Surfactants. Surfactants Approximate Word Search

How to mix immiscible things, such as water and oil? To connect the unconnectable, an intermediary is needed. It does not necessarily have to penetrate deeply into the mass of either substance; it is enough to be distributed in a uniform, at least monomolecular, layer on the surface of their contact. Such intermediaries, substances capable of accumulating on the interfacial surface of contact of two bodies, are called surface-active.

Washing is the most obvious example of the use of surface- active substances. But they are used even more widely in industry. To prepare a lubricant from dissimilar components, to distribute a polar filler in a non-polar polymer (see Polymers), to separate valuable ore from waste rock - none of these technical problems could be solved if people did not know how to use surfactants.

The simplest of these substances is ordinary soap, i.e., sodium and potassium salts of higher carboxylic acids, for example stearic C17H35COOH or oleic C17H33COOH; They are obtained by hydrolysis (saponification) of natural fats under the influence of aqueous solutions of alkalis. They have long learned to produce detergents (also known as surfactants) by the action of sulfuric acid on natural oils. The French chemist E. Fremy was the first to prepare such preparations in 1831 from olive and almond oils. IN late XIX V. Russian chemist G.S. Petrov, by the action of sulfuric acid on oil refining products, obtained surfactants - alkylsulfonates, which are widely used to this day. And finally, in the middle of the 20th century. added to the list of main surfactants organic matter with the general formula:

C n H 2n+1 -CH 4 -O(-CH 2 CH 2 O-) x -CH 2 CH 2 OH

All currently used surfactants are characterized by a diphilic molecular structure: each molecule contains atomic groups that differ greatly in the nature of their interaction with environment. Yes, one or more hydrocarbon radicals in the molecule they have a chemical affinity for hydrocarbons and oils, i.e. they are distinguished by oleophilicity. The other part of the molecule has an affinity for water, that is, it is characterized by hydrophilicity. Oleophilic groups that weakly interact with water determine the tendency of the molecule to transition from an aqueous (polar) environment to a hydrocarbon (non-polar) environment. Hydrophilic groups of atoms, on the contrary, hold the molecule in a polar environment. That is why substances of this kind can play, for example, the role of intermediaries between water and oil.

Based on the type of hydrophilic groups, surfactants are divided into ionic, or ionic, and nonionic, or nonionic. Ionic surfactants break down in water into ions, some of which are surface active, others are inactive. If anions are active, the surfactants are called anionic; if cations are active, these substances are called cationic. Anionic surfactants are organic acids and their salts; cationic - bases and their salts.

Depending on the purpose and chemical composition surfactants are produced in the form of solid products (pieces, flakes, granules, powders), liquids and semi-liquid substances (pastes, gels).

The most important areas of application of surfactants: the production of soaps and detergents, textile auxiliaries used for processing fabrics, paint and varnish products. Surfactants are used in many technological processes in the chemical, petrochemical, chemical-pharmaceutical, and food industries.

The general theory of the action of surfactants was developed by the Soviet physical chemist Academician P. A. Rebinder (see Colloid chemistry).

Memories of Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rebinder, head of the department of colloidal chemistry of the Moscow Faculty of Chemistry state university them. M.V. Lomonosov from 1942 to 1972, about the period of his work in the new building on the Lenin Hills (1953-1972), I began to write on the eve of the next Rebinder readings, which are traditionally held at the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University on the birthday of Pyotr Alexandrovich on October 3 . This time (1997) the meeting was dedicated to the memory of Dr. chemical sciences E.E.Segalova in connection with the 80th anniversary of her birth. E.E. Segalova worked a lot and fruitfully at the department of colloid chemistry with Pyotr Aleksandrovich in the field of structure formation of mineral binders.

At the 23rd Rebinder readings, reports by E.D. Shchukin “Development of P.A. Rebinder’s teaching on condensation structure formation” and a report by V.N. Izmailova, V.V. Rodin, G.P. Yampolskaya, Z.D. Tulovskaya, P.V. Nussa, A.N. Ovchinnikova “Relaxation characteristics of water during hardening of cement in the presence of nonionic surfactants (according to NMR data)”, which is a development of the teachings of P.A. Rebinder and E.E. Segalova about coagulation and condensation -crystallization structure formation in disperse systems.

Many of the authors personally knew Pyotr Alexandrovich and worked with him, others learned from his works. Apparently, among the authors of the reports, I knew Pyotr Alexandrovich before anyone else. This is due to the fact that my father, Professor Nikolay Arkadyevich Izmailov (head of the department physical chemistry Kharkov State University (KSU) from 1945 to 1961) had known Pyotr Alexandrovich for a long time, and in our house they often remembered Pyotr Alexandrovich and talked about him as an interesting person with encyclopedic knowledge and as a brilliant scientist.

Petr Aleksandrovich was connected by scientific interests with many scientists of Kharkov (Prof. Ya.E.Geguzin, O.P.Mchedlov-Petrosyan, S.S.Urazovsky, I.M.Livshits, L.S.Palatnik, S.G .Teletov - head of the department of colloid chemistry at KhSU and many others). When Pyotr Aleksandrovich came to KhSU, he was surrounded by a “polylayer” (to use the term of colloidal chemistry from the adsorption section) by venerable and beginning scientists who discussed their scientific problems, and P.A. instantly grasped the essence and gave invaluable advice. When there were obvious “blunders” and erroneous judgments, P. A. always found a mild form that did not humiliate the “misguided discoverer.”

Pyotr Aleksandrovich was a deeply decent, courageous, honest and fair scientist. I could see this myself during very difficult and anxious days for my father. It was 1952. “False scientists” were rampant in the scientific community. They defeated the geneticists in biology and attacked the chemists, trying to destroy the scientists developing the theory of resonance. This seemed not enough, and here we already got to the theory of solutions, which was developed by my father N.A. Izmailov.

An extended meeting of the Academic Council of the Faculty of Chemistry of KhSU was scheduled for November 20, 1952 on the use of thermodynamics to describe the properties of solutions. In fact, my father was accused of “idealism.” Among the members of the expanded academic council (with the invitation of humanities professors), only my father and his employees were specialists in the problem under discussion. In those days, serious questions could be resolved, including the theory of activity in solutions, simply by a majority vote.

For my father, it was necessary to enlist the support of authoritative scientists - specialists in the field of activity theory. At the family council, it was decided that I (then a fourth-year student at the Faculty of Chemistry of KhSU) should go to Moscow to P. A. Rebinder, A. N. Frumkin and V. K. Semenchenko and ask, if possible, to reflect their attitude in writing to the activity theory and activity coefficient. All the scientists immediately wrote about the usefulness of this approach in the theory of solutions and thereby supported and saved my father and all physical chemistry from pogroms.

When I arrived in Moscow, I first went to Pyotr Alexandrovich’s home. He and his family [wife Elena Evgenievna, daughters Alya (Elena Petrovna) and Maryasha (Marianna Petrovna), mother (Anna Petrovna)] greeted me very warmly. Pyotr Alexandrovich said, pointing at me, look how young she is and is already helping her father. And then he said, as soon as you graduate from KhSU, come to my graduate school at Moscow State University. This visit actually determined my fate. I did just as Pyotr Alexandrovich said, and I never regretted it.

