home / Self-development/ Activity approach in pedagogy. Systemic, personal, activity-based approaches to pedagogy Activity-based approach

Activity approach in pedagogy. Systemic, personal, activity-based approaches to pedagogy Activity-based approach

Sections: Primary School

Classes: 1 , 2 , 3 , 4

Keywords: activity approach

1. Theoretical justification of the project topic

The essence of the activity approach in pedagogy

In the most general form The activity approach means the organization and management of the student’s purposeful educational activities in the general context of his life activity - the direction of interests, life plans, value orientations, understanding of the meaning of education and upbringing, personal experience in the interests of developing the student’s subjectivity.

The activity approach, in its primary focus on the formation of the child’s subjectivity, seems to compare in functional terms both spheres of education - teaching and upbringing: when implementing the activity approach, they equally contribute to the formation of the child’s subjectivity.

At the same time, the activity approach, implemented in the context of the life of a particular student, taking into account his life plans, value orientations and his other parameters of the subjective world, is essentially a personal-activity approach. Therefore, it is quite natural, in order to comprehend its essence, to distinguish two main components - personal and activity.

Basic concepts of the activity approach

Human activity is a special important form of activity, as a result of which the material included in the activity is transformed (external objects, the internal reality of a person), the activity itself is transformed and the one who acts, that is, the subject of the activity, is transformed. The most in-depth explorer of problems mental activity in their unity with the problems of pedagogy V.V. Davydov noted: “Not all manifestations of vital activity can be classified as activity. Genuine activity is always associated with the transformation of reality.” Let's add: external or internal for a person. Naturally, one cannot classify as an activity such a form of activity as dreams or fantasies. The variety of types of activity (and this primarily relates to internal activity and the corresponding category) is reflected by such concepts as “spiritual activity”, “interaction”, “communication”, “goal setting as an activity”, “meaning-forming activity”, “life creativity as an activity " The activity of a teacher who manages and organizes the activities of pupils is reflected in the category “meta-activity”, or “supra-subject activity”. The need to maintain such a category is due to the fact that the teacher, as it were, rises above all the types and forms of activity available to him and his pupils, assimilates them at a professional level in order to effectively use them in the interests of educating pets as subjects in activity and life in general. Thus, education appears as an activity for organizing other types of activities, in which the teacher himself is no less educated. Some authors refer the category of meta-activity to the description of a student’s personal life activity. What is meant here is the fact that the student himself organizes his activities and finds his own meaning in it, thereby transforming his own value-semantic sphere. Education in this understanding appears as a meta-activity for the pupil to transform his value-semantic sphere through self-organization of activity.

Principles as an integral part of the activity approach
The specific principles of the activity approach are the following:

the principle of subjectivity of education;
the principle of accounting for leading activities and the laws of their change;
the principle of taking into account age periods of development;
the principle of mandatory effectiveness of each type of activity;
the principle of high motivation for any type of activity;
the principle of mandatory reflection of all activities;
the principle of moral enrichment of activities used as a means;
the principle of cooperation in organizing and managing various types of activities.

The activity approach to learning is the implementation of the conclusion psychological science: knowledge is acquired by the subject and is manifested only through his activities; The learning process should be based on a gradual complication of the content, methods, and nature of students’ activities.

The technology of the activity method is a tool that allows you to solve the problem of changing the objectives of education - from formative to developmental, i.e. building an educational space in which students’ activity abilities are effectively developed. Today it is necessary to master not just one of the educational technologies within the framework of the old method, as happened before, but it is required change the method itself– move from explaining new knowledge to organizing the “discovery” of it by children. This means changing the teacher’s worldview and the usual ways of his work.

The activity method in the system of developmental education allows you to achieve the goal - readiness for self-development. Educational technology of the activity approach allows:

achieve your goals in a specific academic subject;
ensure the implementation of the main directions of the pedagogical strategy: humanization, democratization, continuity, personality-oriented approach;
focus on the development of creative activity.

Preparing and conducting activity-oriented lessons is one of the most pressing problems for teachers today.
The didactic system was developed by the “School 2000...” Association:

Let's compare traditional (explanatory) and activity-based methods of teaching.

Mechanisms for organizing the educational process
in traditional and activity-based teaching methods

Explanatory way training	Activity Components	Active way training
Set by the teacher, can be declared by the person replacing him (high school student)	1. Target- model of the desired future, expected result	In the process of problematization, students internally accept the goal of the upcoming activity.
External motives for activity are used	2. Motives- incentives for activity	Reliance on internal motives of activity
Selected by the teacher, familiar ones are often used, regardless of the goal	3. Facilities- the ways in which activities are carried out	Joint selection with students of a variety of teaching tools that are adequate for the purpose
Invariant actions provided by the teacher are organized	4. Actions- the main element of activity	Variability of actions, creating a situation of choice in accordance with the student’s capabilities
The external result is traced, mainly the level of knowledge acquisition	5. Result- material or spiritual product	The main thing is internal positive personal changes in the learning process
Comparison of the obtained result with generally accepted standards	6. Grade- criterion for achieving the goal	Self-assessment based on the application of individual standards of achievement

As we see, with the explanatory-illustrative method of teaching, the activity is set by the teacher from the outside, and therefore most often is not perceived by schoolchildren and becomes indifferent to them, and sometimes undesirable. All components of the activity are in the hands of the teacher; the student’s personality is not represented here; moreover, it can also be perceived as something that inhibits the teacher’s actions. The teacher organizes his activities, broadcasts the finished content, monitors and evaluates its assimilation. The student’s responsibilities include only carrying out the reproductive actions suggested by the teacher.

