When was the Senate created? By decree of Peter I, the Governing Senate was established in Russia

On war matters, Tsar Peter I often had to leave the capital. In his absence, he transferred power to trusted persons. The decree of Peter I on the creation of the Senate was issued in 1711. It said: “We have determined that there will be a Governing Senate for our absences for governance.”

The Senate, unlike the Execution Chamber of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, which worked constantly, initially directed the entire state life of the country only in the absence of the Tsar. The number of its members did not exceed 10 people. All offices, orders, and governors were subordinate to him.

In 1721, when Russia's victory over the Swedes in the Northern War was solemnly celebrated in St. Petersburg, the Senate presented the tsar with the title of emperor. Russia began to be called an empire. Peter I also began to be called “Father of the Fatherland”, “Great”.

Senate position

Peter I gave great importance To the Senate. He wrote the document “The Position of the Senate,” which he himself revised over the course of six years. The document determined that the Senate is the guardian of state interests. The Senate was conceived as a collegial body. It was assumed that the equality of its members would be observed when resolving issues. Without general consent, not a single decree could come into effect.

Attorney General of the Senate

To monitor order in the Senate, a special position was established - prosecutor general. The Attorney General was required to sit at Senate meetings and ensure that senators worked “truly and earnestly, without wasting time.” He also had to check that the decisions made were executed and put into practice, and “things were not only done on the table.”

The prosecutor's office was called “the sovereign's eye.” The first prosecutor general of the Senate was an associate of Peter I, a man of humble origin, Pavel Ivanovich Yaguzhinsky. He had a whole staff of chief prosecutors. They submitted directly to the king. Material from the site

Immediately after the palace coup of 1762, the nobleman N.I. Panin presented to Catherine II the project he had developed for the establishment of the Imperial Council. This body, consisting of 6-8 trusted representatives and endowed with significant power (all laws must pass through the Council), would seriously limit the power of the monarch. After much hesitation, having found a plausible excuse, Catherine refused Panin’s proposal.

In 1763, the Empress carried out a reform of the Senate. According to Catherine, this body had an excess of power and suppressed any independence of the institutions subordinate to it.

The Senate was divided into six departments, each of which had a strictly defined range of responsibilities. Some of its functions were transferred to other institutions. The Senate has become the highest judicial institution.

Decree of February 22, 1711 On the establishment of the Governing Senate. Personal decree. On February 22, 1711 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 72, a new state body was established - the Governing Senate. All its members were appointed by the king from among his immediate circle (initially - 8 people). The Senate included the greatest figures of that time. All appointments and resignations of senators took place according to personal royal decrees. The Senate did not interrupt its activities and was a permanent government body. The Senate was established as a collegial body whose competence included: administration of justice, decision financial issues, general issues of managing trade and other sectors of the economy. Thus, the Senate was the highest judicial, administrative and legislative institution that submitted for consideration various questions for legislative permission by the monarch. By decree of April 27, 1722 “On the position of the Senate” Position of the Senate. Personal decree. April 27, 1722 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 77 Peter I gave detailed instructions on important issues of the activities of the Senate, regulating the composition, rights and duties of senators, established the rules for the relationship of the Senate with the collegiums, provincial authorities and the prosecutor general . The normative acts issued by the Senate did not have the supreme legal force of law; the Senate only took part in the discussion of bills and provided interpretation of the law. The Senate led the system government controlled and was the highest authority in relation to all other bodies. The collegiums submitted monthly reports to the Senate on incoming and outgoing cases.

The structure of the Senate developed gradually. Initially, the Senate consisted of senators and the chancellery; later, two departments were formed within it: the Execution Chamber - for judicial affairs (existed as a special department until the establishment of the College of Justice) and the Senate Office for management issues. The Senate had its own office, which was divided into several tables: secret, provincial, discharge, fiscal and order. Before the establishment of the Senate Office, it was the sole executive body of the Senate. The separation of the office from the presence was determined, which operated in three compositions: the general meeting of members, the Execution Chamber and the Senate office in Moscow. The Execution Chamber consisted of two senators and judges appointed by the Senate, who submitted monthly reports to the Senate on current affairs, fines and searches. The verdicts of the Execution Chamber could be overturned by the general presence of the Senate. Its competence was determined by the Senate verdict (09/04/1713), which included: consideration of complaints about the wrong decisions of cases by governors and orders and fiscal reports.

The Senate office in Moscow was established on January 12, 1722. for administration and execution of decrees. It consisted of: a senator, two assessors, and a prosecutor. The main task of the Senate Office was to prevent current affairs of Moscow institutions from being accessed by the Governing Senate, as well as to execute decrees directly received from the Senate, and control the execution of decrees sent by the Senate to the provinces. The Senate had auxiliary bodies, which did not include senators, such bodies were the racketeer, the king of arms, and provincial commissars. In 1720, a position was established under the Senate for the purpose of “receiving petitions” About the racketeer general. Decree from the Senate. February 22, 1722//Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 86, called racketeer master, whose duties included receiving complaints against boards and offices. If they complained about red tape, the racketeer master personally demanded that the case be expedited; if there were complaints about the “unjustice” of the boards, then after considering the case, he reported it to the Senate.

In 1722, he was appointed to the post of Herald Master, whose duties included compiling lists of the entire state, nobles, and ensuring that no more than 1/3 of each noble family was in the civil service.

On March 16, 1711, in connection with the redistribution of the competence of government bodies (after the provincial reform), the Senate introduced the position of provincial commissars, who monitored local, military, financial affairs, recruiting, and maintaining regiments. They were directly involved in the administration of decrees sent by the Senate and collegiums.

The establishment of the Senate was important step folding bureaucratic apparatus absolutism. The Senate was an obedient instrument of autocracy: senators were personally responsible to the monarch, and in case of violation of the oath, they were punished by death, disgrace, removal from office, and monetary fines.

