................................
7.1. Peculiarities scientific work
and ethics scientific work...............................................................................................
7.2. Coursework........................................................ ........................................................ ..
7.3. Theses........................................................ ...................................................
Structure of the thesis
and requirements for its structural elements................................................... .
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. .

	8. WRITING A SCIENTIFIC PAPER..............................
8.1. Composition of a scientific work................................................................... ........................
8.3. Language and style of scientific work................................................................. ........................
8.4. Editing and curing
scientific work........................................................ ........................................................ ...............
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. .
Chapter 9. LITERARY DESIGN
AND PROTECTION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKS................................................
9.1. Features of the preparation of structural parts
9.2. Design of structural parts
scientific works........................................................ ........................................................ ...............
9.3. Features of preparation for defense
scientific works........................................................ ........................................................ ...............
Test questions and assignments.............................................................. .
APPLICATIONS ..................................................... ........................................................ .......................
Bibliography...............................................................................

INTRODUCTION

The duty to think is the lot of modern man; he must think about everything that falls into the orbit of science only in the form of strict logical judgments. Scientific consciousness... is an inexorable imperative, an integral part of the concept of adequacy of modern man.

J. Ortega y Gasset, Spanish philosopher (1883–1955)

IN modern conditions rapid development of scientific and technical progress, intensive increase in the volume of scientific and scientific and technical information, rapid turnover and updating of knowledge, the training in higher education of highly qualified specialists with high general scientific and professional training, capable of independent creative work, to the introduction of the latest and most progressive results into the production process.

For this purpose, the discipline “Fundamentals of Scientific Research” is included in the curricula of many specialties at universities, and elements of scientific research are widely introduced into the educational process. During extracurricular time, students take part in scientific research work carried out at departments, in scientific institutions of universities, and in student associations.

In the new socio-economic conditions, there is an increase in interest in scientific research. Meanwhile, the desire for scientific work increasingly encounters students’ insufficient mastery of the system of methodological knowledge. This significantly reduces the quality of students’ scientific work, preventing them from fully realizing their capabilities. In this regard, the manual pays special attention to: analysis of methodological and theoretical aspects of scientific research; consideration of problems of the essence, features and logic of the scientific research process; revealing the methodological concept of the study and its main stages.

Introducing students to scientific knowledge, their readiness and ability to carry out scientific research work is an objective prerequisite for the successful solution of educational and scientific problems. In turn, an important direction for improving the theoretical and practical training of students is their performance of various scientific works that give the following results:

- contributes to the deepening and consolidation of students’ existing theoretical knowledge of the disciplines and branches of science they study;

- develops practical skills of students in conducting scientific research, analyzing the results obtained and developing recommendations for improving this or that type of activity;

- improves students' methodological skills in independent work with sources of information and corresponding software and hardware;

- opens up wide opportunities for students to master additional theoretical material and accumulated practical experience in the area of ​​activity that interests them;

- promotes vocational training students to perform their duties in the future and helps them master research methodology.

IN The manual summarizes and systematizes all the necessary information related to the organization of scientific research - from choosing a topic for scientific work to defending it.

IN This manual outlines the main provisions related to the organization, formulation and conduct of scientific research in a form suitable for any specialty. This is what makes it different from others teaching aids of a similar type, intended for students of a particular specialty.

Since this manual is intended for a wide range of specialties, it cannot include exhaustive material for each specialty. Therefore, teachers teaching this course can, in relation to the profile of specialist training, supplement the manual material with a presentation of specific issues (examples) or reduce the volume of individual sections, if this is appropriate and regulated by the allotted time plan.

Chapter 1.

SCIENCE AND ITS ROLE IN MODERN SOCIETY

Knowledge, only knowledge makes a person free and great.

D. I. Pisarev (1840–1868),

Russian philosopher materialist

1.1. Science concept.

1.2. Science and philosophy.

1.3. Modern science. Basic concepts.

1.4. The role of science in modern society.

1.1. Science concept

The main form of human knowledge is science. Science these days is becoming an increasingly significant and essential component of the reality that surrounds us and in which we, one way or another, must navigate, live and act. A philosophical vision of the world presupposes fairly definite ideas about what science is, how it works and how it develops, what it can do and what it allows us to hope for, and what is inaccessible to it. In the philosophers of the past we can find many valuable predictions and hints useful for orientation in a world where the role of science is so important.

uki. They, however, were unaware of the real, practical experience of the massive and even dramatic impact of scientific and technical achievements on the daily existence of a person, which we have to comprehend today.

Today there is no unambiguous definition of science. There are more than 150 of them in various literary sources. One of these definitions is interpreted as follows: “Science is a form of spiritual activity of people aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws on the basis of a generalization of real facts in their interrelation.” Another definition is also widespread: “Science is both a creative activity to obtain new knowledge, and the result of such activity, knowledge brought into an integral system based on certain principles and the process of their production.” V. A. Kanke in his book “Philosophy. “Historical and systematic course” gave the following definition: “Science is the human activity of developing, systematizing and testing knowledge. Not all knowledge is scientific, but only well-tested and substantiated.”

But, in addition to many definitions of science, there are also many perceptions of it. Many people understood science in their own way, believing that their perception was the only and correct definition. Consequently, the pursuit of science has become relevant not only in our time, but its origins begin in quite ancient times. Looking at science in its historical development, one can find that as the type of culture changes and during the transition from one socio-economic formation to another, the standards of presentation of scientific knowledge, ways of seeing reality, and style of thinking, which are formed in the context of culture and are influenced by a variety of socio-cultural factors, change. .

The prerequisites for the emergence of science appeared in the countries of the Ancient East: Egypt, Babylon, India, China. The achievements of Eastern civilization were adopted and processed into a coherent theoretical system Ancient Greece, Where

Fundamentals of Scientific Research

Introduction

Science is a field of research aimed at obtaining new knowledge about nature, society and thinking. Currently, the development of science is associated with the division and cooperation of scientific work, the creation of scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment. Being a consequence of the social division of labor, science arises following the separation of mental labor from physical labor and the transformation cognitive activity into a specific occupation of a specific group of people. The emergence of large-scale machine production creates the conditions for the transformation of science into an active factor in production itself.