The activity-based method of teaching is based on the student’s personal involvement in the process, when the components of the activity are directed and controlled by him. The educational process takes place in conditions of motivated inclusion of the student in cognitive activity, which becomes desirable, attractive for schoolchildren, and brings satisfaction from participation in it. The student himself operates with educational content, and only in this case is it assimilated consciously and firmly, and the process of development of the student’s intellect also takes place, the ability for self-learning, self-education, and self-organization is formed. This method of teaching ensures a comfortable psychological well-being for teachers and students and a sharp reduction in conflict situations in the classroom. Favorable preconditions are being created for increasing the level of general cultural training of schoolchildren and developing their creative potential. A psychologically well-organized learning process provides the opportunity to form a different type of personality: a knowledgeable, sociable, reflective person, capable of self-development.

Solving the main problems associated with procedural internal changes in educational process, assumes the following:

active inclusion of the student himself in search educational and cognitive activities, organized on the basis of internal motivation;
organization of joint activities, partnerships between teachers and students, inclusion of children in pedagogically appropriate educational relationships in the process educational activities;
ensuring dialogical communication not only between the teacher and students, but also between students in the process of acquiring new knowledge.

Therefore, in every lesson it is necessary to strive to ensure that the student is aware target upcoming activity (the goal is the main component of the activity, which is defined as the expected result);
understood and internally accepted motives cognitive activity related to the process of cognition itself and its result (internal motives educational activities, specifying the need for educational activities, they orient children towards ways of obtaining knowledge, and not towards results); given the opportunity choice of means in the process of carrying out cognitive activity (students often, during a properly organized educational lesson, ask the teacher for permission to discuss the problem that has arisen in a microgroup, turn to dictionaries, reference books, a textbook, if all other possibilities have been exhausted, ask to postpone the consideration of the issue to the next lesson so that the possibility of discussing it at home with parents, etc.); provided the ability to independently perform educational activities, even if it is erroneous (the implementation of the motives and goals of educational activity is carried out in the process of the student performing a system of educational actions: schoolchildren initially do not know how to independently set educational tasks and carry out actions to solve them, until a certain time the teacher helps them in this, but gradually they acquire the corresponding skills themselves students; the richness of mastered actions and the flexibility in their application largely determine the degree of difficulty for the student in learning activities); a situation has been created in which the student has the opportunity to see the individual result achieved, maintain it, rejoice in what has been achieved, produce it self-esteem.

In this case, personal mastery of knowledge from cramming and annoying repetitions turns into a process of intensive mental development, thanks to which the child’s thinking capabilities are significantly expanded. This is the schoolchild’s main path to self-awareness (a person’s knowledge of himself) and the development of his intellect.

2. Relevance of the project

Emphasis in the development of pedagogical technologies in all developed countries The world is focused on teaching the ability to independently obtain the necessary information, identify problems, set tasks, find ways to solve them rationally, analyze the knowledge gained and apply it in practice. Solving these problems is possible by organizing the educational process based on an activity-based approach to teaching.

3. Research apparatus

The apparatus for studying the problem of implementing the activity approach in teaching class students is determined by the content of the project. These are: analysis of literature on the project problem; study and generalization of pedagogical experience in the field of implementation of activity approach technology; modeling; survey; observation.

The purpose of the study is to create a model of a new promising adaptive class as the most responsive to changing social and pedagogical conditions based on the implementation of activity approach technology

Object of study - educational process.

The subject of the study is the pedagogical conditions for using the activity approach technology in the educational process.

The course of the research was determined as follows hypothesis: a significant relationship between the content and nature of the educational process, focused on self-determination of the student’s personality, and the level of management of this process suggests that effective results are possible if:

developed pedagogical foundations management of the educational process, including the theoretical aspect;
modeling the educational process on an activity approach - and the organizational and pedagogical aspect;
content, forms and methods of constructing the educational process using activity-based approach technology;

In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, the following is stated in the work: tasks:

1. Study and analyze the problem of the child’s readiness to learn.

2. Clarify and specify the concepts of “technology of the activity approach”, “quality of education”.

3.Carry out modeling of class development.

4. Develop pedagogical foundations for managing the educational process, built on the basis of an activity approach.

5. To improve the teacher’s qualifications in order to be included in innovative activities to introduce the activity approach technology in teaching.