Establishment of the Institute of Fiscals and the Prosecutor's Office in the system of authorities state power in the first quarter of the 18th century. was one of the phenomena associated with the development of absolutism. By decrees of March 2 and 5, 1711 it was supposed to “involve fiscals in all sorts of matters” About fiscals. Personal decree to the Senate. March 2, 1711//Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 131. Fiscalism was created as a special branch of Senate government. The head of the fiscals (Ober-Fiscal) was attached to the Senate, which “was in charge of the fiscals.” At the same time, the fiscals were also the tsar's confidants. The latter appointed the chief fiscal, who took the oath to the king and was responsible to him. The decree of March 17, 1714 outlined the competence of fiscals: to inquire about everything that “may be detrimental to the state interest” Decree on fiscals. And about their position and action. March 17, 1714 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 131; report “malicious intent against the person of His Majesty or treason, indignation or rebellion” Decree on Fiscals. And about their position and action. March 17, 1714 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 132, “Are spies creeping into the state” Decree on fiscals. And about their position and action. March 17, 1714 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 132, as well as the fight against bribery and embezzlement. The basic principle for determining their competence is “collection of all silent cases” Decree on Fiscals. And about their position and action. March 17, 1714//Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 132. The network of fiscals expanded, and two principles for the formation of fiscals gradually emerged: territorial and departmental. By decree of March 17, 1714 it was prescribed that in each province “there should be 4 people, including provincial fiscals from whatever ranks are worthy, also from the merchant class” Decree on fiscals. And about their position and action. March 17, 1714 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 131. The provincial fiscal monitored the city fiscals and once a year “exercised” control over them. In the spiritual department, the organization of fiscals was headed by a proto-inquisitor, in dioceses - provincial fiscals, in monasteries - inquisitors. Over time, it was planned to introduce fiscalism in all departments. After the establishment of the Justice Collegium, fiscal affairs came under its jurisdiction and came under the control of the Senate, and with the establishment of the post of Prosecutor General, the fiscals began to submit to it. In 1723 A fiscal general was appointed, who was the highest authority for fiscals. In accordance with the decrees (1724 and 1725), he had the right to demand any business. His assistant was the chief fiscal.

The first legislative act on the prosecutor's office was the decree of January 12, 1722: “there will be a prosecutor general and chief prosecutor in the Senate, and also in every board of prosecutors...”. And by decree of January 18, 1722 On the establishment of the position of prosecutors in court courts and on the limits of the competence of court courts in cases of denunciations of fiscal people. Personal decree. January 18, 1722 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 133, prosecutors were established in the provinces and court courts. If the fiscals were partially under the jurisdiction of the Senate, then the prosecutor general and chief prosecutors were subject to the court of the emperor himself. Prosecutor's supervision even extended to the Senate. Decree of January 27, 1722 “On the position of the Prosecutor General” The position of the Prosecutor General. Personal decree. January 27, 1722 // Legislation of Peter I. M, 1997. P. 133 established his competence, which included: presence in the Senate and control over fiscal funds. The Prosecutor General had the right to: raise the issue before the Senate to develop a draft decision submitted to the emperor for approval, issue a protest and suspend the case, informing the emperor about it. The board prosecutor was present at board meetings, supervised the work of the institution, controlled finances, reviewed fiscal reports, checked protocols and other documentation of the board.

2.1 Composition and structure of the Senate

The original composition of the Senate did not include representatives of the political elite; rather, they were the largest political figures of that time.

When appointing Senators, Peter I was not guided by origin, rank and rank. Perhaps that is why the position of Senator was not included in the Table of Ranks and was not classified as a class.

In other words, we can say that the basis for staffing the Senate was not the principle of nobility, but competence, length of service and closeness to the king. The Senate is composed of persons of the first three classes; Senators were determined by the direct election of the Imperial Majesty, both from civil and military ranks, and senators were not deprived of their rank and could hold other positions. The exception was the senators of the cassation departments, who could be appointed only from persons who had served for at least three years in the positions of chief prosecutor, his comrade or chairman, member or prosecutor of the judicial chamber.

Initially, it consisted of 9 people: 3 representatives of the titled nobility, 3 members of the Boyar Duma, 3 noblemen. The Senate was headed by the Prosecutor General.

The organizational structure of the Senate included the presence (general meeting) of Senators and the office, which carried out office work. All Senators had equal rights and had to make decisions collectively. Over time, the Senate underwent a number of structural and functional changes, remaining until 1917 the highest administrative, judicial, control and cassation body Russian Empire.

The tsar's decree, issued on April 27, 1722, “On the position of the Senate,” established in detail the procedure for organizing the conduct of affairs in this institution. The case was first listened to carefully and then discussed. The issue was resolved by voting. Those cases “...that are being carried out...” were ordered” ... to be recorded in the protocol and noted in the register.” The secretary recorded the statements of the members of the Senate on each of the issues discussed, and the members of the Senate secured them with their signatures.

The Senate was subject to strict principles of collegiality. “Without the consent of the entire Senate, nothing should be done...” It was strictly punished that “... in the Senate, no business should be conducted verbally, but everything in writing...” So, the Senate was a more perfect body than the Boyar Duma, having strict regulation of its work.

The Office was in charge of office work in the Senate. It was organized by analogy with the offices of the collegiums. The decree of February 19, 1719 “On the organization of the office of the Senate on the model of the State Collegiums” determined its composition: “To be in the Senate the lower ranks against other Collegies, from the clerks of the Senate Secretaries and to manage the affairs of the Secretary alone..., Yes, one translator, a notary from the clerks, to the actuary from the clerks, registrars, clerks.” At the head of the Office was the Chief Secretary. “All governors and voivodes should write to that office about the start of a war, a pestilence, and what are the comments on the orders.” The Office also received petitions, which were in charge of the racketeer master. State affairs decided in the Senate were secured by the signature of the Senate Chief Secretary, who was in charge of the Chancellery and the state seal.

The leadership of the Senate was carried out by the Prosecutor General of the Senate. His position was introduced by Peter I in 1722 and was regulated by the decree “On the position of the Prosecutor General” dated April 27 of the same year. It defined the main functions and responsibilities of the Prosecutor General: “The Prosecutor General is responsible for sitting in the Senate and ensuring that the Senate maintains its position in all matters that are subject to Senate investigation, truly, zealously and decently,” performs its position in accordance with the regulations and decrees, recorded the dates of the decrees and their contents in a special journal, and also indicated in it whether the matter was executed or not. Also, the Prosecutor General “oversaw the activities of all government places in the empire. His instruments were the fiscals subordinate to him, with the chief fiscals at their head.” He received reports from fiscal officials, which he was obliged to submit for discussion in the Senate. The Prosecutor General was also subordinate to the Chancellery with two chief secretaries assigned to him as assistants.