The basis of this activity is the collection scientific facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, synthesis of new scientific knowledge or generalizations that not only describe observable natural or social phenomena, but also allow us to build cause-and-effect relationships and, as a result, make predictions. Those natural science theories and hypotheses that are confirmed by facts or experiments are formulated in the form of laws of nature or society.

Scientific research, application-based research scientific method, provides scientific information and theories to explain the nature and properties of the world around us. Such research may have practical use. Scientific research can be funded by the government, non-profit organizations, commercial companies and individuals. Scientific research can be classified according to its academic and applied nature.

The main goal of applied research (as opposed to basic research) - discovery, interpretation and development of methods and systems for improving human knowledge in various branches of human knowledge.

Rice. Generalized scheme (algorithm) for conducting research

1. Awareness of the problem

A scientific problem is awareness, the formulation of the concept of ignorance. If the problem is identified and formulated in the form of an idea, a concept, then this means that you can begin to formulate a problem to solve it. With the introduction of the Russian language into the culture, the concept of “problem” underwent a transformation. In Western culture, a problem is a task that requires a solution. In Russian culture, a problem is a strategic stage in solving a problem, at the ideological and conceptual level, when there is an implicit set of conditions, a list of which can be formalized and taken into account in the formulation of the problem (a list of conditions, parameters, boundary conditions (limit of values) of which are included in the conditions of the problem).

The more complex the object of consideration (the more complex the chosen topic), the more ambiguous, uncertain questions (problems) it will contain, and the more difficult the problems will be to formulate the problem and to find solutions, that is, the problems of a scientific work should accommodate classification and prioritization in the direction .

The object of research is a certain process or phenomenon of reality that generates problematic situation. An object is a kind of carrier of a problem, something that research activity is aimed at.

The subject of research is a specific part of the object within which the search is being conducted. The subject of research must be characterized by a certain independence, which will allow a critical assessment of the hypothesis associated with it. In each object you can select several research objects

2. Deciding on the study

Scientific research usually refers to small scientific problems related to a specific topic of scientific research.

Choosing a direction, problem, topic of scientific research and posing scientific questions is an extremely responsible task. The direction of research is often predetermined by the specifics of the scientific institution and the branch of science in which the researcher works. Therefore, the choice of scientific direction for each individual researcher often comes down to the choice of the branch of science in which he wants to work. The specification of the direction of research is the result of studying the state of production demands, social needs and the state of research in one direction or another at a given period of time. In the process of studying the state and results of already conducted research, ideas can be formulated integrated use several scientific directions to solve production problems.

1)Setting the purpose of the study. Formulation of the object and subject of research.

The purpose of the study is the general direction of the study, the expected final result. The purpose of the study indicates the nature of the research problems and is achieved through their solution.

Research objectives are a set of targets that formulate the basic requirements for the analysis and solution of the problem under study.

The object of research is the area of ​​practical activity that the research process is aimed at. The choice of the object of study determines the boundaries of application of the results obtained.

The subject of research is the essential properties of the object of study, the knowledge of which is necessary to solve the problem, within which the object is studied in this particular study.

Statement of the problem and its preliminary study - First stage process analytical work, at which the goals, objectives, subject, objects and information base of the study are finally determined, the main results, methods and forms of implementation are predicted.

A research problem is a type of question the answer to which is not contained in accumulated knowledge, and its search requires analytical actions other than information search.

From an organizational point of view, the result of the formulation stage should be a short document briefly reflecting the goals, objectives and main parameters of the study. Typically, such a document, called a research plan, would include:

Objectives of the study. It is necessary to characterize the research problem, its main objectives, and describe the most important information that the director hopes to obtain during the research process. Finally, you need to describe exactly how this information can be used.

Market segments and description of the populations being surveyed. This is a very important question, because in a typical case, the object of focus group research is not the entire population, but only some of its key segments (electorate, population or demographic groups, etc.). The principle of identifying key segments determined by the objectives of the study should not be confused with the methodological principle of dividing these segments into homogeneous groups (more on this below).

The scope of the study, i.e. the total number of groups and the number of geographical locations with justification based on the objectives of the study, and the cost of its implementation.

2)Collecting starting information

First, let's figure out what information is.

Information is a general scientific concept associated with the objective properties of matter and their reflection in human consciousness.

IN modern science two types of information are considered.

Objective (primary) information is the property of material objects and phenomena (processes) to generate a variety of states, which through interactions (fundamental interactions) are transmitted to other objects and imprinted in their structure.

Subjective (semantic, semantic, secondary) information is the semantic content of objective information about objects and processes of the material world, formed by the human consciousness with the help of semantic images (words, images and sensations) and recorded on some material medium.

IN modern world information is one of the most important resources and, at the same time, one of the driving forces in the development of human society. Information processes occurring in the material world, living nature and human society are studied (or at least taken into account) by everyone scientific disciplines from philosophy to marketing.

The increasing complexity of scientific research problems has led to the need to attract large teams of scientists from different specialties to solve them. Therefore, almost all of the theories discussed below are interdisciplinary.

Gathering information before design is one of the most significant and important steps. Let's figure out why this is needed and what actions can be included in this.

The point of collecting information is to obtain maximum data about the problem area. This helps to understand what has already been done by other people, how it was done, why it was done, what they haven’t done, what users want. As a result, after collecting and processing information, we obtain quite extensive knowledge for the next stage.

3. Formulating a hypothesis. Choice of methodology. Drawing up a research program and plan. Selecting an information base for research

In science and everyday thinking, we move from ignorance to knowledge, from incomplete knowledge to more complete knowledge. We have to make and then justify various assumptions to explain phenomena and their relationships with other phenomena. We put forward hypotheses that, when confirmed, can turn into scientific theories or into individual true judgments, or, conversely, will be refuted and turn out to be false judgments.

A hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or natural connections of any phenomena or events of nature, society, or thinking. The specificity of a hypothesis - to be a form of development of knowledge - is predetermined by the basic property of thinking, its constant movement - deepening and development, a person’s desire to discover new patterns and causal connections, which is dictated by the needs of practical life.

Main properties of the hypothesis:

· Uncertainty of true value;

· Focus on revealing this phenomenon;

· Making assumptions about the results of resolving the problem;

· The opportunity to put forward a “project” for solving a problem.

As a rule, a hypothesis is expressed on the basis of a number of observations (examples) confirming it, and therefore looks plausible. The hypothesis is subsequently either proven, turning it into an established fact, or refuted, transferring it to the category of false statements.

The methodology of science, in the traditional sense, is the study of the methods and procedures of scientific activity, as well as the section general theory knowledge, especially theory scientific knowledge and philosophy of science.

Methodology, in the applied sense, is a system of principles and approaches to research activities on which the researcher relies in the process of obtaining and developing knowledge within a particular discipline.

Drawing up a research program and plan.

Analysis of the work done should be carried out not only on the basis of existing reporting documentation, but also through specially conducted selective statistical studies.

Plan statistical research drawn up in accordance with the planned program. The main issues of the plan are:

· defining the purpose of the study;

· determination of the object of observation;

· determining the duration of work at all stages;

· indication of the type of statistical observation and method;

· determining the location where observations will be carried out;

· clarification by what forces and under whose methodological and organizational leadership the research will be carried out.

Research information base - component preliminary study of the problem, within the framework of which the sufficiency of information materials, ways and means of obtaining it are revealed, and a bibliography of sources is compiled.

Collection of the main information array. Conducting an experiment if necessary.

After identifying information sources, the creation of the main information array begins, i.e. the process of collecting and accumulating specific information. In this case, it is advisable to initially provide a qualitative classification of the main elements of the information array. Thus, the information included in it can be primary or secondary. In the first case, information is a loosely ordered set of facts; in the second, it is the result of a certain logical understanding on the part of direct participants in events or external observers. Each of these types of information has its own advantages and disadvantages from the point of view of prospects for applied use. Collecting primary information is always very labor-intensive, although it is attractive with the opportunity to include interesting and original material in the development. The selection of secondary information takes relatively less time, since it has already undergone a certain systematization, but, relying only on it, the researcher risks being captured by previously established ideas.

Exploratory studies include:

· the preparatory stage, which combines analysis of literary sources and the experience of other organizations, search for an analogue, feasibility study of the feasibility of conducting research, identification of possible areas of research, development and approval of technical specifications;

· development of the theoretical part of the topic, consisting of the preparation of research schemes, calculations and modeling of the main research processes, development of technologies for experiments and laboratory testing methods;

· experimental work and testing and adjustment of theoretical calculations based on their results;

·acceptance of work.

Applied research can be carried out in the same sequence as exploratory research, but is characterized by an increase in the proportion of experimental work and testing. In this regard, the task of planning experiments in order to reduce the number of experiments to a rational minimum becomes essential.

Research developments include the following stages:

· development of technical specifications;

· choosing the direction of research;

· theoretical and experimental research;

· registration of results;

·acceptance.

From a methodological point of view, the creation of an information array involves ensuring the reliability, reliability and novelty of the selected data. The application of the three specified criteria is a necessary condition the adequacy of the final conclusions that can be obtained based on further analysis. The degree of novelty of the selected data is usually determined situationally. As for reliability and validity, they are ensured due, firstly, to compliance with certain rules when developing search criteria, and secondly, by recording data. In modern conditions, information arrays can be created both as a result of the phased preparation of information within the framework of a specific project, and by accessing already existing and accessible data banks.

A data bank differs from a conventional information array not only in that it is implemented in electronic form, but also in its functional features. When creating specialized data banks, they usually provide for the performance of two target functions: information retrieval and information logical. The information retrieval function is implemented when considering issues related to the semantic content of data, regardless of the methods of their representation in the system’s memory. At the design stage of this function, a part of the real world is identified that determines the information needs of the system, i.e. its subject area. In this regard, the following issues are being resolved:

· what real world phenomena need to be accumulated and processed in the system;

· what main characteristics of phenomena and relationships will be taken into account;

· how the characteristics of the concepts introduced into the information system will be clarified.

The information-logical function provides data representation in the memory of the information system. When designing this function, forms for presenting data in the system are developed, as well as models and methods for presenting and transforming data are provided, and rules for their semantic interpretation are formed. The value of a data bank is in the accumulation of comprehensive unique information that allows one to trace political chronology, determine cause-and-effect relationships, trends, and establish types of information carriers (books, magazines, statistical reports, analytical studies).

The creation of an information array in traditional documentary or electronic form completes the process of obtaining the initial data for analytical work. In principle, in the future this array can be expanded and even transformed, but the changes made should not radically affect the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the entire set of included materials. Otherwise, the information array may lose its system qualities and stop responding methodological requirements functional compliance.

In order for the experiment to be effective, when setting it up, it is necessary to observe the following principles:

· purposefulness - i.e. determine why the experiment is being conducted; its goals must be clearly stated;

· “purity” - implies the exclusion of the influence of distorting factors;

· boundaries - mean a clear framework of a scientific direction, within which the state of the object under study is analyzed;

· methodological elaboration - implies existing knowledge in the field being studied.

In addition to compliance with these principles, the effectiveness of the experiment is also influenced by the existing software, its completeness and quality. The following types of security are distinguished:

· scientific and methodological - includes scientific justification, theoretical positions and concepts, hypotheses and ideas that need to be tested during the experiment;

· organizational - implies the definition of objects of experimentation, participants in the experiment, instructions, rules and procedures for conducting the experiment;

· methodological - involves the development teaching materials for all stages of the experiment;

· personnel and social - determining the composition of the experiment participants, their level of training and qualifications, compliance with established requirements, measures to explain the experiment;

· informational and managerial - implies the presence of a certain amount of information of a certain quality, and also reveals the process of managing the experiment;

· economic - reveals the conditions for using the resources necessary for the experiment: financial, material, labor (issues of stimulating the work of experiment participants).