4. Expected result
I stage:

Creation of a solid base of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the transition to basic school;
The content of the training should promote the development of curiosity and interest, awareness of the need for the material being studied, and intellectual satisfaction received from the learning process;
The teacher introduces students to the sphere of the educational subject, creates an atmosphere of emotional involvement, arousing interest in the subject, lays the foundations of systemic knowledge, works out the technique of performing activities when solving various educational problems (i.e., teaching how to learn), ensuring the success of his school career in the future. the release itself);
Gradual increase in cognitive tasks with mandatory achievement of state standards at the finish line;
Developing personality, protecting the individuality of students, teaching them to recognize themselves as members of a single team successfully problem solver training and education.

5. Implementation of the activity approach in educational practice

The goals of the educational and educational systems of the classroom will be achieved through the use of activity technologies.

Main tasks of the class.
Objectives are determined in three areas of the educational process.

1. Development tasks.

Determine the content of education in primary school (grades 1–4) of a developmental, general nature. Conduct developmental training in the teaching and learning complex “School 2000”
Create conditions for identifying, developing and realizing students’ abilities;
Develop cognitive and research skills of schoolchildren, encourage creative activity of students
Develop the ability to set goals, plan work, work and achieve results, analyze and evaluate your activities.

2. Learning objectives.

Ensure that all students achieve the mandatory minimum education content requirements in the educational areas of the basic curriculum.
Using the opportunity of the innovative program of developmental education for grades 1–4 according to the educational educational complex “School 2000”, various local innovations to improve the quality of education for schoolchildren at the subject level;
To increase the level of formation of “universal learning actions” that ensure the “ability to learn.”
Provide every student with the opportunity to receive additional education in accordance with your interests.

3. Tasks of education.

Raising a viable personality through physical education and recreation using forms and methods of health-saving technologies.
To develop the ability to perceive the world emotionally and with values.
Instill self-organization skills.
To educate a citizen, a patriot based on universal human values.

(to the study of the psyche) - 1) the principle of studying the psyche, which is based on the category of objective activity developed by K. Marx (M.Ya. Basov, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev and their students);) theory that considers psychology as a science about the generation, functioning and structure of mental reflection in the processes of individual activity (A.N. Leontyev).

ACTIVITY APPROACH

1. The activity-based approach to psychological correction was formed primarily in the domestic psychological school; involves correction through the organization of special training, during which the client masters psychological means that allow control and management of internal and external activity to be realized at a new level. Mastery of an external action and its subsequent internalization - a transition to an internal, ideal plane - is often practiced. This approach is an alternative to the behavioral approach, focusing not on getting rid of the symptom as such, but on building new internal systems.

Activity approach to the study of the psyche:

1. The principle of studying the psyche on the basis of the category of objective activity developed by K. Marx.

2. A theory that considers psychology as a science about the generation, functioning and structure of the reflection of the psyche in the activities of individuals. The initial method of studying the psyche is the analysis of transformations of the reflection of the psyche in the course of activity studied in its development - phylogenetic, historical, ontogenetic and functional (-> phylogeny; ontogenesis).

Basic principles of the activity approach:

1) principles of development, historicism, objectivity;

2) the principle of activity, including supra-situational activity as a specific feature of the human psyche;

3) the principle of interiorization-exteriorization as mechanisms for assimilating socio-historical experience;

4) the principle of unity of structure of external and internal activities;

5) the principle of analyzing the systemic psyche;

6) the principle of dependence of mental reflection on the place of the reflected object in the structure of activity.

In the context of the activity approach, the criteria for the emergence of the psyche and the stages of development of the psyche in phylogenesis are highlighted; views developed:

1) about the activity of the leader as the basis and driving force for the development of the psyche in ontogenesis;

2) about assimilation as a mechanism for image formation;

3) about the structure of activity - activity, action, operation, psychophysiological functional systems;

4) about meaning, personal meaning and sensory tissue as forming consciousness;

5) about the hierarchy of personal motives and meanings as units of personality structure.

The activity approach acts as a specific scientific methodology for developmental, educational, engineering, medical, etc. psychology.

ACTIVITY APPROACH

in psychology (English activity approach) - a set of theoretical, methodological and concrete empirical studies in which the psyche and consciousness, their formation and development are studied in various forms ah of the subject’s objective activity, and among some representatives of D. p. the psyche and consciousness are considered as special forms (types) of this activity, derived from its externally practical forms. The prerequisites for dynamic psychology took shape in Russian psychology in the 1920s. They were: 1) the need for a new methodological orientation capable of leading psychology out of the crisis that began in the 1910-1920s; 2) a shift in the topic of domestic psychology from laboratory studies of abstract laws of consciousness and behavior to the analysis of various forms of work activity; 3) the historically conditioned appeal of psychologists to the philosophy of Marxism, in which the category of activity is one of the central ones. In the 1930s there are 2 most developed options for D. p., presented by research psychological schools S. L. Rubinshtein, on the one hand, and A. N. Leontyev, on the other. Currently, both variants of D. p. are being developed by their followers not only in our country, but also in Western European countries, as well as in the USA, Japan and Latin American countries.