Pyotr Aleksandrovich began to dictate a letter to Elena Evgenievna, which was read at the expanded Council of KSU, which practically decided the vote of the members of the expanded Council. The authority of P. A. Rebinder was very great. The letter of Academician P. A. Rebinder was published in the journal "Scientific Notes" volume XL VII "Proceedings of the Research Institute of Chemistry", Iz-vo KhSU im. A. M. Gorky, Kharkov 1953, pp. 282-283.

The discussion at KhSU was completed, the works of N.A. Izmailov developed further, I was preparing to enter graduate school with Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rebinder. Entrance exams I passed it in September-October 1953. This year, for the first time, classes began in a new building on the Lenin Hills. The dean of the Faculty of Chemistry was academician. A. V. Novoselova. Spacious rooms, beautiful furniture, new instruments made to special order, many of which are still used in the workshop on colloidal chemistry (determining the contact angle of wetting, measuring surface tension method of maximum pressure in bubbles and drops, determination of adsorption and calculation of the specific surface of activated carbon, determination of zeta potential from measurements of electrophoretic mobility, sedimentation analysis, etc.). The head of the workshop was Assoc. B.Ya. Yampolsky, who did a lot to equip it.

My supervisors for the preparation of my PhD thesis were P. A. Rebinder and E. E. Segalova. The topic of the dissertation was discussed for the first time with P. A. Rebinder in the Botanical Garden of Moscow State University on October 20, 1953. It was a clear, warm, sunny day, the trees were painted in all the colors of the rainbow. P.A. very quickly moved from tree to bush, picked up beautiful leaves, pointed to flowers and talked about a new direction - structure formation in mineral binders, related to physical and chemical mechanics, which, together with E.E. Segalova, he will develop in soon. Interspersed with P.A. spoke about the merits of rose cuttings that he bought for his dacha in Lutsino.

The topic of my candidate's thesis was "Study of the processes of crystallization structure formation in suspensions of semi-aqueous gypsum."

Delivered by P.A. Rebinder and E.E. Segalova, the goal of the work was a physical and chemical study of the patterns and mechanism of structure formation processes during the hardening of semi-aqueous gypsum. The main task was to clarify the causes and conditions for the emergence of a strong hardening structure, as well as ways to control the strength of this structure. Various ideas available in the literature led to the general conclusion that the crystallization of gypsum dihydrate from a supersaturated solution formed by the dissolution of semiaqueous gypsum or pre-formed colloidal dihydrate particles leads to the formation of a crystalline intergrowth, which represents the hardening structure.

For the scientific school of P.A. Rebinder was characterized by the use of several research methods to allow a comprehensive consideration of the phenomenon.

Detailed studies of the processes of structure formation in suspensions of semi-aqueous gypsum, carried out by the staff and graduate students of P.A. Rebinder, made it possible to distinguish three stages of gypsum hardening:

1) The induction period of structure formation, corresponding to the appearance in the suspension of the coagulation structure of the initial crystals of semi-aqueous gypsum and the resulting new formations - dihydrate crystals.

2) The emergence and development of the crystallization structure of gypsum dihydrate, which, unlike the primary coagulation structure, is irreversibly destroyed under mechanical stress.

3) Reducing the strength of the resulting crystallization structure under wet storage conditions due to the internal stresses created and recrystallization phenomena (dissolution of small crystals and growth of large ones). Hardening structures are thermodynamically unstable; in humid conditions, crystallization contacts (areas of fusion between crystals) spontaneously and irreversibly collapse as a result of dissolution.

P.A. Rebinder has always been interested in the influence of surfactants. In our work, it was shown that surfactants introduced into water lengthen the induction period of gypsum structure formation and make it possible to increase strength by decreasing the water-solid ratio (W/S). At constant W/T, surfactant additions typically reduce strength by blocking contacts between crystals.

The main patterns discovered during the study of gypsum hardening (1957) then emerged in the study of cement (hardening processes) and individual monomineral binders included in cements, in the work of graduate students and applicants under the guidance of P.A. Rebinder and E.E. Segalova ( until 1965) (E.A. Amelina, S.I. Kontorovich, B.I. Smirnov, Z.D. Tulovskaya, T.K. Brutskus, E.S. Solovyova, R.R. Sarkisyan, Jerzy Stoklosa (Poland), Du Yu Zhu (China), etc.).

Pyotr Aleksandrovich was very passionate about these works and often discussed them. Sometimes these discussions took place in the House of Scientists, of which he was chairman for many years. Usually it was in the evening in the beautiful dining room of the House of Scientists on the second floor. The waitress was always waiting for Pyotr Alexandrovich with lunch (prepared to P.A.’s taste, since he was allergic to some foods). P.A. Rebinder shared lunch with Evgenia Efimovna Segalova and me. There he told various funny jokes.

Pyotr Aleksandrovich classified the names of people he knew according to various criteria: insects (Pchelin, Mukhin, Osin, Komarov, Blokhin, Muravyov); harmful (Shkodin, Zlobin, Kaverzneva); chess (Peshkova, Shakhova, Koneva, Koroleva); illegitimate children (Colonels, Tsarevs, Captains, Majors, Soldiers). Once an article was brought to P.A. Rebinder for presentation in the "Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences" Komarov, Blokh and Lovlya, he said that he would present it if the authors agreed to swap their last names. The article was published with a list of authors "Catching, Fleas and Mosquitoes".

Pyotr Aleksandrovich was always interested in the patterns of structure formation of high-molecular substances and high-molecular substances in the colloidal state. Prominent scientists were invited to the Department of Colloid Chemistry of Moscow State University to give lectures to undergraduate and graduate students: Academician. V.A.Kargin, prof. V.A. Pchelin, prof. S.S. Voyutsky.

In 1955 V.A. Kargin, being a professor at the Department of Colloidal Chemistry, organized and headed the Department of Macromolecular Compounds at the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University. P.A. Rebinder provided the premises (before the construction of building A) and transferred a number of tasks from the workshop on colloid chemistry (viscometry, swelling). For some time, the Department of Colloidal Chemistry and the Department of Macromolecular Compounds had common Komsomol, trade union and party organizations. Pyotr Aleksandrovich loved and warmly treated V.A. Kargin’s first students (now RAS academicians V.A. Kabanov, N.A. Plate and N.F. Bakeev), and was an opponent in N.F. Bakeev’s doctoral dissertation. At this defense, interesting and in-depth discussions took place on the issues of phase transformations in high-molecular systems. Dissenting points of view did not in any way translate into the voting results and the high scientific assessment of the dissertation candidate.