At the stage of theoretical and experimental research, a set of methodological documentation necessary for organizing and performing research, and technical documentation for experimental samples or product models, technological processes, measuring instruments, etc. are developed. Theoretical and experimental research is carried out to the required extent, research objects and materials are being developed and manufactured.

The result of an experiment is always a useful category. Even if an innovation does not prove its effectiveness, the results obtained can serve as a starting point for new directions of work.

Processing of collected information and experiment results. Confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis

Processing the collected information in accordance with the goals and objectives of the study is the main stage of analytical work, at which the material is comprehended, new output information is developed, proposals are formulated for their practical application and documentation of the research results.

Information analysis is a set of methods for generating factual data that ensures their comparability, objective assessment and development of new inferential information.

The purpose of any experiment is to determine the qualitative and quantitative relationship between the parameters under study, or to estimate the numerical value of any parameter. In some cases, the type of relationship between variables is known from the results theoretical research. As a rule, formulas expressing these dependencies contain some constants, the values ​​of which must be determined from experience. Another type of problem is the determination of an unknown functional relationship between variables based on experimental data. Such dependencies are called empirical. It is impossible to unambiguously determine an unknown functional relationship between variables even if the experimental results were free of errors. Moreover, one should not expect this, given the experimental results containing various errors measurements. Therefore, it should be clearly understood that the purpose of mathematical processing of experimental results is not to find the true nature of the relationship between variables or absolute value any constant, but the presentation of observational results in the form of the simplest formula with an assessment of the possible error of its use.

Hypothesis development and testing.

The stage of developing a hypothesis is associated with obtaining logical consequences from it. This is done in the following way: it is assumed that the proposition put forward is true, and then consequences are deduced from it deductively. The resulting effects must occur if the presumed cause exists.

By logical consequences we mean:

· thoughts about the circumstances caused by the phenomenon being studied;

· thoughts about the circumstances that precede in time a given phenomenon, accompany it and follow it;

· thoughts about circumstances that are directly related to the phenomenon under study.

Comparison of the consequences obtained from the assumption with already established facts makes it possible to refute the hypothesis or prove its truth, which is carried out in the process of testing the hypothesis.

Direct confirmation (refutation) lies in the fact that the alleged facts or phenomena in the course of subsequent cognition find confirmation (or refutation) in practice through their direct perception.

Logical proofs and refutations of hypotheses are widely used in science.

The main ways of logical proof and refutation of hypotheses in science:

inductive path - confirmation of a hypothesis or derivation of consequences from it using arguments, including indications of facts and laws;

deductive path - deriving a hypothesis from other, general and proven provisions; the inclusion of a hypothesis in a system of scientific knowledge, in which it is consistent with other provisions of this system, as well as a demonstration of the predictive power of the hypothesis. Depending on the method of its justification, logical proof or refutation can be carried out in direct or indirect form.

Direct proof or refutation of a hypothesis is carried out by confirming or refuting the logical consequences obtained by the conclusion by newly discovered facts.

Indirect proof or refutation is often used when there are several hypotheses that explain the same phenomenon and are carried out by refuting and eliminating all false assumptions, based on which the truth of the one remaining assumption is established.

5. Drawing up a model of the process or phenomenon being studied. Model verification

At the stage of forming a theoretical model, it is necessary, based on the complete model, to justify the optimal model, which excludes those aspects of the process that can be neglected to solve the assigned problems. As follows from the theory of operations, the degree of understanding of a system is inversely proportional to the number of variables appearing in its description.

It should be noted that there is a need for a clearer connection between the solution of model problems and the setting of the final goals of the study (the “model - goal” link), bearing in mind the need for a clear limitation of the goals set, although one cannot refuse to link the goals of the current solution and long-term planning. In the process of carrying out hydrogeological modeling, special attention should be paid to increasing the level of qualifications and mutual understanding of users and model creators, which requires thoughtful organizational solutions for business contacts between specialists in various fields, up to senior management.

It is especially important to carefully substantiate scientific forecasts when studying multifactorial processes that manifest themselves in solving environmental problems.

Model experiments

A powerful tool quantitative research is to conduct mathematical modeling as a simulation system used to analyze the patterns of the modeled (simulated) process. Since this operation is usually performed on computers, then the name “numerical”, “computational” or “mathematical” experiment is used for it.

Close to this content of this kind of experiment is the concept of “system simulation”, which is defined as the reproduction of processes occurring in the system with artificial imitation random variables, on which these processes depend, using a random and pseudo-random number sensor.

The main direction of the model experiment is the substantiation optimal models the processes being studied, taking into account the reliability of model solutions to forecast problems. This justification is carried out through a model study of the nature of the development of the simulated process (in time and space) under conditions of uncertainty of the initial information about the parameters of the system. In this direction, the initial operation is to create the most complete model of the process being studied, which is recognized as having the property of a sufficiently reliable - at least from the point of view of the goal - reflection of the natural process.

Verification of a model is a test of its truth and adequacy. In relation to descriptive models, model verification comes down to comparing the results of calculations using the model with the corresponding reality data - facts and patterns economic development. With regard to normative (including optimization) models, the situation is more complicated: under the conditions of the current economic mechanism, the modeled object is subject to various control influences not provided for by the model; it is necessary to carry out a special economic experiment taking into account the requirements of purity, i.e., eliminating the influence of these influences, which is a difficult, largely unsolved problem.

6. Model experimentation. Predicting the behavior of the research object

An interesting possibility for developing the experimental method is the so-called model experimentation. In this case, they experiment not with the original, but with its model, a sample similar to the original. The original does not behave as cleanly or exemplarily as the model. The model can be of a physical, mathematical, biological or other nature. It is important that manipulations with it make it possible to transfer the received information to the original. Computer modeling is widely used these days.