The works of Rubinstein in the 1930s played a major role in the methodological substantiation of dynamic psychology, where he formulated the fundamental theoretical principle of dynamic psychology - the unity of consciousness and activity. In parallel, Leontyev and other members of the Kharkov school are theoretically and experimentally developing the problem of the common structure of external and internal activities. The differences between the two variants of D. p. were clearly formulated in the 1940-50s. and affect mainly 2 circles of problems. 1. This is a problem in the subject of psychological science. From view Rubinstein, psychology should study not the activity of the subject as such, but “the psyche and only the psyche,” however, through the disclosure of its essential objective connections and mediation, including through the study of activity. Leontyev, on the contrary, believed that activity must inevitably be included in the subject of psychology, since the psyche is inseparable from the moments of activity that generate and mediate it, moreover: it itself is a form of objective activity (according to P. Ya. Galperin, indicative activity).

2. The disputes concerned the relationship between external-practical activity itself and consciousness. According to Rubinstein, one cannot talk about the formation of “internal” mental activity from “external” practical activity through interiorization: before any interiorization, the internal (mental) plan is already present. Leontyev believed that interior plan consciousness is formed precisely in the process of interiorization of initially practical actions that connect a person with the world of human objects. At the same time, he argued that when solving the problem of the unity of consciousness and activity, Rubinstein did not go beyond the dichotomy he criticized: consciousness is still considered not in an “activity key”, but as “experiences”, “phenomena”, as “internal “, and activity appears as something fundamentally “external”, and then the unity of consciousness and activity appears only as a postulated unity, but unprovable. Leontiev proposed his own version of “removing” this dichotomy: the real opposition is the opposition between image and process (the latter can exist in both external and internal forms). The image and the process are in unity, but the leading one in this unity is the process that connects the image with the reflected reality (for example, generalizations are formed in the process of real practical “transfer” of one method of action to other conditions). Hence Leontiev’s introduction of the concepts “consciousness-image” and “consciousness-process”, consideration of the relationship between which is largely a matter for the future.

Specific empirical developments of the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity in dynamic psychology (with all the differences in its theoretical understanding) can be divided conditionally into 6 groups according to forms mental development:

1) in phylogenetic studies, the problem of the emergence of mental reflection in evolution and the identification of stages of mental development of animals depending on their activity was developed (A. N. Leontyev, A. V. Zaporozhets, K. E. Fabry, etc.);

2) in historical and anthropological research, in a specific psychological sense, the problem of the emergence of consciousness in the process of human labor activity was considered (Rubinstein, Leontiev), the psychological differences between human tools and auxiliary means of activity in animals (Halperin);

3) sociogenetic studies examine differences in the relationship between activity and consciousness in different historical eras and different cultures (A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, M. Cole, representatives of Critical Psychology, etc.), but the problem of the sociogenesis of consciousness is not yet sufficient developed in D. p.;

4) from the most numerous ontogenetic studies in line with dynamic psychology, independent activity-oriented theories arose (the theory of periodization of mental development in ontogenesis by D. B. Elkonin, the theory of developmental learning by V. V. Davydov, the theory of the formation of perceptual actions by A. V. Zaporozhets and etc.);

5) functional genetic studies based on the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity (the development of mental processes in short time periods) are represented by the works of not only the schools of Leontiev and Rubinstein, but also other famous psychologists (B. M. Teploe, B. G. Ananyev, A. A. Smirnov, N. A. Bernshtein, etc.);

6) patho- and neuropsychological studies of the collapse of higher mental functions and the role specific forms activities in their restoration (A. R. Luria, E. D. Khomskaya, L. S. Tsvetkova, B. V. Zeigarnik, etc.).

Within the framework of the listed areas of research in dynamic psychology, a number of the most important theoretical problems of psychology were developed, including: the problem of the macro- and microstructure of human activity (activity - action - operation - functional block), the problem of the structure of consciousness-image (sensory tissue, meaning, personal meaning), the problem of interiorization as the most important mechanism for the formation of consciousness, the problem of periodization of mental development using the concept of “leading activity” developed in D. P., etc. Based on the general psychological ideas of D. P., activity-oriented theories are being developed in various branches of psychology (social, child psychology, pathopsychology, etc.). (E. E. Sokolova.)

Ed. Addition: In the situation of the Sov. “ideological community”, when not only many scientific directions, but entire branches and even sciences began to be prohibited, Rubinstein and Leontyev acted quite witty and wisely, giving psychology “for preservation” to the philosophical category of activity, unceremoniously privatized by Marxism. Psychologists, for whom the category of activity did not fit, hid behind Lenin’s “theory of reflection” (and the mirror poses as a know-it-all. - O. Mandelstam). The category of activity served for Rubinstein and Leontyev as a kind of reserve, a reservation, a means of ideological defense of psychology and its survival as a science. The psyche was either identified with activity, or activity acted as practically the only explanatory means, a synonym for the so-called. the principle of determinism of the entire psyche. As a result, psychology found itself within a relatively safe environment, from an ideological point of view. circle of activity and/or “circle of reflection”, which allowed it to exist. Both, especially Leontiev, did not write the most in simple language, which closed the entrance to the territory of the village for laymen. They discussed private matters with each other. Under the protection of D. p., a number of remarkably philosophical and ideologically carefree scientists conducted psychological research. The real subject of their work was not activity as such, but some special types of it, and even then not in full, for example, play, education, work, sports. In their study, the conceptual apparatus of D. p. was used and developed. It was proposed big number conceptual frameworks for activity analysis, none of which have clear advantages over others.