At the same time, Pyotr Aleksandrovich wanted to develop colloidal chemistry of high-molecular compounds in his own department, and he invited Professor V.A. Pchelin, a specialist in the field of surface phenomena in protein systems, to the department. After graduating from graduate school, I was assigned to the department in the group of prof. V.A. Pchelina. P.A. Rebinder took an active part in the development of programs for the main directions of development of colloidal chemistry of protein substances. Among them were issues of solubilization of practically insoluble in water organic compounds protein macromolecules; the dependence of solubilization on the nature of the protein, conformational state, etc. At that time, the prevailing assumption was that upon contact of proteins with the organic phase, proteins denature.

I gave a report on these issues at the department in P.A.’s office, prepared a lot and, as it seemed to me, thoroughly answered all the questions asked of me. Publicly P.A. He praised me, and then said that if I read so much and look for answers from other people’s published materials, I will never be able to come up with my own original one. I pass on this advice from Peter Aleksandrovich to all graduate students and graduate students who specialize in colloidal chemistry of protein substances. And indeed: we, together with graduate students (G.P. Yampolskaya and A.V. Volynskaya), discovered patterns of solubilization, and managed to prove by a number of methods that proteins do not denature upon contact with the organic phase. Moreover, if these are enzymes, then after solubilization of the organic matter only the Michaelis constant changes, while the catalytic constant remains the same.

The second important direction in the development of colloidal chemistry of protein substances was defined by P. A. Rebinder as “structure formation in protein systems.” P.A. Rebinder believed that one of the most important problems of colloidal chemistry (the physical chemistry of dispersed systems and surface phenomena in them) should be considered the formation of spatial structures of various kinds in dispersed systems and the control of structure formation processes and the properties of dispersed structures, primarily their mechanical properties (deformation and strength). The development of this section of colloidal chemistry contributed significantly to the emergence of an independent field of chemical science - the physical and chemical mechanics of dispersed structures and materials. The task new area knowledge that combines a number of problems of rheology, molecular physics, solid state physics, mechanics of materials and technology of their production, P.A. Rebinder saw, first of all, the establishment of the mechanism and patterns of the processes of formation, deformation and destruction of dispersed structures of various types.

P.A. Rebinder said that solving this problem will make it possible to obtain dispersed high-strength materials and structured systems with given properties using optimal technological processes for processing various substances as feedstock.

Repeatedly at lectures and scientific seminars, P.A. Rebinder said that chemical science faces two most important tasks: the synthesis of new substances through chemical transformations and the processing of these substances into final materials and products. The second problem is solved by the physical and chemical mechanics of materials. Petr Aleksandrovich believed that phase equilibria in high-molecular systems, especially those containing crystallizing polymers, can be no less complex than in metal alloys, silicate or salt systems. Physico-chemical analysis and the study of phase equilibria should become an equally mandatory auxiliary research method in “polymer science” - the study of polymer materials, as they have long been in metallurgy, silicate chemistry, hallurgy, technology of fats and hydrocarbon systems. Without precise knowledge of all the features of the phase diagrams of the studied high-molecular systems, it is impossible to correctly assess the nature of the structural transformations observed in such systems, most often associated with the appearance of new dispersed phases.

Gels and jellies of various natures have been the subject of study in colloid chemistry for a long time. The appearance of a framework in the structure determines the specific mechanical properties of gels, such as strength, reversible deformation, lack of flow, and elasticity. However, the nature of this emerging network, the nature of bonds and contacts, the mechanism of gelation and thermodynamic properties gels are still the subject of study by many researchers.

In the last (posthumous "Science" 1974) monograph by V.N. Izmailova and P.A. Rebinder “Structure formation in protein systems”, summarizing our work, including graduate students G.P. Yampolskaya, A.F. El-Shimi, L.E. Bobrova, A.S. Zholbolsynova, M N.Pankratova, B.Falazi examined the patterns of formation of spatial disperse structures in protein systems, which made it possible to note the important features of the processes of formation of a new dispersed phase from supersaturated polymer solutions. Thus, gelation is always associated with conformational changes in macromolecules, leading to a decrease in the solubility of polymers. As a result, aggregates of macromolecules arise from supersaturated solutions, i.e., particles of a new lyophilic phase. Their accumulation causes the further appearance of strong dispersed structures. The coalescence of particles of a new polymer phase with the formation large number contacts between them (hydrogen, van der Waals or hydrophobic interactions) and leads to the appearance of gel structures of various types, characterized by solid-like mechanical properties.

The strength properties of polymer dispersed structures can be controlled by changing the nature of macromolecules (which is ensured by the possibilities of chemical modification), as well as by changing the pH of the medium, concentration, ionic strength of the solution, temperature and the addition of modifying agents. Studies of the kinetics of gelation of biopolymers have shown that the rate of increase in the strength of gels is greater, the higher the concentration of a high-molecular substance in the system, and depends on the charge of the macromolecule and the temperature of gel formation. Moreover, assessing the enthalpy of contacts that arise during gelation (as shown in the example of gelatin) allows us to monitor changes in the number and nature of bonds between the elements of the gel structure.

Almost all employees of the Department of Colloid Chemistry of Moscow State University, the Department of Disperse Systems of the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences and colleagues from other republics took part in the development of the new science created by P.A. Rebinder - physical and chemical mechanics. Pyotr Aleksandrovich skillfully coordinated and directed the development of colloid chemistry and physical and chemical mechanics in the USSR. This coordination was carried out through the Scientific Council on Colloid Chemistry and Physical and Chemical Mechanics, whose chairman was P. A. Rebinder, at numerous scientific conferences, where P.A. Rebinder was invariably an organizer and simple in his daily work.

One day Prof. came to Pyotr Alexandrovich. Mikhail Ilyich Usanovich (Head of the Department of Physical Chemistry of the University in Alma-Ata). Pyotr Alexandrovich invited me to this conversation. The talk was about organizing the Department of Colloid Chemistry at Alma-Ata University. Prof. M.I. Usanovich said that there is a capable young man, a candidate of chemical sciences, who can head the department of colloidal chemistry if he gets help. This young man was, now a professor, D.H. Sc., Head of the Department of Colloid Chemistry and Enzymology K.B. Musabekov, who himself has trained Doctors of Chemical Sciences S.B. Aidarova and Zh.A. Abilov and many candidates of science. Some of them worked at the Department of Colloid Chemistry of Moscow State University (A. Kenzhebekov). K.B. Musabekov sent students from Kazakhstan to the Department of Colloid Chemistry of Moscow State University and many employees improved their qualifications through the Faculty of Education (T.I. Yu, I.K. Omarova, A.I. Izimov, V. Palmer, etc.) .

The main provisions of the scientific direction of the Department of Colloid Chemistry at the University of Almaty were later published in our joint monograph (K.B. Musabekov, B.A. Zhubanov, V.N. Izmailova, B.D. Summ “Interfacial layers of polyelectrolytes (synthetic polymers) ", "Science" of the Kazakh SSR Alma-Ata, 1987)

Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the UzSSR Karim Sadykovich Akhmedov is a prominent scientist in the field of colloid chemistry, physical-chemical mechanics and physical-chemistry of polymers, the founder of the school of colloid chemists in Uzbekistan, as well as his students (I.N. Shpilevskaya, L.Yu. Yunusov , S.S. Khamraev, E.A. Aripov, F.L. Glekel, G.N. Virskaya, S.A. Zainutdinov, I.K. Sataev, Z.U. Usmanov, I.K. Kadyrov, S N.Aminov, A.T.Akhmedzhanova) at the departments of colloid chemistry of Tashkent University and Tashkent Polytechnic Institute, Institute of Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR supported close connection with Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rebinder. For many, Pyotr Aleksandrovich or his students were scientific consultants on their work, opponents in defenses, teachers underwent internships at the Department of Colloid Chemistry of Moscow State University, and employees of the department (MSU) gave lectures in Tashkent.