Model experimentation is especially appropriate where the object being studied is inaccessible to direct experiment. Thus, hydrobuilders will not build a dam across a turbulent river in order to experiment with it. Before building the dam, they will conduct a model experiment at their home institute (with a “small” dam and a “small” river).

The most important experimental method is a measurement that produces quantitative data. Measuring A and B assumes:

· establishing the qualitative similarity of A and B;

· introduction of a unit of measurement (second, meter, kilogram, ruble, point);

· comparison of A and B with the reading of a device that has the same qualitative characteristic as A and B;

· reading the device readings.

Thus, a model can serve two purposes: descriptive, when the model serves to explain and better understand an object, and prescriptive, when the model allows one to predict or reproduce the characteristics of an object that determine its behavior. A prescriptive model can be descriptive, but not vice versa. Therefore, the degree of usefulness of models used in technology and in social sciences. This largely depends on the methods and means that were used to build the models, and on the difference in the final goals that were set. In technology, models serve as auxiliary tools for creating new or more advanced systems. And in social sciences, models explain existing systems. A model that is suitable for system development purposes must also explain it.

7. Literary design of research materials

Literary presentation of research materials is a labor-intensive and very responsible task, an integral part of scientific research.

To isolate and formulate the main ideas, provisions, conclusions and recommendations in an accessible, sufficiently complete and accurate manner is the main thing that a researcher should strive for in the process of literary preparation of materials.

This does not work out right away and not everyone succeeds, since the design of the work is always closely related to the refinement of certain provisions, clarification of logic, argumentation and elimination of gaps in substantiating the conclusions made, etc. Much here depends on the level of general development of the researcher’s personality, his literary abilities and the ability to formulate one’s thoughts.

When preparing research materials, you should adhere to general rules:

· the title and content of chapters, as well as paragraphs, must correspond to the topic of the study and not go beyond its scope. The content of the chapters should exhaust the topic, and the content of the paragraphs should exhaust the chapter as a whole;

· Initially, having studied the material for writing the next paragraph (chapter), it is necessary to think through its plan, leading ideas, argumentation system and record all this in writing, without losing sight of the logic of the entire work. Then carry out clarification, polishing of individual semantic parts and sentences, make the necessary additions, rearrangements, remove unnecessary things, carry out editorial and stylistic corrections;

· check the format of references, compile a reference apparatus and a list of references (bibliography);

· do not rush into the final finishing, look at the material after a while, let it rest. At the same time, some reasoning and conclusions, as practice shows, will seem poorly designed, unsubstantiated and insignificant. They need to be improved or omitted, leaving only what is truly necessary;

· avoid scientificity and games of erudition. The inclusion of a large number of references and the abuse of special terminology make it difficult to understand the researcher’s thoughts and make the presentation unnecessarily complex. The style of presentation should combine scientific rigor and efficiency, accessibility and expressiveness;

· the presentation of the material must be reasoned or polemical, critical, brief or thorough, detailed;

· Before preparing the final version, test the work: review, discussion, etc. Eliminate shortcomings identified during testing.

List of used literature

scientific research experiment

1) Kozhukhar V.M., Workshop on the basics of scientific research. Publishing house "DIA", 2008. - p5.

)Shestakov V.M., (Final lecture of the course “Hydrogeodynamics”)

)Krutov V.I. "fundamentals of scientific research". Publishing house "Higher School", 1989. - pp. 6, 44, 79, 88.

)Pakhustov B.K., Concepts modern natural science. UMK, Novosibirsk, SibAGS, 2003.

)http://www.google.ru/

)http://ru.wikipedia.org/

)http://bookap.info/

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1.1. The science. Basic features and concepts of science. The essence of scientific research and the main forms of scientific research.

1.2. Basic systemic features of scientific research.

1.3. The essence and purpose of the functioning of scientific schools.

Topic 2. General methodology of scientific research

2.1. The concept and main functions of scientific research methodology. Methodological basis.

2.2. General scientific methodology.

2.3. Specific scientific methodology

Topic 3. Modern methods of scientific knowledge.

3.1. The concept of research method and methodology. Classification of methods.

3.2. Characteristic common methods scientific knowledge.

3.3. Methods of theoretical empirical research.

3.4. Evidence of scientific research results.

Topic 4. Organization and holding sociological research.

4.1. Concept and main stages of sociological research. Research program.

4.2. Types of sociological research: observation, survey, experiment.

4.3. Working with a sample data set

TTheme 1. CONCEPT AND FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

1.1. The science. Basic features and concepts of science. The essence of scientific research and the main forms of scientific research.

Every specialist should have an idea of ​​the methodology and organization of research activities, science and its basic concepts.

Science is a sphere of human activity aimed at producing new knowledge about nature, society and thinking.

As a specific sphere of human activity, it is the result of the social division of labor, the separation of mental labor from physical labor, the transformation of cognitive activity into a special area of ​​occupation for a certain group of people. The need for a scientific approach to all types of human activity makes science develop at a faster pace than any other field of activity.

The concept of “science” includes both activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge and the result of this activity - the sum of acquired scientific knowledge that serves as the basis for a scientific understanding of the world. Science is also understood as one of the forms of human consciousness. The term "science" is used to name specific areas of scientific knowledge.

The laws of the functioning and development of science, the structure and dynamics of scientific knowledge and scientific activity, the interaction of science with other social institutions and spheres of the material and spiritual life of society are studied. special discipline - scientific studies.

One of the main tasks of scientific studies is the development classification of sciences, which determines the place of each science in common system scientific knowledge, the connection of all sciences. The most common is the division of all sciences into the sciences of nature, society and thinking.

Science that emerged from the moment of awareness ignorance, which in turn caused an objective need to obtain knowledge. Knowledge - a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, adequate to its reflection in human consciousness. This is an ideal reproduction of the conditional form of generalized ideas about the natural connections of objective reality.