The main achievement of dynamic psychology is that within its framework a productive direction has been formed - the psychology of action, which represents the quintessence of dynamic psychology (see E. G. Yudin). Sensory, perceptual, objective, performing, mnemonic, mental, affective and other actions, as well as their structural components: motives, goals, tasks, methods of implementation and conditions for implementation were studied.

The reduction of the psyche to action turned out to be no worse, and in many ways better, than the reduction of the psyche to reflexes, reactions, associations, gestalts, behavior, reflection, cognition, experience, humanism, neurons. The listed forms of reduction are still alive.

Assessing D.'s claims to the creation of a psychological theory, we have to admit that they are excessive. The activity itself needs explanation. On the path from consciousness, personality, soul, spirit to activity, psychology takes its first steps. Now psychology must repay its debt and take “for preservation” the D. p., of course, releasing its consciousness, freeing itself from slavish dependence on it, from complete identification of itself with it. See also Activities as methodological problem psychology. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

Definition 1

The activity approach (or, in other words, activity theory) is the approach developed by Soviet psychologists A. N. Leontyev and S. L. Rubinstein based on the cultural-historical approach of L. S. Vygotsky in the 30s of the 20th century.

It should be noted that the approach was developed by scientists in parallel and independently of each other, however, due to the commonality of the theories on which they relied (Vygotsky’s approach and the philosophical theory of Marx), many similarities can be traced in their theories.

Rubinstein's approach

The main thesis of the activity approach: activity determines consciousness (and not vice versa). The theory is a system of methodological and theoretical principles on the basis of which the authors propose to consider the psyche and, in particular, consciousness. Activity acts as a subject of research and, according to this theory, mediates all basic mental processes.

Based on this thesis, Rubinstein put forward the principle of “unity of consciousness and activity,” according to which consciousness and the psyche as a whole are formed in the process of activity and are manifested in human activity. Activity in this context acts not as a set of specific reactions to external stimuli, but as a system regulated by consciousness. Consciousness, in turn, is described by him not as a certain subjective reality for knowing oneself, but as something that can be known only through a relationship to objective reality, including through activity. Thus, activity and consciousness are formed and developed in organic unity and are not identical to each other. Consciousness is both a prerequisite and condition for any action (motive, direction), and the result of this action, expressed in skills, habits, abilities, etc.

Rubinstein's approach is also called the subject-activity approach, since the author considers it exclusively in the context of the relationship between activity and subject:

“The subject in his actions is not only revealed and manifested; it is created and determined in them. What he does defines what he is; the direction of his activity can determine and shape him.”

Leontiev's approach

A.N. Leontyev, in turn, was engaged in developing the structural features of external and internal activities and their relationship. His principle was developed jointly with other representatives of the Kharkov psychological school.

According to Rubinstein, activity is a certain set of actions aimed at achieving goals set by consciousness. Leontyev expands and clarifies this understanding:

“Consciousness does not simply “manifest and form” in activity as a separate reality - it is “built-in” into activity and is inseparable from it.”

As a result of the study of activity in inextricable connection with consciousness, it was possible to identify the following properties of activity:

Item property psychological research(the ability to cognize activity as an independent phenomenon that reveals the inner world of a person).
Explanatory property (in the process of studying activity, mental content is learned as its result).

The inseparability of the study of activity and personality (subject) is also due to the fact that activity as such is not a simple reaction, but manifests a certain attitude to reality, which automatically includes the personal characteristics of a person in the problem of studying activity.

Leontiev’s merit can also be considered in the fact that he raised the question of the development of the psyche in phylogenesis, trying to explain the origin of the psyche in the animal world. To do this, he expanded his principle of the unity of consciousness and activity to a more general principle - the principle of the unity of activity and psyche in its various forms. In this regard, he divided activity into three structural units, each of which is associated with certain conditions of consciousness:

Activity-Action-Operation
Motive – Purpose – Conditions

That is, activity consists of actions, and those in turn consist of operations. The driving force of activity is motive, action is goal, and operations depend on the conditions under which they are performed. At the same time, activity as a complex structure is, as a rule, multimotivated, that is, it can be motivated by several motives.

Note 1

The components of an activity (actions and operations) are dynamic and transform into each other. In other words, what is an action today can develop into an independent activity tomorrow. For example, if a student reads a book to prepare for exams, then this is an action to achieve the goal. However, if he gets carried away and continues to read “for himself,” then this action will develop into activity. Leontiev calls this phenomenon “shift of motive to goal.”

Activities

Analyzing the work of Leontiev and Rubinstein on activity theory, we can classify it according to several criteria

By direction:
- to objects outside world;
- on another person;
- on yourself.
By subject of activity:
- Gaming;
- Educational;
- Labor and other

Subsequently, D.B. Elkonin introduced the concept of “leading activity” - activity provoked by the most significant motive in a given period of life or for a given individual.