In Ukraine, on the territory Soviet Union was the only institute for colloidal chemistry and water chemistry. Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR F.D. Ovcharenko was its director for many years. The actual leader of colloid chemistry and physical-chemical mechanics in Ukraine was Fedor Danilovich Ovcharenko, a student of Academician Anton Vladimirovich Dumansky - as he is now called the “grandfather of colloid chemistry.” Every year on June 22, the birthday of Academician. A.V. Dumansky organized conferences on colloid chemistry and physical and chemical mechanics. Colloid scientists from all over the Soviet Union took part in them, everything was organized on a grand scale and there was a kind of review scientific achievements. Pyotr Alexandrovich communicated a lot with Fyodor Danilovich in an informal setting and they helped each other in solving many problems. At one time, Fyodor Danilovich was the secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine, and naturally, he had additional features influence the development of colloid chemistry and physical-chemical mechanics both in Ukraine and in the Soviet Union. You can write a separate memory about the personality of Fyodor Danilovich, and it will also evoke only pleasant emotions in both the writer and the reader.

In 1957 it was organized science Center in Novosibirsk. Pyotr Aleksandrovich sent his own with prof. to develop the colloid-chemical direction. A. B. Taubman, a student of A. F. Koretsky, and then P. M. Kruglyakov (a student of Prof. P. R. Taube) went there. Young scientists worked successfully, created an efficient team, defended their Ph.D. dissertations, and there were many interesting practical developments. A.F. Koretsky, using the theory of P.A. Rebinder about lyophilic disperse systems based on surfactant compositions, prepared microemulsion systems (with a phase inversion temperature of about 50 o C), which were repeatedly used (resource-saving technology) for washing tankers of oil. In those years, oil was transported to Cuba and sugar back in the same containers.

Pyotr Aleksandrovich's frequent welcome guests at the Department of Colloid Chemistry were, then still very young, now the head. department colloid chemistry at St. Petersburg University and Chairman of the Scientific Council on Colloid Chemistry and Physical and Chemical Mechanics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, academician. RAS A.I.Rusanov and prof. A.A.Abramzon (Professor of the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology). It seems to me that their work was influenced by communication with Pyotr Alexandrovich. I can judge from the publications. In conversations with me, A.A. Abramzon always emphasized that he considered himself a student of Pyotr Alexandrovich, and that he was just as romantic.

Pyotr Aleksandrovich was always interested in the problems of colloid chemistry in the oil industry. He had many contacts with various scientists in the USSR. I remember the meetings of P.A. Rebinder with prof. I.L. Markhasin (Ufa, Oil Institute).

With the author of the book "Colloidal chemistry of synthetic latexes" (1984), prof. Pyotr Aleksandrovich was associated with R.E. Neiman (Voronezh University) both by his professional interests and the organization of the All-Union Conference in Voronezh in 1968.

Dedication P.A. Rebinder's performance at conferences is worthy of emulation by current and future scientists. He listened to all the reports, asked questions and participated in discussions. P.A. Rebinder’s own speeches were always very bright, understandable, he mastered the art of oratory and attracted huge audiences.

This applies to the reports of P.A. Rebinder and at international conferences. In 1968, in August, at the V International Congress on Surfactant Chemistry (Barcelona, ​​Spain), P.A. Rebinder gave a plenary report. This time coincided with the August events in Czechoslovakia. At many international conferences, a boycott of Soviet participants was declared, but not where the delegation of scientists was headed by P.A. Rebinder.

The Congress was held in a special building with a complex of large and small auditoriums, with televisions in the halls broadcasting meetings of all sections. The building and auditoriums were decorated with flags of participants from all countries. Pyotr Aleksandrovich gave a report at the magnificent French. At first, the audience listened to the report with reserved attention. During the report, Pyotr Aleksandrovich, if it was necessary to transfer the slide to another demonstration, usually said “Merci”, but this time, apparently, something was “stuck”, he said “Merci” again, again the slide did not change, then P .A. said “much gracias” in Spanish and the slide was changed. The hall burst into applause and they listened with delight.

We were all proud to work with such a great scientist. The goodwill and respectful attitude of scientists all over the world towards Pyotr Alexandrovich transferred to us. At the conference, P.A. introduced us, then still young employees, to famous scientists.

Report by P.A. Rebinder at the congress in Spain was entitled “Interaction of surface and bulk properties of surfactant solutions.” The report contained 9 points. One of them relates to the problems of colloidal chemistry in biology and medicine: “surfactants with their remarkable ability to form adsorption layers at phase boundaries are becoming increasingly important for the scientific substantiation of the most physiologically (pharmacologically) active substances that effectively influence the activity of a living organism. Surface activity can strongly depend on the nature of the phase interface, so it should be measured for a “model” liquid interface that is closest to what actually exists at the site of action. This is the aqueous solution/oil interface (lipoid medium), which models the phase interface in the living structure of an organ.

The most intense physiological effect corresponds to saturation of the adsorption layer. It is achieved at a lower concentration of the substance in the volume of solution, the higher its surface activity.

This general principle valid for such active substances as anesthetics and painkillers, drugs, substances that activate or, conversely, inhibit respiratory function. This same principle, a natural development of Traube’s views, apparently forms the basis for the action of active substances on living organisms in very low (homeopathic) concentrations. Surfactant additives promote the absorption and digestion of food and, above all, fats. In this regard, the most typical biological surfactants - cholic acids of bile - are of decisive importance. Many vitamins have pronounced surface activity and promote the absorption of food. The dispersing (peptizing) effect of surfactants increases the permeability of living cell membranes in relation to physiologically active and nutrient substances, promoting the growth of tissues of organisms and cell division. If the pores of the membrane are hydrophobic, then the surfactant can increase permeability by exhibiting a wetting effect, that is, changing the sign of capillary pressure towards capillary suction on the menisci in thin pores. The surfactant itself always has increased permeability due to surface diffusion, i.e. the tendency of molecules of the adsorption layer to spread over the largest possible surface.

Many of these biological applications of surfactants are determined not by the reduced interfacial tension itself, but by the associated formation of an adsorption layer of the surfactant at the phase boundary, with all the consequences determined by the properties of this layer. The interfacial tension itself acquires a major role only when it becomes a very small value. With interfacial tension on the order of tenths or hundredths of mJ/m2, as is known, at ordinary temperatures a condition close to spontaneous dispersion arises - a colloidal emulsion or suspension is formed under the influence of such minor influences as, for example, convection currents in a liquid dispersion medium caused by local temperature changes. Such spontaneous dispersion under the influence of additives of soap-like surfactants leads to the formation of emulsions that are well absorbed by organisms and are therefore particularly effective with regard to toxic (pesticides) or pharmacological effects (medicinal emulsions) or, finally, as food emulsions.”