Fiscals. Along with the establishment of the Senate, the establishment of fiscals followed. The main fiscal for the entire state was called the chief fiscal. He had to watch secretly and inspect whether there were any omissions and abuses in the collection of the treasury, whether an unjust judgment was being taken somewhere, and whoever he noticed was untruthful, even if it was a noble person, he should declare before the Senator; If the denunciation turns out to be fair, then one half of the fine collected from the perpetrator went to the treasury, and the other went to the chief fiscal for the discovery of the abuse. Under the authority of the chief fiscal there were provincial fiscals, with the same responsibilities and rights in the provinces as the chief fiscal in the whole state. The latter were under the authority of the city fiscals. The fiscals were supposed to supervise everyone; everyone had to assist them in every possible way - everyone, for their own benefit, was invited to “snitch” Pushkarev A.T., Review of Russian History. M, Knowledge 1991, 161 p. .

The Execution Chamber and the Senate Office. However, in the future, due to the fact that the Senate was the highest national institution with an exceptionally wide field of activity, the need arose to create auxiliary bodies. They were supposed to assist the Senate in carrying out its functions. Thus, the structure of the Senate evolved gradually. It formed two branches: the Execution Chamber - for judicial matters and the Senate Office - for management issues.

Senators of the cassation departments cannot hold any other position in the state or public service. Of the Senators, some are appointed to attend departments, some are present only at general meetings, and some are completely exempt from any activities in the Senate. The latter usually include high dignitaries, members of government. councils, ministers, etc. Main job are borne by the Senators present in the departments. Since the state and political position of an institution is determined by the social position of its members, the position of the Senate depends precisely on these Senators present in the departments. These are almost always persons who held positions of III, sometimes IV class, and their appointment to the Senate is the crown of their career. This disadvantageous position of the Senate among the other highest institutions of the empire greatly paralyzes the power granted to the Senate as the supreme seat of the empire.

The Senate acted in the form of departments, general assemblies and joint presences. Although in some cases the general meetings are, as it were, an authority above the departments, but as a general rule each department has the power to act on behalf of the entire Senate; his decrees “are executed by all places and persons subordinate to him, as the own of the Imperial Majesty, and one Sovereign or his personal decree can stop the Senate command.” The number of departments reached 12. In 1871 and 1876. the Moscow and Warsaw departments of the Senate were abolished. With the spread of the judicial reform of Emperor Alexander II, the judicial departments of the old system (II-V and boundary) were gradually reduced and were merged into one. There are two general meetings of the old Senate: the first, consisting of Senators of the first and second departments and the department of heraldry, the second - of Senators of the judicial department and one of the cassation, criminal or civil, by affiliation. The subjects of the department of these general meetings are: cases transferred from the old departments of the Senate by the highest commands as a result of the most common complaints; cases transferred from departments due to disagreement; cases requiring clarification or addition of laws. From the cassation departments, sometimes with the participation of the first or second, a number of general meetings and joint presences are compiled. In addition to general assemblies and joint presences consisting of Senators of only a few departments, in certain cases the general presence of the entire Senate meets. Each department is composed of Senators appointed at the highest discretion. To supervise the proceedings and (in the old departments) the correctness of decisions in each department, in the general meeting of the cassation departments, in the combined presence of the first and cassation departments and the highest disciplinary presence, the Governing Senate consists of chief prosecutors and comrades. In the department of heraldry, the chief prosecutor is called the herald master. In the general meetings of the old Senate, prosecutorial duties as the Prosecutor General are borne by the Minister of Justice. In each department, in the general meeting of the cassation departments, in the combined presence of the first and civil cassation departments, in the combined presence of the first and criminal cassation departments and in the combined presence of the first and cassation departments, there is an office consisting, under the control of the chief prosecutor, of chief secretaries and their assistants.

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“I thank you for putting things right, in which we must continue to work and prepare everything in advance in a timely manner, since missing the time is like irrevocable death.”

(From a letter from Peter I to the Senate)

Research passport

Title of research work: 300 years of the Governing Senate

Research paper developer: Romanenko Valeria Andreevna, student of class 10 A, MBOU Secondary School No. 18 named after. V.Ya.Alekseeva

Supervisor: Trofimova Nina Nikolaevna

Object of study: Governing Senate

Hypothesis: the creation of the Senate as an advisory body in Russia was a means of strengthening autocratic power, and not weakening it.

Research objectives:

• get acquainted with the history of the formation of the Governing Senate;

• explore its place in the system of government of the Russian Empire.

Relevance:

Studying this issue can help in correctly understanding the role and place of popular representation, including in political system modern Russia. It is urgent to study various forms democracy that existed in our history. The material of this research work can be used in the educational process.

Tasks:

• study the history of the creation and subsequent development of the Senate;
• identify the functions of the Senate, its structure;
• analyze the changes taking place in the Senate when there is a change of ruler in Russia;
• consider the activities of the Senate in various chronological periods;
• draw a conclusion about the significance of the Governing Senate in the Russian Empire.

Introduction

In 1711, namely on February 22, by decree of Peter I, the Governing Senate was established - the highest state institution of the Russian Empire, which became a symbol of Russian statehood. The name “Governing” was assigned to the Senate as a sign of particularly broad powers. The meaning, role and functions of the Senate have changed over time, but the Senate has always remained the main state body of Russia.

2011 is the year of the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Governing Senate.

Social and political situation in Russia. Prerequisites for the creation of the Senate

Since the mid-17th century, the estate-representative monarchy in Russian state gradually turns into an absolute monarchy. The essence of this transition was basically that the convening of Zemsky Sobors ceased. Thus, the last Zemsky Sobor in its entirety was assembled in 1653. The composition of the councils convened later was strictly limited - district nobles and townspeople were no longer invited to the councils.

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the state apparatus was poorly coordinated, cumbersome and ineffective. Almost all the most important spheres of state life did not have a single governing body, with the exception of external relations, which were in charge of the Polish Order. The absence of a single governing body slowed down the process of Europeanization of Russia, which Peter I so strongly strived for.

The highest advisory body was the Boyar Duma, which existed since ancient times. Peter I did not trust the boyars (many of whom were supporters of Sofia Alekseevna), and therefore meetings of the Boyar Duma under him began to be held less and less often, until in 1704 they stopped altogether. In addition, at this time the nobility was strengthening, which in turn saw the strengthening of their positions in the strengthening of autocracy. Thus, the existing system, namely the Boyar Duma and the leading aristocracy, turned out to be unsuited to solving the problems facing the country. This circumstance was one of the main reasons for the reform of the state apparatus.