The process of movement of human thought from ignorance to knowledge is called knowledge, which is based on the reflection and reproduction of objective reality in the human mind. Scientific knowledge - These are studies that are characterized by their own specific goals and objectives, methods of obtaining and testing new knowledge. It reaches the essence of phenomena, reveals the laws of their existence and development, thereby indicating practical possibilities, ways and means of influencing these phenomena and changes in accordance with their objective nature. Scientific knowledge is intended to illuminate the path to practice, to provide theoretical basis to solve practical problems.

The basis and driving force of knowledge is practice, it provides science with factual material that requires theoretical understanding. Theoretical knowledge creates a reliable basis for understanding the essence of phenomena of objective reality.

The dialectics of the process of cognition consists in the contradiction between the limitations of our knowledge and the limitless complexity of objective reality. Cognition is the result of which is new knowledge about the world. The process of cognition has a two-circuit structure: empirical and theoretical knowledge, which exist in close interaction and interdependence.

Knowledge comes down to answers to several questions, which can be schematically depicted as follows:

What? How many? Why? Which one? How?- these questions can be answered the science.

How do?- this question is answered technique.

What to do?- this is a sphere practices.

Answers to questions determine immediate goals Sciences - description, explanationAnd foresight processes and phenomena of objective reality, which constitute the subject of its study on the basis of the laws that it reveals, that is, in a broad sense - the theoretical reproduction of reality.

True knowledge exists as a system principles, patterns, laws, basic concepts, scientific facts, theoretical provisions Andconclusions. Therefore, true scientific knowledge is objective. However, scientific knowledge can be relative or absolute. Relative knowledge - This is knowledge, which, being an adequate reflection of reality, is distinguished by a certain incompleteness of the coincidence of the image with the object. Absolute knowledge - this is a complete, exhaustive reproduction of generalized ideas about an object, which ensures an absolute coincidence of the image with the object. The continuous development of practice makes it impossible to transform knowledge into absolute knowledge, but makes it possible to distinguish objectively true knowledge from erroneous views.

Science, as a specific activity aimed at obtaining new theoretical and applied knowledge about the laws of development of nature, society and thinking, is characterized by the following basic signs:

The presence of systematized knowledge (scientific ideas, theories, concepts, laws, patterns, principles, hypotheses, basic concepts, facts);

Availability scientific problem, object and subject of research;

The practical significance of both the phenomenon (process) that is being studied and knowledge about it.

Let's look at the basic concepts of science.

scientific idea - an intuitive explanation of a phenomenon (process) without intermediate argumentation, without awareness of the entire set of connections on the basis of which the conclusion is drawn. It is based on existing knowledge, but reveals previously unnoticed patterns. Science provides for two types of ideas: constructive and destructive, that is, those that have or do not have significance for science and practice. An idea finds its specific materialization in a hypothesis.

Hypothesis - a scientific assumption put forward to explain any phenomena (processes) or causes that predetermine a given consequence. Scientific theory includes a hypothesis as the starting point in the search for truth, which helps to significantly save time and effort, purposefully collect and group facts. There are null, descriptive, explanatory, basic working and conceptual hypotheses. If a hypothesis is consistent with scientific facts, then in science it is called a theory or law.

Hypotheses (like ideas) are probabilistic in nature and go through three stages in their development:

Accumulation of factual material and making assumptions based on it;

Hypothesis formulation and justification based on the assumption of an acceptable theory;

Testing the results obtained in practice and, on its basis, clarifying the hypothesis;

If, when tested, the result corresponds to reality, then the hypothesis turns into a scientific theory. The hypothesis is put forward with the hope that it, if not entirely, then at least partially, will become reliable knowledge.

Law - internal essential connection of phenomena that predetermines their natural development. A law invented through a guess must then be logically proven, only in this case it is recognized by science. Science uses judgment to arrive at the law.

Judgment - a thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or denied. A judgment about an object or phenomenon can be obtained either through direct observation of any fact, or indirectly - through inference.

Inference - a mental operation by which, from a certain number of given judgments, another judgment is derived, which is related in a certain way to the original one.

Science is a collection of theories. Theory - a doctrine, a system of ideas, views, positions, statements aimed at interpreting a particular phenomenon. This is not a direct, but an idealized reflection of reality. Theory is considered as a set of generalizing provisions that form a science or its section. It acts as a form of synthetic knowledge, within the boundaries of which individual concepts, hypotheses and laws lose their autonomy and turn into elements of an integral system.

TO new theory The following requirements are put forward:

Adequacy scientific theory the object being described;

The ability to replace experimental studies with theoretical ones;

Completeness of description of a certain phenomenon of reality;

The ability to explain the relationships between different components within the boundaries of this theory;

The internal consistency of the theory and its correspondence to research data.

Theory is a system of scientific concepts, principles, provisions, facts.

Scientific concept - a system of views, theoretical positions, basic thoughts regarding the object of research, which are united by a certain main idea.

Conceptuality - these are definitions of the content, essence, meaning of what is being discussed.

Under the principle in scientific theory they understand the most abstract definition of an idea. A principle is a rule that arose as a result of objectively meaningful experience.

Concept - it is a thought reflected in a generalized form. It reflects the essential and necessary characteristics of objects and phenomena, as well as relationships. If a concept has entered into scientific circulation, it is denoted by one word or a set of words is used - terms. Disclosure of the content of a concept is called its definition. The latter can meet two important requirements:

Point to the nearest generic concept;

Point out how this concept differs from other concepts.

The concept, as a rule, completes the process of scientific research and consolidates the results obtained by the scientist personally in his research. The set of basic concepts is called conceptual apparatus one science or another.

Scientific fact - an event or phenomenon that serves as the basis for a conclusion or confirmation. It, which together with others forms the basis of scientific knowledge, reflects the objective properties of phenomena and processes. Based on scientific facts, patterns of phenomena are determined, theories are constructed and laws are derived.

The movement of thought from ignorance to knowledge is guided by methodology. Methodology scientific knowledge - the doctrine of the principles, form and methods of scientific research activity. Research technique is a way of applying old knowledge to obtain new knowledge. It is a means of obtaining scientific facts.