This is the conclusion of the report by P.A. Rebinder is modern and relates to colloid-chemical problems of life science "Life science", which are still being developed at the department (V.N.Izmailova, G.P.Yampolskaya "Properties of Protein Layers of Liquid Interfaces. Monograph in "Proteins at Liquid Interfaces, in "Studies of Interface Science. D.Mobius and R.Miller (Eds) vol 7, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1998, p.103-148).

During a conference in Spain, all participants were invited to a bullfight. Pyotr Alexandrovich refused and said: “I am an animal lover.” But when we were at the Prado Museum and the Escurial Palace, Pyotr Alexandrovich enjoyed the paintings of El Greco, Goya, Velazquez, and Murillo. He talked with pleasure about the subjects of the paintings and the work of great masters. P.A. Rebinder had an excellent knowledge of the history of Spain, as well as of many other countries.

Great contribution of P.A. Rebinder introduced the stability factor he formulated - “Structural-mechanical barrier”. The entry into science of the “Structural-mechanical barrier according to Rehbinder” as a strong stabilizing factor was not easy. In 1961, discussion articles on the problem of stability were published on the pages of the Colloid Journal. In the article by P.A. Rebinder and A.B. Taubman “Remarks on the issue of aggregative stability of dispersed systems” (vol. 23, 359, 1961) it was written: “The problem of aggregative stability is without a doubt the main and most unique problem of colloidal chemistry. At the same time, this main problem is the least developed and still causes heated discussions, despite the extensive experimental material of both laboratory research and industrial technological nature.”

At this time prof. S.S. Voyutsky prepared the textbook “Course of Colloid Chemistry”. Pyotr Aleksandrovich asked me to be the scientific editor of this textbook and especially drew my attention to S.S. Voyutsky in Ch. IX "Stability and coagulation colloidal systems"correctly reflected the position on the structural-mechanical barrier.

It was with great pleasure that I accepted the offer of P.A. Rebinder and S.S. Voyutsky to be the scientific editor of the textbook. This was a chance for me to work on colloidal problems with such great scientists in an informal setting. The work proceeded as follows. First, I read the textbook and made various kinds of comments. Then they were coordinated with P.A. Rebinder and S.S. Voyutsky. The result was that S.S. Voyutsky included in Chap. IX ideas about the structural-mechanical barrier to stability, as edited by P.A. Rebinder.

My comments and suggestions to the textbook by S.S. Voyutsky were presented on 74 pages of typewritten text. We worked with Pyotr Aleksandrovich on the final version of the comments at his dacha in Lutsino. They played tennis there during the day. Elena Evgenievna looked after us; a meal was held on the large veranda with the usual rhubarb compote and well-brewed tea. A German shepherd named Urs was caressing at Pyotr Alexandrovich’s feet. I was very impressed by all this. Pyotr Aleksandrovich read my opus and said that everything was good and written in a businesslike manner.

The discussion on the structural-mechanical barrier in the stability of dispersed systems led to the fact that my first graduate student from Egypt, A.F. El-Shimi, together with P.A. Rebinder, formulated a topic related to the development of ideas about the structural-mechanical barrier. And already in 1966 in Berlin at the III International Congress on Surfactants, we presented a report in which there were results on the correlation of the lifetime of elementary gas bubbles and droplets (using the method proposed by P.A. Rebinder and E.K. Wenström in 1932) and the rheological parameters of the interfacial adsorption layers of gelatin (determined on the Rebinder and Trapeznikov device) with wide variations in concentration, pH, temperature and additions of low molecular weight surfactants to the oil phase.

We were met at the conference in Berlin by Dr. H. Sonntag (he previously worked at the Department of Colloid Chemistry at Moscow State University in 1957-1958). His work is devoted to issues of stability, including stabilization by high-molecular compounds. In "Colloids and Surfaces" in 1998, in an issue dedicated to the memory of H. Sonntag in 1998, the article "V.Izmailova, G.Yampolskaya" Concentrated emulsions stabilized by macromolecules should be published and the contributions of Hans Sonntag to this scientific field". Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 1998.

While traveling through Germany (GDR) in Saxon Switzerland, Pyotr Alexandrovich, unexpectedly for everyone, climbed onto the railing of a bridge that was laid over an abyss and walked along the railing without losing his balance. I still have a photograph of this episode; when I look at it, it takes my breath away.

At a conference in Berlin P.A. Rebinder and his collaborators met like old friends with Bulgarian scientists A.D. Sheludko, D. Platikanov and D. Ekserova. Now D. Platikanov is the head of the Department of Physical Chemistry at Sofia University, and D. Ekserova is the head of a department at the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the BAS. In 1997 they organized 9 in Sofia international conference on surface and colloid chemistry. This conference was dedicated to the memory of Academician A.D. Sheludko.

At the conference in Sofia there was a report by E.D. Shchukin “The development of physical and chemical mechanics in the works of Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rebinder and his school.” My report “Rheological properties of interfacial adsorption layers of proteins” also demonstrated the development of P.A. Rebinder’s ideas about the determining role of the rheological parameters of interfacial stabilizer layers in the stability of films, emulsions and foams. Many speakers recalled the name of Pyotr Alexandrovich.

Conditions for the implementation of the structural-mechanical stability barrier according to Rehbinder include the adsorption of a stabilizer at the interphase boundary with the formation of an interphase layer with mechanical properties, and simultaneous lyophilization of the interphase boundary. It is known that the adsorption of proteins is accompanied by a decrease in surface and interfacial tension, and a sufficiently high water content in the interfacial layer suggests that the complex Hamaker constant is close to the corresponding value of water (10 -21 J). Thus, the structural-mechanical barrier can manifest itself at the stages of coagulation and coalescence. The stabilizing effect of the structural-mechanical barrier on the stability of foams and emulsions was also studied by studying the corresponding thin films (free and emulsion), as well as macrodispersions - foams and emulsions. It is known that the stability of primary (ordinary) free black films stabilized by low molecular weight surfactants is described by the DLVO theory. The reasons for the stability of secondary (Newtonian) foam films have not been established.

IN last years life of P.A. Rebinder repeatedly discussed the problem of the stability of these systems with A.D. Sheludko, and as a result of the discussions, the impression was formed about the decisive role of the rheological properties of adsorption layers and films in the stability of secondary foam films. In 1971, an agreement on creative collaboration was concluded between Moscow and Sofia universities. After the death of Pyotr Aleksandrovich, within the framework of this agreement, which continues to this day (1998), black films of proteins were first obtained and studied in joint work.

Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rebinder was also valued at the USSR Academy of Sciences. Pyotr Aleksandrovich, together with academician M.V. Keldysh, was invited to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. Pyotr Alexandrovich spoke with delight about the reception. During the same visit to Sweden, he was presented with a book with the family tree of the entire Rebinder family. The first mention of the Rebinders dates back to 1100 (Johan Rebinder). After 800 years, the birth of Pyotr Alexandrovich was entered into the book.