The Duma was replaced in 1701 by a temporary institution - "Consultation of Ministers"- Council of heads of the most important orders and offices. The Duma was not abolished, but gradually stopped meeting. The council of ministers, unlike the Boyar Duma, met without the tsar and was mainly occupied with carrying out his instructions. This was an administrative council answerable to the king. The Consilia established a strict procedure for work, registration of documents, keeping minutes, and reporting. Each minister was responsible for his own range of responsibilities. This is how the bureaucratization of management took place.

Establishment of the Senate

Emperor Peter I

In 1711, the Council of Ministers was replaced by the Governing Senate. The formal reason for the creation of the Senate was Peter’s upcoming departure to war with Turkey (just before the Prut campaign). It was established by Decree of February 22, 1711, and was originally created as a temporary, emergency supreme body public administration with broad powers during the absence of the king (even legislative ones). However, already from the first decrees on the Senate it is clear that this institution was created not for a short time, but for a long time.

Many researchers of this issue believe that the Prut campaign was only the motive for the establishment of the Senate. From the moment of its establishment until the start of the Prut campaign, four decrees were issued (regulating the activities of the Senate), including: “On the establishment of the Governing Senate”, “On entrusting the government Senate with the responsibility for justice, the organization of state revenues, trade and other sectors of the state economy”, "On the Power and Responsibility of the Senate", “On the procedure for meetings and office work in the Government Senate”.

The establishment by Peter 1 of the Senate for a time (the Prut campaign) would not have implied such careful regulatory regulation. On the contrary, such a thorough approach suggests that Peter 1 established the Senate as a permanent body. Another important reason why Peter 1 established the Senate was an attempt at comprehensive centralization of power or, in other words, modern language, strengthening the vertical of power. The Senate, having broad powers, was completely subordinate to the monarch.

Composition of the Senate

On February 22, 1711, Peter 1 issues a decree “On the establishment of the Governing Senate.” This document determined the personal composition of the Senate: Mr. Prince Mikhailo Dolgoruky, Mr. Plemyannikov, Mr. Prince Grigory Volkonskoy, Mr. Samarin, Mr. Melnitskoy, Chief Secretary of the Senate Onisim Shchukin.

The original composition of the Senate did not include representatives of the political elite; rather, they were the largest political figures of that time.

The three princes mentioned above come from the ancient titled nobility. The rest are from low-ranking families. Three senators were former members of the Boyar Duma (Musin-Pushkin, Streshnev, Plemyannikov). When appointing senators, Peter I was not guided by origin, rank and rank. Perhaps that is why the position of senator was not included in the Table of Ranks and was not classified as a class.

In other words, we can say that the basis for staffing the Senate was not the principle of nobility, but competence, length of service and closeness to the king.

As already mentioned, the Senate originally consisted of nine senators appointed by the sovereign. By paragraph 1 of the decree of December 1718 “On the position of the Senate,” the composition of the Senate was significantly changed. “The Senate should consist of the presidents of the collegiums...” - established by decree. However, this decree was canceled by another decree dated April 27, 1722. It follows from it: “The Senate should consist of secret active and secret councilors, who are now commanded from us and will be commanded in the future, and sit according to rank...” Peter 1 himself admitted that “This was done without first examining it, which must now be corrected”. This decree did not apply to the presidents of the three main collegiums (foreign affairs, military, naval), as well as temporarily to the Berg Collegium, who were left in the Senate by decree of May 16, 1722. The presidents of the collegiums who remained in the Senate were the most trusted persons and those closest to the tsar, whom the emperor wanted to see both in the Senate and in the collegiums. The main reason why the decree of December 1722 was adopted was the fact that, being in the collegiums, senators could not be objective in making decisions on issues under their jurisdiction - "can't judge themselves" The appointment and dismissal of senators took place according to personal decrees. Each newly elected senator had to take an oath. Peter 1 himself personally composed the text of the oath for senators.

Structure and functions of the Senate

Senate and Synod building in St. Petersburg

The competence of the Senate can be judged by two Decrees of Peter, adopted on March 2, 1711: “On the obedience of all to the Senate and its decrees,” where the Tsar threatened disobedient people with the death penalty, calling on them to obey the decrees of the Senate. “as we ourselves, under cruel punishment or even death, depending on our fault”, as well as the Decree “On the functions of the Governing Senate”. The document shows that the Senate was endowed with broad powers: from the moment of its creation, the Senate dealt with issues of legislation, army recruitment, development of trade and industry, and controlled finances.

The Senate, having less powers in comparison with the Boyar Duma, differed favorably from it by greater centralization in the conduct of affairs, expressed in the establishment of the Office, responsible for recording and processing incoming documentation, control over outgoing documentation and the correctness of their execution. The Senate also had special books for registering instructions, books of decrees and regulations. Decrees were divided into two types - those that were temporary and those that had the form of permanent laws. Also, the decrees were divided into Senate decrees and royal decrees given to the Senate. The Senate participated in organizing the government of the country along with the tsar, making proposals for the organization of collegiums.

When Peter's constant absences, which caused the establishment of the Senate, ceased, the question of closing it did not arise. The importance of the Senate was not undermined by the establishment (1718-1720) of the collegiums, despite the fact that their regulations, borrowed from Sweden, where the collegiums were the highest institutions in the state, did not determine the relationship of the collegiums to the Senate.

The centralization of the state apparatus under absolutism required the creation of special control bodies. At the beginning of the 18th century. Two control systems have emerged - the prosecutor's office (headed by the prosecutor general of the Senate) and the fiscal department. Already during the formation of the Senate in 1711, a fiscal was established under it. Fiscal officers were charged with the duty to report on any state, official and other serious crimes and violations of the law in institutions. Their duty was to act as prosecutors in court.

The tsar's decree, issued on April 27, 1722, “On the position of the Senate,” established in detail the procedure for organizing the conduct of affairs in this institution. The case was first listened to carefully and then discussed. The issue was resolved by voting. Those things “...which are happening,...” was ordered “... having written it down in the protocol, mark it in the register”. The secretary recorded the statements of the members of the Senate on each of the issues discussed, and the members of the Senate secured them with their signatures.

The Senate was subject to strict principles of collegiality. “Nothing should be done without the consent of the entire Senate...” It was strictly punished that “...in the Senate, no business is conducted verbally, but everything is in writing...” So, the Senate was a more perfect body than the Boyar Duma, having strict regulation of its work.