Scientific activity - intellectual creative activity aimed at obtaining and using new knowledge. It exists in different forms;

1) research activities;

2) scientific and organizational activities;

3) scientific and information activities;

4) scientific pedagogical activity;

5) scientific and auxiliary activities, etc.

Each of these types of scientific activity has its own specific functions, tasks, and results of work.

Within the scope of scientific research activities, scientific research is carried out. Scientific research - purposeful cognition, the results of which act as a system of concepts, laws and theories.

There are two forms of scientific research: fundamental and applied. Basic scientific research - scientific theoretical and (or) experimental activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the patterns of development and the relationship of nature, society, and man. Applied scientific research - scientific and scientific-technical activities aimed at obtaining and using knowledge for practical purposes.

Scientific research is carried out with the aim of obtaining a scientific result. Scientific result - new knowledge obtained in the process of fundamental or applied scientific research and recorded on scientific information media in the form of a scientific report, scientific work, scientific report, scientific report on research work, monographic research, scientific discovery and so on.. Scientific and applied result - a new design or technological solution, experimental model, completed test, which has been or can be introduced into public practice. The scientific and applied result can take the form of a report, preliminary design, design or technological documentation for scientific and technical products, a full-scale sample, etc.

The main results of scientific research include:

Scientific abstracts;

Scientific reports at conferences, meetings, seminars, symposiums;

Coursework (diploma, master's) theses;

Reports on research (experimental and design; experimental and technological) work;

Scientific translations;

Dissertations (candidate's or doctoral dissertations);

Deposited manuscripts;

Monographs;

Science articles;

Algorithms and programs;

Scientific conference reports;

Preprints;

Textbooks, teaching aids;

Bibliographic indexes, etc.

Subjects scientific activities are: scientists, scientific workers, scientific and pedagogical workers, as well as scientific institutions, scientific organizations, higher educational establishments III-IV levels of accreditation, public organizations in the field of scientific and scientific-technical activities.

A significant number of people are involved in research activities. Those who do this constantly are called researchers, scientific workers (scientific workers), scientists.

Researcher called a person who carries out scientific research. Scientist - This is someone who is related to science, develops new knowledge, and is an expert in a certain field of science. Scientist - an individual who conducts fundamental and (or) applied scientific research in order to obtain scientific and (or) scientific and technical results. Scientist - a scientist who, according to his main place of work and, accordingly, his employment agreement (contract), is professionally engaged in scientific, scientific-technical or scientific-pedagogical activities and has the appropriate qualifications, confirmed by certification results.

People of science have the appropriate specialty and qualifications, work both on their own and by uniting in scientific teams (permanent or temporary), creating scientific schools.

1.2. Basic systemic features of scientific research.

In development modern society plays an important role scientificinformation, obtained as a result of scientific knowledge. Its acquisition, dissemination and use are essential for the development of science.

Scientific information is disseminated in time and space through certain channels, means, and methods. A special place in this system belongs to scientific communication. Science communication(NK) - exchange of scientific information (ideas, knowledge, messages) between scientists and specialists. Modern authors of communication theory K. Shannon and W. Weaver give the following definition of communication: “These are all actions if one mind influences another.”

There are five main elements in the NDT process:

1)communicator - sender of the message (the person who generates the idea or collects, processes scientific information and transmits it).

2)communicat - message (fixed or unfixed scientific information, encoded in a certain way using symbols, signs, codes).

3) channel (a method of transmitting scientific information).

4) recipient - the recipient of the message (the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it in a certain way and reacts to it).

5) Feedback - the recipient's reaction to the received scientific message.

Science communication starts with communicant, which generates a scientific idea or concept. These can be either individual scientists or teams of authors, such as research groups, scientific schools, institutions, institutes, regions or countries. Depending on the scientific status of the institution, the presence of a scientific degree, academic title, number of publications, and length of scientific work, the scientific status of the communicant and the level of his influence on NK are determined. Outstanding scientists play a special role in communication.

Having formulated a scientific idea, the author directly shares it with colleagues and a scientific supervisor, who help determine the further direction of its development. Then the information is distributed among a wide range of specialists in the form of a scientific report (message) at conferences, symposiums, and is issued in the form of a scientific report, preprint or article (in written or electronic form).

Documented and/or undocumented scientific information is what is transmitted, i.e. communicat. Scientific messages are most often conveyed through language, images, and actions. Images are used as a complement to language communications (graphics, posters). Actions confirm the verbal conclusions of the researcher.

Most often, information is transmitted using language. - natural (the language of human communication) or artificial (machine programming language). The communicator encodes information using signs, code symbols, and recipient decodes (deciphers, translates) information. Scientific communication occurs only if the language of the scientific message is understandable to the recipient. Often, researchers cannot use a foreign language publication without knowing the appropriate language. The readership can be quite limited if the works are presented in an insufficiently common language. In this case, translations help.

Between the communicator and the recipient it is established communication channel, without which communication is impossible (a method of exchanging, transmitting information). These are meetings, conferences, radio, television, the Internet, publishing houses, journal editorial offices, libraries and other channels that provide the possibility of direct or indirect scientific communication.

Scientific communication functions effectively if it exists feedback - the recipient's reaction to the message received. Interest in the message depends on many factors: the content of the problem, scientific idea, availability of information, place, time of publication, circulation of the journal (monograph), language, level and style of publication are important. Manifestations of the recipient's feedback can be citation, link, response, review, writing a review, abstract, article, inclusion of the author's ideas in the corresponding discipline as basic knowledge, etc.

One of the main indicators of the significance of a scientific result is citation index, which determines the number of links to a particular article, author, journal, institution, country. The higher this indicator, the more authoritative the author is, the higher his scientific rating. Links indicate the level of dissemination of the idea, its scientific and practical significance, the level of human knowledge, and the actual implementation of scientific communication.