In 1996, when I was at the All-Russian Conference on Surfactants in Shebekino, prof. B.E. Chistyakov took me to the Belgorod museum. In the museum, a special room is reserved for a gallery of portraits of the Rehbinders.

At the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University, Pyotr Aleksandrovich was a constant participant in the meetings of the methodological commission. At that time I was the deputy chairman of the methodological commission of the Faculty of Chemistry and therefore could observe the work of P.A. Rebinder. Important issues were resolved chemical education. Together with related faculties (mathematics - Prof. L.A. Tumarkin, physics - Prof. V.F. Kiselev), sections of mathematics and physics necessary for teaching chemistry, especially for physical and colloidal chemistry, were selected. Here, the knowledge of P.A. Rebinder as a physicist and mathematician was used (he graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow University in 1924). Representatives of all departments gathered: physical chemistry (corresponding member Ya.I. Gerasimov and professor A.V. Kiselev), analytical chemistry(academician I.P. Alimarin, associate professor Z.F. Shakhova and prof. V.M. Peshkova), electrochemistry (prof. N.V. Fedorovich), inorganic chemistry(Academician V.I. Spitsin and Prof. L.I. Martynenko), general chemistry(Prof. K.G. Khomyakov, Prof. G.D. Vovchenko, Prof. E.M. Sokolovskaya), colloid chemistry (Academician P.A. Rebinder and Prof. V.N. Izmailova), organic chemistry (Academician A.N.Nesmeyanov, Prof. R.Ya.Yuryeva and Prof. Yu.K.Yuryev), chemical Technology(Academician S.I. Volfkovich), chemistry of macromolecular compounds (Academician V.A. Kargin). P.A. Rebinder paid great attention to drawing up a course program for colloidal chemistry, which was discussed at the methodological commission of the Faculty of Chemistry, and then approved by the Ministry of Higher Education and became standard for the chemical faculties of State universities.

In this regard, the content of the program was correlated with the content of physical chemistry course programs, organic chemistry and high molecular weight substances. For example, adsorption phenomena, the structure and properties of adsorption layers of surfactants, the basics of adsorption thermodynamics, the Gibbs equation are discussed in detail in the course of colloidal chemistry, and adsorption from the gas phase is described in detail in the course of physical chemistry. The electrical properties of dispersed systems and electrokinetic phenomena in connection with the stability of dispersed systems are read in the course of colloidal chemistry, and the fundamentals of the theory of the structure of the double electrical layer are presented both in the course of colloidal chemistry and in the course of physical chemistry (this section is covered in the course of colloidal chemistry before in a course of physical chemistry).

The synthesis of surfactants is taught in organic chemistry courses, and their properties and their role in the stability of foams, emulsions, suspensions, the Rebinder effect, colloid-chemical methods for cleaning water areas in colloid chemistry courses.

High-molecular substances that are in a colloidal state during phase separation at the interfaces, due to their large role in stability ("structural-mechanical barrier according to Rehbinder"), constitute an independent section in colloid chemistry and are considered, naturally, in the course of colloid chemistry.

The results of these discussions are reflected in the article by P.A. Rebinder "Colloid Chemistry" in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.

The methodological commission of the Faculty of Chemistry also resolved problems of the sequence of teaching individual disciplines of chemistry. One day we decided to try teaching students physical chemistry first, and then organic chemistry. The experiment was not a success; everything had to be put back in its place again. In the 60s, another experiment was carried out. Long-term practical training for 5th year students was introduced into the curriculum. The total duration of training was increased to 5.5 years. Students worked for one year at workplaces in different institutes, received a salary, and studied in the evening (16 hours a week). P.A. Rebinder did a lot of work on organizing jobs for students (only academician Y.M. Kolotyrkin, director of the L.Ya. Karpov Institute of Physics and Chemistry, could compare with him). In such training of qualified chemists there were more disadvantages than advantages, and after 2 years they abandoned it. Pyotr Aleksandrovich warned about this and was in favor of reasonable conservatism in fundamental education.

The happiness of those students, graduate students and doctoral students who were lucky enough to study with Pyotr Alexandrovich was to listen to his lectures.

I listened to all the lectures of Pyotr Aleksandrovich - all 20 years of my study and work at the Department of Colloid Chemistry. For two years I was a lecture assistant to Pyotr Alexandrovich.

At the lectures of P.A. Rebinder's listeners received information about the latest achievements of P.A. Rebinder himself. He was very generous in this regard, and his lectures attracted not only students, but also scientists from many institutions. P.A. Rebinder was an excellent lecturer; his lectures and reports, full of deep content, were full of examples from the practice and theory of science.

Was short summary lectures on colloid chemistry (compiled by Associate Professor K.A. Pospelova). The lectures were problematic. A theoretical and mathematical justification for the basic laws was given. Lectures were illustrated with experiments and posters. Contained historical information, what a scientific discoverer who took part in the development of ideas. The state of development of science today was brought to the attention of students. The tasks and problems that need to be solved in the near future were identified. Possible practical uses were indicated.

For relaxation, to relieve fatigue from P.A. students. taught them correct Russian speech: “You can’t talk about yourself I eat, but I need to eat, and when you invite, you need to say take a bite. It’s correct to say in connection with this, in not in this connection (this is a translation from English), you need to say my wife, but your wife."

Pyotr Aleksandrovich read his lectures in a well-trained voice with a surprisingly pleasant timbre. The speech was accompanied by pauses and varied in volume, all of which contributed to the students’ attention.

At the lecture there was always a flask with strong tea, which E.P. Arsentyeva had invariably brewed for more than 30 years.

Students traditionally asked two questions: 1) What do you drink? And then P.A. got distracted and talked about the dangers of alcohol. 2) Do you like chess? P.A. replied that it would be better to direct the mental energy of talented chess players to scientific research.

Pyotr Alexandrovich was always strictly dressed (suit, shirts and tie) in any weather, even very warm, thereby emphasizing respect for others.

The lecture demonstrations that were thought out and staged under Pyotr Aleksandrovich are still shown by A.M. Parfenova, the keeper of these experiments. Pyotr Aleksandrovich, when the experiment was successful, especially the movement of the boat on the surface of the water due to two-dimensional pressure, the dance of camphor (the “twist” dance), he said: “What a delight, it’s better not to go to Tretyakov Gallery and see the experiments."

History of chemistry and colloidal chemistry P.A. always strived to convey to listeners, showing the relationship and mutual influence discoveries in various fields of natural science. One of P.A. Rebinder’s doctoral students, prof. N.A. Figurovsky headed the department of history of chemistry and gave lectures on history. Under the guidance of prof. N.A. Figurovsky and Art. n. With. T.A. Komarova (graduate of the department of colloid chemistry in 1946) defended several works on the history of colloid chemistry (T.T. Orlovskaya, T.V. Bogatova).