The leadership of the Senate was carried out by the Prosecutor General of the Senate. His position was introduced by Peter I in 1722 and was regulated by the decree “On the position of the Prosecutor General” dated April 27 of the same year. It defined the main functions and responsibilities of the Prosecutor General: “The Prosecutor General is obliged to sit in the Senate and watch closely so that the Senate maintains its office in all matters that are subject to Senate investigation, truly, zealously and decently”, performed his position according to regulations and decrees, recorded the dates of decrees and their contents in a special journal, and also indicated in it whether the matter was executed or not. Also, the Prosecutor General “oversaw the activities of all government places in the empire. His instruments were the fiscals subordinate to him, with the chief fiscals at their head.” He received reports from fiscal officials, which he was obliged to submit for discussion in the Senate. The Prosecutor General was also subordinate to the Chancellery with two chief secretaries assigned to him as assistants. The Senate had the following institutions: the Chamber of Execution, the Senate Office in Moscow, the Herald Master, the Racket Master, Provincial Commissars, collegiums and other bodies.

The Senate's decision-making was based on the principle of unanimity. If at least one senator did not agree with the decision of the majority, the case was postponed to a new term. If even with a new consideration the issue could not be resolved, it was transferred to the king for final consideration. Naturally, such a procedure significantly slowed down the resolution of issues, and by a personal decree of 1714, the tsar abolished the principle of unanimity. From then on, cases were decided by the majority, and the opinion of the minority was recorded in the minutes.

Thus, the Senate was the central judicial, military and financial institution, having supreme oversight in these areas and was established as a permanent organ of the state, designed to assist the monarch in governing the country.

Changes in the Senate in the 18th century

After Peter’s return from the campaign on the Prut, the role of the Senate did not change; on the contrary, the staff was increased, a large office was created. The Senate concentrated the management of the affairs of both the provinces and various orders and offices.

Peter I paid great attention to the reform of the Senate. Only the “Position of the Senate” - an instruction that defined the powers, structure and office work of the institution - he rewrote six times! The meaning of Peter I's idea was extremely simple and stemmed from his idealization of the collegial principle in management. He intended to create a kind of super-collegium - a college of collegiums. The senators were to be the presidents of the collegiums, who themselves would form a collegium in the presence of the Senate.

In his opinion, such a structure of the Senate guaranteed the state from all kinds of abuse and made it possible to replace him, the autocrat, at the helm of power during his absence. The high position of the Senate did not relieve him of responsibility; he was completely controlled and accountable to the sovereign. Peter I abolished the old practice of subordinating provinces to the Senate. Now, after the collegiate reform, governors had to submit to the collegiums, that is, the decentralization of war times was over. New scheme government structure looked like this: Senate-collegiums-provinces-districts. The Senate was the highest government body, vested with the trust of the sovereign and at the same time retaining the function of the highest appellate judicial body.

Senators of the Government Senate of the Russian Empire, group photo 1914

However, Peter I's plan to create a collegiate-type supreme trusted body of power, consisting of presidents of colleges, failed. Quite soon it turned out that the presidents were not able to deal with the affairs of their colleges and the affairs of the Senate. Therefore, in 1722, the tsar was forced to abandon his idea, although he retained the very principle of collegiality when discussing matters in the Senate. In the existence of the Senate, Peter I saw the meaning that he had to receive from the local and central apparatus controversial cases that required higher arbitration, coordination between departments and - this is the most important thing - cases that did not have an exact legal norm for their decision. And only if the Senate could not decide the case, it came to the table of the sovereign, the highest legislator, the chief judge, the supreme ruler.

At the same time, Peter I understood that all government system it will not last on a hierarchical structure and the principle of collegiality alone. Experience taught the king not to trust his officials. Therefore, he included a control, independent service in the system of collegiums and the Senate - the Prosecutor General's Office. Peter I saw the key to its successful work in the strict regulation of its activities and independence from the Senate. The Prosecutor General was the top of the pyramid of prosecutors: he had a deputy - chief prosecutor, as well as prosecutors subordinate to him in all boards and judicial bodies. All materials compromising government officials through the system, the procurators had to, without stopping at intermediate links, rise to the top. The Prosecutor General was also subordinate to official secret informers - fiscals, who sat at all levels of government, thanks to which the Prosecutor General was aware of the secret machinations of officials. The Prosecutor General could protest and suspend the decision of any government body, including the Senate. He also had the right to directly report to Peter, which sharply increased the importance of the institution of supervision itself.

Peter came up with a system of control over legal proceedings in 1722. Then he approved the position of racketeer general in the Senate, who collected both complaints from citizens about red tape in the analysis of their cases, and complaints about “wrong decisions,” that is, about violations of laws in the College of Justice. Finally, another “level” of protection government agencies From malfeasance, along with the prosecutor's office and racketeering, the institution of fiscalism, that is, informers in the service of the state, became. It existed since 1711, but only in 1723 Peter rebuilt the entire institution of state informers, establishing a hierarchy of fiscals: provincial-fiscals---fiscals of central institutions and courts---ober-fiscal---general-fiscal with his Fiscal office and direct subordination to the Prosecutor General.

The Supreme Privy Council, established on February 8, 1726, both under Catherine I and especially under Peter II, actually exercised all the rights of supreme power, as a result of which the position of the Senate, especially compared to the first decade of its existence, completely changed. Although the degree of power granted to the Senate, especially during the first period of the council’s reign (decree of March 7, 1726), formally did not undergo any significant changes, and the range of subjects of its department sometimes even expanded, the overall significance of the Senate in the system of state institutions changed very quickly due to one thing is that the supreme privy council became over the Senate. A significant blow to the importance of the Senate was also dealt by the fact that the most influential senators moved to the supreme council.

After the radical change that Peter’s local institutions underwent (1727–1728), the provincial government fell into complete disarray. In this state of affairs, the central institutions, including the Senate at their head, lost all effective power. Almost deprived of the means of supervision and local executive bodies, the Senate, weakened in its personnel, continued, however, to bear on its shoulders the hard work of petty routine government work. Even under Catherine, the title “Governing” was recognized as “indecent” for the Senate and was replaced by the title “High”. The Supreme Council demanded reports from the Senate, prohibited it from making expenses without permission, reprimanded the Senate, and threatened fines.

When the plans of the leaders failed and Empress Anna again “assumed” autocracy, by decree of March 4, 1730, the Supreme Privy Council was abolished, and the Governing Senate was restored to its former strength and dignity. The Senate again concentrated all government in its hands.

In 1731 (November 6), a new institution officially appeared - the cabinet, which had already existed for about a year as the private secretariat of the empress. Through the office, reports from all institutions, including the Senate, went back to the empress.