Introduction.

The main idea of the activity approach in education is associated not with the activity itself as such, but with activity as a means of formation and development of the child’s subjectivity. That is, in the process and as a result of using forms, techniques and methods of educational work, what is born is not a robot trained and programmed to clearly perform certain types of actions and activities, but a Human being who is able to choose, evaluate, program and design those types of activities that are adequate to his nature, satisfy his needs for self-development and self-realization. Thus, the common goal is seen as a Man who is able to transform his own life activity into a subject of practical transformation, relate to himself, evaluate himself, choose the methods of his activity, control its progress and results.

The activity approach to educating a growing person in a directly practical aspect has its origins going back to the depths of history. The human-creating, personality-creating, ennobling functions of activity, initially realized only in the form of productive labor, were appreciated at the dawn of human culture and civilization. Labor as a material transformative objective activity was the primary reason and prerequisite for the separation of man from nature, the formation and development in the course of history of all human qualities. Human activity, taken as a whole, in the fullness of its types and forms, gave birth to culture, resulted in culture, itself became culture - the environment that grows and nourishes the personality. Such an assessment of the role of activity and, in particular, labor was first carried out within the framework of German classical philosophy. It was adopted by Marxism, and is also adhered to by modern domestic humanities, the subject of which in one aspect or another is activity. Psychology and pedagogy - in particular.

The formation of the activity approach in pedagogy is closely related to the emergence and development of ideas of the same approach in psychology. The psychological study of activity as a subject was started by L.S. Vygotsky.

The foundations of the active approach in psychology were laid by A.N. Leontiev. He proceeded from the distinction between external and internal activities. The first consists of specific actions for a person with real objects, carried out by moving the arms, legs, and fingers. The second occurs through mental actions, where a person does not operate with real objects and not through real movements, but uses for this their ideal models, images of objects, ideas about objects. A.N. Leontiev considered human activity as a process as a result of which the mental “in general” arises as a necessary moment. He believed that internal activity, being secondary in relation to external activity, is formed in the process of interiorization - the transition of external activity into internal activity. The reverse transition - from internal to external activity - is designated by the term “exteriorization”.

Absolutizing the role of activity, especially external activity, in the formation of personality, psychological “in general,” A. N. Leontiev proposed putting the category “activity” at the basis of the construction of all psychology. Developmental and educational psychology and school pedagogy in general were built on this theoretical foundation. Thus, the theoretical position of A.N. Leontiev, which was based on the scheme of formation of the child’s psyche in the form of “interiorization - exteriorization,” was the starting point and foundation for the emergence in pedagogical practice and theory of not only the activity-based approach to teaching and upbringing, but also the general strategies for building an education system in the form of a labor and polytechnic school. Into the new provisions of his theory A.N. Leontyev outlined in the book “Activity. Consciousness. Personality."

However, subsequent studies, especially by opponents of A.N. Leontyev, showed the inappropriateness of singling out activity as the only basis and source of development of the human psyche. The inner world, the subjectivity of the child begins, arises, and is formed not at all from objective grounds and not on any one basis, be it communication, activity, consciousness. The history of culture also shows that activity is not the only and exhaustive basis of human existence; if the basis of activity is a goal formulated consciously, then the basis of the goal itself lies outside of activity - in the sphere of human motives, ideals and values, expectations, claims, and so on.

Research by S.L. Rubinstein made serious adjustments to ideas about the mechanisms of formation of a child’s subjectivity in the process of activity. He showed that any external causes, and activity in the first place, act on the child directly, but are presented through internal conditions. The child’s psyche is extremely selective.

Humanistic psychology took an even more decisive step towards correcting the theory of internalization. In accordance with her ideas, the mental development of a child is carried out not according to the formula “from social to individual” (or even more generally from external to internal) and not only by assimilating external circumstances through internal conditions. The position of humanistic psychology is more radical: the development of a child has its own internal laws, its own internal logic, and is a passive reflection of the reality in which this development takes place. The concepts of internal logic of development, which are key to humanistic psychology, capture the fact that a person, acting as a self-regulating object, in the process of his life acquires such properties that are clearly predetermined neither by external circumstances, including external activity, nor by internal conditions, including internal activities. In accordance with this view, an indispensable condition for the effectiveness of education in the context of the activity approach is reliance on the child’s own strengths, on the internal logic of his development, on that layer of human existence that is called the spirit. The same look at the mechanism of formation and formation of a child’s subjectivity allows us to see the Activity-based approach to education as a personality-oriented approach.

Objective activity increasingly appears not only as an immediate cause, but mainly as a necessary condition, a prerequisite for the formation of thinking, consciousness, and subjectivity in general. For a teacher, a child - a subject of educational, cognitive, educational activity - is seen as an activity-based integrity, as a certain variety of properties, states, qualities, the unity of which is achieved in the main types of activity - in work, communication, cognition, in the self-education of one’s inner world. Activity already acts as an integrating basis of mental properties and functions. In the light of such ideas about human activity, an activity approach in pedagogy is currently being developed.

The essence of the activity approach in pedagogy.