Lectures by P.A. Rebinder had a great aftereffect. Corresponding member I.V. Berezin, the founder of the Department of Chemical Enzymology, said at one of Rebinder’s readings that the ideas of micellar catalysis of enzymes placed in reverse surfactant micelles were inspired when I.V. Berezin listened to Pyotr Aleksandrovich’s lectures as a student.

P.A. Rebinder and G. Hartley (USA) (1933) were the founders of modern theories of micellization. They simultaneously (and independently) proposed the idea of ​​the structure of spherical micelles in aqueous solutions Surfactant

Once, when I was at Pyotr Aleksandrovich’s house, he showed me a yellowed newspaper “Pravda” from 1937, where the basement was devoted to micelles of surfactants (surfactants) and it was written that Pyotr Aleksandrovich juggles surfactant molecules, then their “tails” together in water, then “heads” in non-aqueous solvents and, as a consequence, that P.A. is a spy for all counterintelligence services of all imperialist powers.

Further P.A. said that after the publication of the newspaper, the phone went silent, no one spoke to him, everyone avoided meetings, and only Alexander Naumovich Frumkin, on the phone at night, so that no one could hear, discussed the question “What to do?” Pavel Ignatievich Zubov saved the situation. He was then a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and stood up for Pyotr Alexandrovich. Pyotr Aleksandrovich was grateful all his life and academician. A.N.Frumkin, and prof. P.I. Zubov.

In the article by A.N. Frumkin "In Memory of a Friend" [P.A. Rebinder. Selected works. Surface phenomena in disperse systems. Colloidal chemistry. "Science" M. 1978 p.13], written in one breath, contains words of pain for the loss of a friend and gives a high assessment of the work of Pyotr Alexandrovich: “Peter Alexandrovich was an outstanding scientist, one of the best representatives of Soviet science. If our country has firmly taken a leading position in the science of surface phenomena, one of the most important branches of modern physical chemistry, this is primarily his merit."

Pyotr Alexandrovich's public speeches were distinguished by their originality. Only, in his characteristic manner, he expressed his thoughts in such a way that one thought was contained in another, another in a third, etc. and at the same time, the complex subordinate sentence was complete. I had a geometric image of such thinking of Pyotr Aleksandrovich from the region chinese art bone carving, where different patterned, lacy bone balls are carved into one another.

P.A.’s statements were extraordinary and non-standard. and identification of people close to him in the service, in this case we are talking about the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University.

All chemists of the older generation remember the figurative speech of P.A. Rebinder at the 60th anniversary of the dean of chemistry, prof. I.F. Lutsenko (June 7, 1972), when P.A. Rebinder said: “You are a great ironist.”

Pyotr Aleksandrovich has developed good business relationships with the entire administration of the Faculty of Chemistry.

Deputy Dean for Administrative and Economic Affairs A.A. Simatsky invited P.A. Rebinder to the opening days of his own paintings; he painted well. After the death of P.A. Rebinder, on the memorial marble plaque, which was installed at the Department of Colloid Chemistry, a beautiful font of letters was made by A.A. Simatsky.

WORKED HERE

OUTSTANDING PHYSICAL CHEMIST

HERO OF SOCIALIST LABOR

ACADEMICIAN

PETER ALEXANDROVICH

REBINDER

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF COLLOID CHEMISTRY

In 1942 - 1972

In front of the watchmen at the entrance P.A. Rebinder always took off his hat. To all P.A. addressed you by first name and patronymic (students too). He exchanged strong handshakes with men, and kissed women’s hands, not raising the lady’s hand, but bowing. I asked young mothers: “How is your baby doing?”

In the years I observed, there were many young people (undergraduate and graduate students) at the Department of Colloid Chemistry. Pyotr Aleksandrovich knew all the topics of diploma and postgraduate theses and often came to defend theses.

Employees, graduate students and graduates worked selflessly and enthusiastically from morning until late evening. Pyotr Aleksandrovich often came to the department late in the evening, after all sorts of business at the academy, institute, etc., opened all the doors of the laboratories, said hello, exchanged a few words, and was very surprised if at 21 o’clock one of his employees was not there on the spot.

After defending dissertations, there was a special ritual. Pyotr Aleksandrovich was the toastmaster, he spoke the necessary words to the defender, his leaders and opponents, and then the traditional toast was raised “to those who are on the way,” that is, who, in the opinion of P.A., is already ready for defense. Everyone was pleased to hear their name.

In 1997, the Russian Foundation Basic Research in accordance with the decision of the Grant Council of the President of the Russian Federation, supported a leading scientific school Russian Federation"Physical and chemical mechanics of solids and dispersed systems." The head of the school was the head of the Department of Colloid Chemistry of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University, Professor B. D. Summ. Receiving a grant convincingly emphasizes the respectful attitude of scientists (grant distributors) to scientific heritage P.A. Rebinder.

P.A. Rehbinder actually created a scientific school, on whose fundamental works arose modern trends. Generations of young scientists will continue to learn from his works and open up ever new possibilities for the development of colloidal chemistry and physical-chemical mechanics created by Pyotr Aleksandrovich.

Peter Aleksandrovich Rebinder was very loved, respected and admired for his encyclopedic knowledge, goodwill, respected for the development and solution of educational and methodological problems in higher education, for his fundamental contribution to the development of colloid chemistry, physical and chemical mechanics and natural science in general, and for pedagogical skill many outstanding scientists.

And I’ll end with pleasant memories for me by saying that the author of these lines was lucky enough to be a student of Pyotr Alexandrovich and to work under his leadership for 20 happy years. The years of joint work are forever illuminated by his scientific generosity, kindness and friendly attitude.

Speaking shortly before his death to graduate students of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov (July 4, 1972), Pyotr Aleksandrovich uttered inspired words - a call to young researchers to devote strength and knowledge to work, the purpose of which is to preserve health, efficiency and prolongation creative life person. Pyotr Aleksandrovich saw this as the main task of a humanist scientist.

>TO CHAPTER III

F i g u r o v s k i y "N. A, Sedimentometric analysis. M., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1948. 415 p.

TO CHAPTERS IV-VI

De Boer, J. Dynamic nature of adsorption. Per. from English, ed.

V. M. Gryaznova. M., Izdatinlit, 1962, 290 p. Physical chemistry course. T. I. Edited by Ya. I. Gerasimov. M., "Chemistry", 1970".

592 pp. See p. 412-557. Lipatov Yu. S., Sergeeva L. M. Adsorption of polymers. Kyiv, Naukova

Dumka", 1972. 233 p.

TO CHAPTER VII

Electrical properties of capillary systems. (Collection) Ed. P. A. Rebinder. M. - L., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1956. 352 p.

Electrosurface phenomena in dispersed systems. (Collection) Ed. O. N. Grigorov and D. A. Friedrichsberg. M., “Science”, 1972. 192 p.

Grigorov O. N. Electrokinetic phenomena. Publishing house of Leningrad State University, 1973. 168 p.

TO CHAPTER VIII

Berestneva Z. Ya., Kargin V. A. On the mechanism of formation of colloidal

particles. Usp. khim"., 1955, t. 24, p. 249. Rebinder P. A. Contemporary issues colloid chemistry. Colloidn g.