Although the competence of the Senate was not formally changed, in fact, subordination to the cabinet ministers had a very difficult impact on the Senate even in the first period of the cabinet’s existence (until 1735), when it was primarily concerned with matters of foreign policy. Later, when the cabinet began to extend its influence over internal affairs, such changes brought the Senate to an unprecedented decline. After the decree of June 9, 1735, the actual dominance of the cabinet ministers over the Senate acquired a legal basis. After the death of Anna Ioannovna (October 17, 1740), Biron, Minikh and Osterman were alternately the absolute masters of the office. The cabinet, absorbed in the struggle of parties, had no time for the Senate, the importance of which therefore increased somewhat at this time, which is expressed, among other things, in the appearance of “general discussions” or “general meetings” between the cabinet and the Senate.

On November 12, 1740, the position of court racketeer was established, first to consider the most important complaints against colleges and lower places, and from November 27 of the same year - against the Senate. In March 1741, this position was abolished, but the permission to bring all-subject complaints to the Senate remained in force.

Senate under Elizaveta Petrovna

Elizaveta Petrovna

On December 12, 1741, shortly after ascending the throne, Empress Elizabeth issued a decree abolishing the cabinet and restoring the Governing Senate (before then again called the High Senate) in its former position. The Senate not only became the supreme body of the empire, not subordinate to any other institution, but also was the focus of the court and all internal administration, again subordinating the military and naval colleges. Often, completely uncontrollably, the Senate exercised the functions of supreme power, taking measures of a legislative nature, resolving with its power administrative matters that had previously been subject to the approval of monarchs, and even arrogating to itself the right of self-replenishment. However, the Foreign Collegium remained not subordinate to the Senate. The position of Prosecutor General, which under Elizabeth was occupied almost all the time by Prince Trubetskoy, did not at all suppress the Senate, although it had already acquired great importance in the general structure of internal government, since most of the reports to the Empress (even on the Holy Synod) went through the Prosecutor General. . The establishment of a conference at the highest court (October 5, 1756) at first did little to shake the importance of the Senate, since the conference dealt primarily with matters of foreign policy; but in 1757–1758 The conference begins to constantly interfere in the affairs of internal governance. The Senate, despite its protests, finds itself forced to respond to the requests of the conference and fulfill its demands. By eliminating the Senate, the conference begins to directly communicate with the places subordinate to it.

Senate under Peter III

Peter III, having ascended the throne on December 25, 1761, abolished the conference, but on May 18, 1762 he established a council, in relation to which the Senate was placed in a subordinate position. Further derogation of the importance of the Senate was expressed in the fact that the military and naval collegiums were again removed from its jurisdiction. The Senate's freedom of action in the field of internal governance was severely constrained by the prohibition “to issue decrees that serve as some kind of law or confirmation of previous ones” (1762).

Senate under Catherine II

Catherine II

Upon the accession of Empress Catherine II to the throne, the Senate again became the highest institution in the empire, for the council ceased its activities. However, the role of the Senate in common system public administration is changing significantly: Catherine greatly dropped it due to the distrust with which she treated the then Senate, imbued with the traditions of Elizabethan times. As a general rule, all matters were decided in departments (unanimously) and only in case of disagreement were they transferred to the general meeting. This measure had a very serious impact on the political significance of the Senate: its decrees began to come not from a meeting of all the most dignified people in the state, but only from 3 - 4 persons, with whom it was much easier to take into account. An even more sensitive and tangible damage to the significance of the Senate was caused by the fact that, little by little, matters of real national importance were taken away from it, and only the court and ordinary administrative activities were left to its share. The removal of the Senate from legislation was most dramatic. Previously, the Senate was a normal legislative body; in the vast majority of cases, he also took the initiative for the legislative measures taken. Under Catherine, all the largest of them (the establishment of provinces, charters granted to the nobility and cities, etc.) were developed in addition to the Senate; their initiative belongs to the empress herself, and not to the Senate. Under Catherine, the Senate was left to fill in minor gaps in laws that had no political significance. The importance of the Senate and the extent of its power was further dealt a heavy blow by the establishment of provinces (1775 and 1780). The inconsistency between the institutions of the Senate and the provinces led, firstly, to the fact that matters of the greatest importance could always be reported to the Empress by the governor or governor-general directly, in addition to the Senate, and secondly, to the fact that the Senate was suppressed by minor administrative matters. The Senate suffered the least relative damage in the area of ​​the court. Formally, the Senate was considered the highest judicial authority; and here, however, its significance was diminished, firstly, by the hitherto unprecedented influence that the chief prosecutors and the prosecutor general had on the resolution of cases, and secondly, by the wide acceptance of the most common complaints not only against departments, but also at general meetings Senate.

Senate under Paul I

During the reign of Pavel Petrovich, despite his dislike for Catherine's system, the position of the Senate among state institutions remained almost exactly the same as it was under Catherine. New departments were formed, the affairs of which were not within the purview of the Senate. The restoration of some of the boards abolished under Catherine did not entail the restoration of the previous relations between them and the Senate: these boards were entrusted to the chief directors, who had a personal report to the emperor. The Prosecutor General (Prince Kurakin, then Obolyaninov), concentrating in his office an unprecedented number of cases until then, exercised almost autocratic power in these matters. His pressure on the Senate increased even more. The Senate remained primarily a judicial seat, but even here it was subject to new restrictions: in cases of state property it ceased to be the highest authority (1799); these cases could only be resolved by personal decrees. All restrictions on the right to appeal decisions of departments and the general meeting of the Senate were abolished (1797), as a result of which complaints begin to be filed in almost every case. This caused, despite the most decisive measures to speed up Senate proceedings, a terrible burden on the Senate with judicial cases, which at that time were being considered by all its departments.

Senate from the reign of Alexander I to the end of the 19th century

Alexander I

Three projects were prepared for the coronation of Alexander I (1801). One of them was a project to reorganize the Senate.

The document took quite a long time to prepare, so there were several options. The essence of all of them, however, boiled down to the idea of ​​​​giving the Senate the status of parliament. The Senate was to become the body of the country's supreme leadership, combining executive, judicial, control and legislative functions. Alexander I supported such intentions. However, the project to reorganize the Senate caused a whole storm in the Tsar's circle. The “young friends” of the emperor, having united with Laharpe (Alexander’s teacher), who had arrived in Russia, proved to Alexander the impossibility and harmfulness of any restrictions on autocracy. Therefore, Alexander I had to abandon the idea of ​​​​transforming the Senate into parliament.