In its most general form, the activity approach means the organization and management of the student’s purposeful educational activities in the general context of his life activity - the direction of interests, life plans, value orientations, understanding of the meaning of education and upbringing, personal experience in the interests of developing the student’s subjectivity.

The activity approach to education in the totality of components is based on the idea of the unity of the individual with his activity. This unity is manifested in the fact that activity in its diverse forms directly indirectly carries out changes in the structures of the personality; the personality, in turn, simultaneously directly and indirectly selects adequate types and forms of activity and transformations of activity that satisfy the needs of personal development.

The essence of education from the point of view of the activity approach is that the focus is not just on activity, but on the joint activity of children with adults in the implementation of jointly developed goals and objectives. The teacher does not provide ready-made examples of moral and spiritual culture, he creates and develops them together with younger comrades, a joint search for the norms and laws of life in the process of activity and constitutes the content of the educational process, implemented in the context of the activity approach.

The educational process in the aspect of the activity approach is based on the need to design, construct and create a situation of educational activity. They, leaving part of the educational process and the realization of the student’s existence, social life as a whole, are characterized by the unity of the activities of educators and students. Situations are created in order to combine the means of teaching and education into unified educational complexes that stimulate the versatile activities of modern man. Such situations make it possible to regulate the child’s life activity in all its integrity, versatility and literacy, and thereby create conditions for the formation of the student’s personality as a subject of various types of activities and his life activity in general.

The situation of educational activity should contain: social factors that initiate the emergence of various spiritual needs and the formation of motives for socially useful and personally significant creative activity, requiring continuous reflection; the possibility and necessity of carrying out various types of such activities that require creativity, a continuous search for new tasks, means, actions, volitional acts of subjects of activity, communication, an active life position, integrity, cognition in defending one’s views, selfless risk, excess activity, readiness not only to follow towards the intended goal, but also to construct new, more interesting and productive goals and meanings already in the process of activity. Organizing the situation of educational activities was an established practice of the Soviet school. Such situations were most fully represented by Timur's movements.

The activity approach focuses on sensitive periods of schoolchildren’s development as periods during which they are most “sensitive” to language acquisition, mastering methods of communication and activity, objective and mental actions. This orientation necessitates a continuous search for appropriate content of training and education, both substantive and identical, symbolic in nature, as well as appropriate methods of teaching and education.

The activity approach to education takes into account the nature and laws of changing types of leading activity in the formation of a child’s personality as the basis for the periodization of child development. The approach in its theoretical and practical foundations takes into account scientifically substantiated provisions that all psychological new formations are determined by the leading activity carried out by the child and the need to change this activity.

The activity-based approach to education is implemented in line with the key idea of modern pedagogy about the need to transform the student from primarily an object of the educational process primarily into a subject. Education is understood as “ascent to subjectivity.” E.V. sees the essence of modern pedagogical activity in the growth of the child’s subjective properties. Bondarevskaya. She also considers subjective properties as the core of human culture.

According to V.V. Serikov, the child’s becoming a subject is not a moment of upbringing, but its essence. Such a look at upbringing and the place in it of the phenomenon of the formation of subjectivity allows us to conclude: the activity-based approach to education is, in its essence, a subjective – activity-based approach.

Basic concepts of the activity approach.

Consideration of the categorical apparatus is possible through the content filling of the category and basic concepts. For these purposes, we will carry out a very conditional classification of these categories, based on their various aspects of the activity approach.

The first aspect is the activity-based nature of the approach. The specified attribute most fully represents the category of activity. Of course, in its psychological and pedagogical sense. To the content of “activity”, which was partially revealed in the previous chapter, it is important to add the following. Human activity is a special important form of activity, as a result of which the material included in the activity is transformed (external objects, the internal reality of a person), the activity itself is transformed and the one who acts, that is, the subject of the activity, is transformed. The most profound researcher of the problems of mental activity in their unity with the problems of pedagogy V.V. Davydov noted: “Not all manifestations of vital activity can be classified as activity. Genuine activity is always associated with the transformation of reality.” Let's add: external or internal for a person. Naturally, one cannot classify as an activity such a form of activity as dreams or fantasies. The variety of types of activity (and this primarily relates to internal activity and the corresponding category) is reflected by such concepts as “spiritual activity”, “interaction”, “communication”, “goal setting as an activity”, “meaning-making activity”, “life creativity as an activity " The activity of a teacher who manages and organizes the activities of pupils is reflected in the category “meta-activity”, or “non-objective activity”. The need to maintain such a category is due to the fact that the teacher, as it were, rises above all the types and forms of activity available to him and his pupils, assimilates them at a professional level in order to effectively use them in the interests of educating pets as subjects in activity and life in general. Thus, education appears as an activity for organizing other types of activities, in which the teacher himself is no less educated. Some authors refer the category of meta-activity to the description of a student’s personal life activity. What is meant here is the fact that the student himself organizes his activities and finds his own meaning in it, thereby transforming his own value-semantic sphere. Education in this understanding appears as a meta-activity for the pupil to transform his value-semantic sphere through self-organization of activity.