1958, vol. 20, p. 527.

Rebinder P. A. et al. On thermodynamically equilibrium two-phase disperse systems. Colloid. zh., 1970, t. 32, p. 480.

TO CHAPTER IX

Deryagin B.V. Modern theory of stability of lyophobic suspensions and sols. Proceedings of the 3rd All-Union Conference on Colloid Chemistry, M., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1956, p. 235.

Voyutskny S. S., Pannch R. M. Aggregative stability of polymer dispersions and zeta potential. Usp. Khim., 1956, t. 25, p. 157. Deryagnn B.V., Abrikosova I.I. Lifshnts E.I. Molecular attraction of condensed bodies. Usp. physical Sciences, 1958, t. 64, p. 493.

Sontag G., Strenge K Coagulation and stability of dispersed systems. Per. with German, ed. O. G. Usyarova. L., “Chemistry”, 1973. 152 p.

Research in the field of surface snl. (Collection) Ed. B.V. Deryagina. In 5 volumes. T. 1-5. M., “Science”, 1961-1974.

Volarovnch M.P. Study of the rheological properties of dispersed systems.

Colloid. zh., 1954, t. 16, p. 227. Mikhailov N.V., Rebinder P.A. On structural and mechanical properties

dispersed and high-molecular systems. Collondn. zh, 1955, t. 17,

Structure formation in dispersed systems in the presence of full electrolytes. (Collection). Ed. K. S. Akhmedova. Tashkent, Publishing House of the FAN of the Uzbek SSR, 1970. 174 p.

Efremov I.F. Periodic colloidal structures. L, “Chemistry”, 1971. Research on physical-chemical contact interactions. (Collection) Ed. G. I. Fuksa. Ufa, Bashkir book publishing house, 1971. 228 p.

TO CHAPTER XI

Amelin A. G. Theoretical basis fog formation due to condensation

pair. Ed. 3rd. M., "Chemistry", 1972. 304 p. Fuks N. A. Mechanics of aerosols. M., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1955. 352 p. Deryagnn B.V. Aerosols (smoke and fog). M.., “Knowledge”, 1961. 32 p. Fuks N. A. Advances in aerosol mechanics. M., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1961. 159 p.

TO CHAPTER XII

Clayton W. Emulsin. Per. from English, ed. P. A. Rebinder. M., Izdat-nnlit, 1950. 680 p.

Chukhrov F.V. Colloids in earth's crust. M., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1955. 671 p. Voyutskny S.S. On the reasons for the aggregative stability of emulsions. Usp. Khnm., 1961, t. 30, p. 1237.

Sherma and F. Emulsin. Per. from English, ed. A. A. Abramzon. L., "Chemistry", 1972, 448 p.

TO CHAPTER XIII

Vinogradov G.V. Soaps, solutions and soap gels. Usp. Khnm., 1961, v. 20. Schwartz A., Perry J., Burch J. Surfactants and

detergents. Per. from English, ed. A. B. Taubman. M, Publishing House,

Rebinder P. A. Surfactants and their application. Chem. science and industry, 1959, vol. 5, p. 554.

Shtyupel G. Synthetic detergents and cleansers. Per. with German, ed. A. I. Gershenovich. M., Goskhimnzdat, 1960. 672 p.

Schoenfeld. Nonionic detergents. Per. with em., ed. A. I. Gershenovich. M, "Chemistry", 1965. 487 p.

Shinoda K. Colloidal surfactants. Per. from English, ed. A. B. Taubman and Z. N. Markina. M., "Mir", 1966. 320 p.

TO CHAPTER XIV

Voyutskny S.S. Solutions of high-molecular compounds. Ed. 2nd. M., Goshnmizdat, 1960. 131 p. Tager A. A. Physics of polymers. Ed. 2nd. M., “Khnmnya”, 1968. 536 p. Moravec G. Macromolecules in solution. Per. from English, ed. V. A. Kargn and I. A. Tutorsky. M., "Mnr", 1967. 398 p.

SUBJECT INDEX

Abramson, electrophoresis device

211 words Light absorption 39-42

l light scattering 40

fictitious 40 words. Avogadro, number 64 f., 72 f. Agar

gelation of solution 484

as polyelectrolyte 468

swelling, functions 447

solution, critical shear stress 487 Aggregate(s) (micelles) 243 sl.

surfactant molecules 405 Aggregative

instability 11, 18 ff.

Lyophobic systems 260 aerosol resistance 347 words.

Zoley 282

Colloids 259 words.

Latex 383 words.

Lyophobic systems 260 pp.

Polymer solutions 465 ml.

Suspensions 367

Emulsions 371 cl. fluidization 353

Aggregate state of the dispersed phase

and dispersed medium 24 sl. Aggregation

in* lyosols 68

distant 279

particles during coagulation 262, 268

number 405 Adhesion 167 words. Adsorbate 81

Adsorbents)" 81, 109 ff.

dynamic activity 112

Static 112 amorphous 149 acidic 149 non-polar 139, 141 and porous 109 basic 149

specific surface 99, 135

polar 139, 141

porosity 139

porous 109

properties 109, 139

characteristic curve 95

affinity coefficient 96

Adsorptive 81

monomolecular layer 90

properties, influence and adsorption 111 words. Adsorption

azeotropy 143

column 144

volume 93 words.

decrease in hardness 233 poteindaal 94 ff., 187, 189,

General 187

Electric 187 balance 107, 142 strength 85 ff., 89

Potential 86 layer 128 layers, 185

High viscosity 392

Charge 187

Micelles 244

molecular orientation 129, 141

Surfactant 410 cl

| polymolecular 284 cl

Stabilizing effect 283 words.

Building 97, 128 ff.

Stern 198 coagulation theory 289

Adsorption

theory of crystallization 226 Adsorption 81 words.

activated 103

Wei der Waalsova 81

influence of coagulation 296

Adsorbent porosity 139 sl. under static conditions 112 gases from a mixture of 112 sl.

Ia solid 88 *- ia coal 111 hydrolytic 153 dynamic 112 time dependence 141 sl.

From pressure 83

from the concentration of the solution 141 sl. t* - from the nature of the adsorbent 146 words.

From solvent 138 cl.

From the properties of the adsorbent 109 words. adsorptive 111 sl.

From temperature 83, 141 sl. and hydrogen bond 87 ff.

and completion of crystals 147 sl, selective 172 isopics 83 isosteres 83

isotherms 83 lines, 91 lines, 96, 98, 123, 142 lines.

from solutions, molecular 137 words.

in nature and technology 143 ff.

from a mixture 137 ionic 146 sl-kinetic curves 107 sl. oxygen and coal 104 quantitative characteristic 83 crystals 147 words. molecular 137 words

Effect of adsorbent and adsorbent

time 141 words.

solution concentration 141 sl.

Wednesday 138 pages

temperature 141 degrees

From solutions 137 ate. myomolecular 88 words.

at the solution-gas interface 114 cl

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