But despite this, reforms were carried out in the Senate. On June 5, 1801, a personal decree was issued, in which he ordered the senators to compose a draft for the proper structure of the Senate, showing all its rights and obligations. The result of these meetings was a personal decree of September 8, 1802 on the rights and duties of the Senate.

This document defined the Senate as the "supreme seat of the empire", whose power was limited only by the power of the emperor. Ministers were required to submit annual reports to the Senate, which it could appeal to the sovereign. It was this point, which was greeted with enthusiasm by the top of the aristocracy, that a few months later was the cause of the conflict between the king and the Senate, when there was an attempt to protest the report of the Minister of War, already approved by the emperor. As a result of the conflict, a decree of March 21, 1803 followed, prohibiting the Senate from making representations on newly issued laws. Thus, the Senate was effectively reduced to its previous position. In 1805 it was transformed again, this time into a purely judicial institution with some administrative functions. The main governing body was, in fact, the Committee of Ministers. Although the decree of September 8, 1802 was the result of a serious desire of the emperor and those close to him to raise the importance of the Senate, it did not introduce almost anything new into its organization and its relationship with other institutions: it only restored in memory the rights forgotten and actually destroyed by Paul Catherine's Senate.

At the beginning of 1811, Speransky presented a new project for the reorganization of the Senate. This time Speransky proposed dividing the Senate into two - government and judicial, i.e. separate its administrative and judicial functions. It was assumed that the members of the Judicial Senate were to be partially appointed by the sovereign, and partially elected from the nobility. But this very moderate project was rejected by the majority of members of the State Council, and although the tsar approved it anyway, it was never implemented.

Conclusion

All the activities of Peter 1 were aimed at Europeanizing the state, and the bodies that he established were supposed to serve this idea. The main governing body, as is known, was the Senate. “The idea embodied in the Senate was great and fruitful, but, I must admit, this idea has remained unrealized to this day.” Thus, Senate of Peter 1 as he himself intended, became a strong and obedient instrument of autocracy. By its nature, it was not a body that truly represented the interests of the people, and did not limit the power of the king in any way.

The activities of the Senate were ineffective, primarily due to the excessive breadth of powers. This range of powers determined the increase in the Senate apparatus. The collegial principle, which was the basis for the establishment of the Senate, was only a formality. Corruption was rampant among government officials and they often abused their official positions.

The lack of powers of the Senate in the field of legislative activity was compensated by vesting it with executive, judicial and control functions. In our opinion, the concentration of such powers in the competence of the Senate was not justified, since the Senate did not adequately cope with any function. The Senate, with all the breadth of its powers, was not a legislative body, but only had a legislative function.

A positive development in the activities of the Senate was the fact that it could, if necessary, govern the country in the absence of Peter or, for example, in the event of the death of the monarch in the numerous wars in which he participated.

It can also be said that the development of the Senate was determined by the internal needs of the country, its international position and was historically progressive. The meaning, role and functions of the Senate changed depending on the ruler of the state, the relations of individuals in government circles, the general situation in the state, etc. The Senate acquired its greatest power and prosperity under Peter the Great. Then he again takes a leading position in political life countries under Empress Elizabeth. The Senate acquired final positive changes under Alexander II and remained almost the same until October revolution. Activities to reform the Senate slowed down for some time, but did not stop. Thus, the reform of the Senate continues in modern times- our days.

List of used literature and online sources

1. E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky - Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th century. - M.: MIROS, 1994.

2. E. Anisimov -Imperial Russia. -SPb.:Peter, 2008.

3. In Klyuchevsky - Russian history. Full course of lectures. (Lecture 66)

4. S.M. Soloviev - History of Russia from ancient times. Volume 16.

5. Journal Representative power - XXI century: legislation, comments, problems 2005 - Issue No. 6 (66)

6. Wikipedia site material

On March 5 (February 22), 1711, by decree of Peter Alekseevich, the Government Senate, the highest state body in the Russian state for legislation and public administration, was established. This government body was created by Peter due to constant absences, which often prevented him from engaging in current management affairs. He had done this several times before, in 1706, 1707 and 1710. entrusted cases to several selected associates, from whom he demanded that they, without turning to him for any clarification, decide current issues. The immediate prerequisite for the Senate was preparation for Prut campaign(summer of 1711), when the head of state was busy with the problem of the Russian-Turkish war and could not solve the “turnover” with full dedication. Therefore, the Senate received very broad functions; it was established “in place of His Royal Majesty himself” in the absence of the sovereign. He was supposed to duplicate the power of the king. In a decree of March 2, 1711, Pyotr Alekseevich says: “we have determined the governing Senate, to which everyone and their decrees will be obedient, as we ourselves, under severe punishment, or death, depending on the guilt.” At the same time, the Senate was responsible to the king, who promised severe punishment for unjust deeds.

In 1711 - 1714 The permanent seat of the Governing Senate was Moscow. Only sometimes for a while, as a whole or in the person of several senators, the Senate moved to St. Petersburg. The new capital of Russia became the permanent seat of the Senate in 1714. From that time on, the Senate moved to Moscow only occasionally, in the case of the Tsar’s trips there for a significant period of time. However, part of the Senate chancellery remained in Moscow - the “Office of the Senate Board”. The first senators were Count Ivan Musin-Pushkin, 1st Moscow Governor, boyar Tikhon Streshnev, former Arkhangelsk Governor, Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, Prince Mikhail Dolgorukov, Prince Grigory Plemyannikov, Prince Grigory Volkonsky, Kriegszalmeister General Mikhail Samarin, Quartermaster General Vasily Apukhtin and Nazariy Melnitsky. Anisim Shchukin received the position of chief secretary.

When appointing a senator, as well as for other positions, Peter was guided not by the person’s origin, but by his service suitability. If in the 17th century a representative of a boyar family with the usual consistency overcame the steps of the career ladder and ultimately reached the highest rank, replacing his father, then under Pyotr Alekseevich the right to become a senator was given to persons who had personal dignity. The merits of the ancestors were not of decisive importance. Intelligence, service skills, education, etc. were valued. This new criterion allowed new people to appear in the upper ruling stratum. They owed their entire career to the king. In addition, senators differed from boyars in that a boyar is a rank, and a senator is a position. A person who left the Senate lost the title of senator. Senators were more dependent on the supreme power. This was supposed to increase the official zeal of the senators.