There are many approaches to classifying scientific communication. It is divided into direct (direct communication between specialists involved in the research process); indirect (communication between scientists through their scientific publications);

vertical (between the supervisor and the dissertation candidate);

horizontal (connects the applicant with representatives of a scientific school), etc. However, the most common is the division of scientific communications into formal and informal, documentary and non-documentary, between which a close relationship has been established.

Formal NC - exchange of scientific information through specially created structures for the generation, processing and dissemination of scientific knowledge. These are publishing houses, editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, research institutions, higher education institutions, radio, television, libraries, information centers, museums, archives, etc. In scientific studies, formal communication is often considered as the publication of an article in a journal or scientific monograph and links. Direct quotation of one author by another indicates the creation of a formal channel of communication between them - from the cited author to the one who quotes. If two researchers cite a third, then formal communication is created between the first and third author through citation. The effectiveness of formal scientific research is determined by the quantity and quality of published scientific results.

Informal Tax Code - This is communication that is established between the communicator (sender) and the recipient (recipient) through personal contacts, meetings, conversations, telephone conversations, correspondence, etc. The positive aspect of such communication is saving time and ensuring deep mutual understanding. The effectiveness of informal NC is determined through self-reports, surveys, and observation. Some informal exchanges of scientific information become evident when scientists co-author the results of their research.

Documentary NK - communication mediated by a scientific document, built on the exchange of documented information (ideas, messages, knowledge). Scientific document - This is the publication of the results of theoretical or experimental research, as well as the preparation by scientists for the publication of historical documents and literary texts. It contains scientific information recorded on a material medium for transmission in space and time.

In the Tax Code system, a scientific document receives the status communication. It can be presented in the form of published abstracts, the text of a scientific report, an article, a description of an invention, a monograph, a research report, a dissertation, an abstract of a dissertation, analytical review, abstract, etc. Scientific information can be transmitted in the form of a book, brochure, magazine, floppy disk, etc. The advantages of such communications:

good preservation of scientific information;

The ability to study and re-read information many times;

Thoroughness of preparation;

Possibility of reaching many recipients;

Possibility of establishing intellectual property rights.

Disadvantages of documentary NK: complexity of renewal, volume of information.

Non-documentary (oral) NC - transmission of scientific information in a form not fixed on a material medium. These are telephone conversations public performance, meetings, conferences, symposiums, direct communication, conversations, etc.. The positive aspect of oral communications is the saving of time, the possibility of greater agreement between scientists.

With the development of computer and telecommunication communication channels, the possibilities for free remote exchange of scientific ideas are expanding. The author himself can create an original manuscript in electronic form, transfer it directly to the editorial office of the journal via the Internet and immediately publish it. Network channels facilitate rapid formal and informal exchange of information between scientists. Some electronic databases, in addition to articles (abstracts), also contain the addresses of authors. This allows you to contact the author directly and establish contact with him. The electronic journal is a place for integrated IC, in which authors, editors and publishers work in one system.

A scientist must know the advantages and disadvantages of each form of scientific communication, be able to find optimal ways to use it and avoid possible problems.

1.3. The essence and purpose of the functioning of scientific schools.

Scientific school (NS) - informal creative team researchers of different generations, united general program and style research work who operate under the guidance of a recognized leader. This association of like-minded people, which develops problems vital for society under the guidance of a well-known researcher in a certain field, has significant theoretical and practical results of its activities, recognized in scientific circles and the field of production.

The activities of the scientific school implement the following basic Features:

Scientific knowledge production (research and teaching);

Dissemination of scientific knowledge (communication);

Preparation of gifted students (reproduction).

A scientific school is characterized by a combination signs, which make it possible to identify such a creative association of researchers.

The main feature of the National School is the effective assimilation and research by its members current problems from the scientific directions put forward by the director. Minimum cycle which gives grounds to record the existence of the school, consists of three generations of researchers:

the founder of the school - his follower - the follower's students.

The key figure of the NS is her leader, after whom the school is named. This is an outstanding, authoritative scientist who develops fundamental and general questions of science, produces ideas, new areas of research that can unite a team of like-minded people around him.

Other signs of NS include the following:

Long-term scientific productivity, which is characterized by both quantitative (number of publications, references) and qualitative indicators (the leader and members of the Scientific School are the authors of fundamental scientific works, members of the editorial boards of leading professional journals and collections);

The breadth of problem-thematic, geographical, chronological ranges of the functioning of the National School;

Preservation of traditions and values ​​of the National School at all stages of its formation and development, ensuring heredity in the areas of scientific research, style of scientific work;

Development of an atmosphere of creativity, innovation, openness to scientific discussions both in the professional press and in communication;

Uniting a certain circle of talented scientists in the National School, constantly updating it with gifted students - followers of the leader, capable of independent search;

Constant communication links (horizontal and vertical) between the teacher and students, ordinary members of the school;

Active pedagogical activity (number of applicants, graduate students, doctoral students, textbooks, teaching aids, development of new courses);

Official recognition by the state ( scientific community) the importance of scientific research of NS (number of academicians, doctors, candidates of sciences, professors, associate professors, honored figures and workers).

It is believed that the leader of the NS is predominantly a doctor of science. It may include at least three doctors of science in their specialty. The problems of students' scientific research must necessarily be related to the topics of the teacher - the leader of the school. Sometimes they point to geographic dislocation as one of the characteristics of a school. This formal feature can be used as an additional one in the process of identifying NS.

The most common method of identifying NS is to study the flow of candidate and doctoral dissertations of scientists who are part of this informal team. This approach is legitimate because it demonstrates the “teacher-student” relationship, which is especially important for NS. It makes it possible to obtain specific results, which are based on quantitative data on dissertations defended under the supervision of another scientist, and indicates the correspondence of the topics of students’ dissertations with the issues of the leader’s dissertation. This method is simple because it reduces the identification task to the establishment of formal indicators.

Scientific schools are the main informal structure of science and make a significant contribution to its development. Their representatives, as a rule, achieve significant scientific results.