In 1718, presidents of the colleges were included in the Senate. The Senate had to make decisions on requests from the panels that they could not decide on their own due to the lack of precedents. Governors and governors appealed to the Senate over the heads of the collegiums only in exceptional cases: an unexpected attack by enemy troops, the beginning of an epidemic, etc.

At the end of the reign of Peter Alekseevich - in 1721-1722. – The Senate was reorganized, and its activities were streamlined. First of all, the principle of its acquisition was changed. If previously it included all the presidents of the colleges, then Peter admitted that this was “imprudent.” The presidents of the collegiums could not work well immediately at the head of the collegiums and in the Senate. In addition, the Senate, consisting of the presidents of the collegiums, could not closely monitor the activities of central government bodies. According to the decree of April 22, 1722, the Senate was to consist of secret active and privy advisers. As an exception, Peter allowed the appointment of presidents to senators of only the three most important collegiums - the Military, the Admiralty and Foreign Affairs. True, this decree was not properly implemented due to staff shortages. Already in May, a decree was issued that canceled the previous one; the presidents of the colleges, due to the “small number of people in the Senate,” were returned to this body. As a result, Peter began to modernize the Senate not by changing its composition, but by establishing new officials and structural divisions.

Until the death of the emperor, the Governing Senate remained the highest legislative and administrative body of Russia and the supervisory authority in relation to the collegiums subordinate to it. In addition, simultaneously with the establishment of the Senate, the sovereign ordered, instead of the Rank Order, to establish a “rank table under the Senate. Thus, appointment to all military and civilian positions (“writing to ranks”), management of the entire service class of Russia, maintaining lists, conducting reviews and ensuring that nobles did not hide from service came under the jurisdiction of the Senate. In 1721-1722 the discharge table was transformed into a collapsible office, also located under the Governing Senate.

On February 5, 1722, a king of arms was appointed under the Senate, who was in charge of the service class through the king's office. Steward Stepan Kolychev became the first king of arms. The Heraldry Office kept records of nobles, identified among them those fit and unfit for service, and registered ranks and movements of servicemen both according to the levels of the Table of Ranks and from one department to another. Under the special supervision of the kings of arms were nobles evading service, as well as children who were to serve in the future. The office had to collect information about where they received their education - at home or in educational institutions. The responsibilities of the Heraldry Office also included the creation educational institutions for children of “noble and middle-class noble families,” where they were to be taught “economics and citizenship,” that is, civil professions. However, this duty was never realized, like many of Peter’s other undertakings.

The instructions also instructed the Heraldry Office to create coats of arms. For these purposes, the Italian Count Francis Santi was invited, who received the task of “painting” the imperial coat of arms, the coats of arms of all his kingdoms, provinces, cities and noble families. Santi and his assistants during the life of Pyotr Alekseevich made an image of the coat of arms for state seal, as well as the coats of arms of the provinces and 97 coats of arms of the provinces.

The Office of the King of Arms operated most successfully in the area of ​​accounting for the service class. This was due to the primary need to implement this function and the presence of previous structures - the Discharge Order and the discharge table created on its basis in 1711.

Communication between the Senate and the provinces was carried out by commissioners (they were appointed by the governors), two from each region. As the collegiums (central government bodies) developed, they began to serve as an intermediary between the Senate and the provinces.

Simultaneously with the creation of the Senate, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly supervise all matters” and fight against corruption, such as bribes, embezzlement of the treasury, violations in the field of tax collection, etc. Violations were reported to the Senate. If the culprit was actually convicted, then the fiscal received half of the fine, the other part went to the treasury. An order was also given to establish the position of Ober-Fiscal (later General-Fiscal), who was the highest official for the secret supervision of affairs, he had four assistants. The provinces had provincial fiscals, one for each branch of government; The city fiscals were subordinate to them. With the creation of the collegiums, the position of collegiate fiscals appeared, one for each collegium.

In order to stop the constant strife between senators, Peter entrusted supervision of the order of Senate meetings, as well as the function of compliance of Senate decisions with the Code and decrees, to the Prosecutor General (the Prosecutor's Office was established on January 12, 1722). Prior to this, supervision of the deanery of Senate meetings was carried out by Chief Secretary Anisim Shchukin, and then by monthly changing staff officers of the guard. The Chief Prosecutor became the Assistant Prosecutor General in the Senate. Pavel Yaguzhinsky became the first prosecutor general. The Prosecutor General was in direct relations with the sovereign, therefore he brought the Senate closer to the highest authority and at the same time streamlined the proceedings. At the same time, in 1722, Senate offices were established - Senate, Audit and Schismant.

In February 1722, the powers of the reketmeister (reketmeister general) were defined; this word was derived from the German, combining the French requête - “complaint, petition”, and the German Meister. He began to supervise the paperwork in the boards and the course of justice, accepted complaints and petitions about red tape, illegal decisions of the boards and offices. The establishment of this position pursued two main goals: to free the emperor from examining petitions personally submitted to him and to launch a decisive attack on red tape and illegal actions of boards and offices. True, the establishment of this position did not solve the assigned tasks. The tradition was strong and they tried to submit the petition over the head of the racketeering general to the tsar personally. Peter himself wrote that “in many places they dare to beat His Majesty with their foreheads and submit petitions, not giving peace anywhere.” The racketeering general could achieve even less results in the fight against red tape and unfair decisions. The racketeer master had only bureaucratic methods of dealing with bureaucracy: having received a complaint, he had to understand not the substance decision taken, and in the timeliness of the passage of complaints through the authorities, and the adoption of decisions by these authorities. Therefore, the racketeer could not solve the problem of the flow of complaints, both fair and vexatious.

After the death of Peter I, the importance of the Senate decreased, and its functions began to change. Initially, his power was limited by the Supreme Privy Council, and then by the Cabinet of Ministers. The Senate, instead of the Governing One, began to be called the High One. Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, who in her policy tried to follow her father’s course, in 1741 issued a Decree “On the restoration of the power of the Senate in the management of internal state affairs.” However, this did not restore the real importance of the Senate in matters of internal government of Russia. After ministries were established in the Russian Empire in 1802, the Senate retained only the functions of the highest judicial body and supervisory body. In this form, almost without changes, the Senate existed until November 22 (December 5), 1917, when a decree of the Council was issued People's Commissars“On the Court”, which decided “to abolish the existing general judicial institutions, such as: district courts, judicial chambers and the Governing Senate with all departments...”.