“Interaction” is one of the holistic and essential characteristics of education in the context of the activity approach. The universality of this category is that it represents and describes the joint activities of students, their communication as a form of activity as a condition, means, goal, driving force and, in essence, education. The concept of “educational interaction” is directly adjacent to this category. The mechanism of such interaction, and in fact, the mechanism of education, is seen in the combination of the ability not only to act, but also to perceive the actions of others. The criterion for genuine educational interaction is positive changes in the value and semantic sphere of interacting subjects. In this case, we are talking about the interaction of students, both among themselves and with the teacher.

“Spiritual activity” is the most undeveloped and not fully comprehended by scientific consciousness form of internal activity of N.E. Shurkova, one of the consistent researchers of the problems of spirituality in education, believes. That a person’s view of spiritual activity directs him throughout his life, since “my” essence of life and my place in it become clear. This is the same value-oriented activity aimed at understanding (giving meaning) the phenomena of external and internal reality and, mainly, at establishing personal meanings of ongoing events, phenomena, types and methods of activity of one’s feelings, ideals, goals, and the like. Spiritual activity does not have a materialized result and is fundamentally different precisely because of its invisible product: ideas, knowledge, principles, relationships, which are immaterial and manifest themselves in such a way that they can be perceived by another person.

"Goal setting." According to the idea of the activity approach to education, this category justifies the legitimacy of identifying “positing” as a necessary type of activity, both for the teacher and for the students. Its product is a goal. The peculiarity of the activity approach is that: That goal setting is carried out, firstly, in the interests of the educational process as a whole, in the interests of each student individually, according to the periods of his development; Secondly. In the interests of the educator, taking into account his personal meanings of pedagogical activity, taking into account his abilities, principles of being, ideals, in the interests of his self-realization. In the context of the activity approach, the student is not just a performer, he is a subject of activity through which his self-realization is carried out. Such differentiation of goals requires taking into account not only the types of leading activities and the laws of their change, but also taking into account sensitive periods and especially. Determination of the “dimensions” of individual zones of proximal development. In this case, the position formulated by L.S. is of particular importance. Vygotsky: “... by examining what a child can do on his own, we are examining the development of yesterday. By exploring what a child can accomplish in cooperation, we determine the development of tomorrow.”

The concept of “meaning-creating activity” represents a definition of education specific to the activity approach as a process of meaning formation, meaning determination in the world of activities. Discovering and constructing the meanings of one’s existence, the meaning of one’s actions, the actions of certain types of activity, awareness and emotional perception of them constitute the essence of meaning-creating activity. This type of activity is highly motivated, it has an independent goal - self-determination in the world of activities. The category of self-determination precisely reflects the fact of finding one’s calling, in which a person finds the meaning of his life.

The above integration (content content) of a block of categories and basic concepts means a decisive rejection of vulgar ideas about the activity approach as labor education. Without rejecting the role of objective material activity, productive labor in the upbringing of a person, the activity approach transfers true priorities and emphasis to the sphere of internal activity, to the sphere of formation of needs, motives, interests, ideals, beliefs, which are the true subject of education.

As the second aspect of the content content of the category and the basic concepts of the activity approach, we highlight its personal orientation. This block includes the following categories and basic concepts: “personality”, “personal meaning”, “inner potential”, “self-actualization”, “self-determination”, “meaning of life”, “subjectivity”, “subjective personality properties”, “sanity”, "dignity" and others.

The specificity of the activity approach to education and training lies in its primary orientation towards assisting the student in becoming a subject of his life activity. This fact determines the saturation of the conceptual apparatus with subjective issues. What kind of reality is the “subject” in psychology and pedagogy? This concept is considered in two meanings:

as a subject of activity, capable of mastering and creatively transforming;

as a subject of his life, of his inner world, capable of planning, building, evaluating his actions, actions, strategy and tactics of his life.

The vital meaning of pedagogy’s orientation towards the formation of the child’s subjectivity is as follows. A person must perform this or that activity, creatively transform it not due to the influence of circumstances on him, but due to an internal impulse emanating from the conscious necessity of this action. From the conviction of its truth, value, significance for him, society, for loved ones. The shortcoming of all previous theory and practice of education was precisely that activity was understood as any activity of the child, mainly reactive activity carried out in response to the demands of the teacher. In the context of the activity approach, only the activity of a self-determining personality, that is, a subject, is understood. Only in this way can activity be considered as a factor in education. The concept of the subject goes beyond the related concept of sanity, which has been largely forgotten by the theory and practice of education. In fact, sanity is one of the subjective properties of a person. To be sane means to be capable and ready to be responsible for one’s actions, actions, results of activities and communications. This quality of personality is easy to identify in real everyday behavior, especially when someone tries to justify the unseemly consequences of his action by “objective” circumstances and actually denies himself the right to be called a person due to the fact that he does not impute to himself his own action, refuses it. This is an example of insanity, evidence of the underdevelopment of the subjective principle, the absence of subjective properties. By revealing the concept of sanity, it is easy to reach another subjective characteristic of a person, provided by the concept of “personal dignity”. The dignity of a person is determined precisely by what a person imputes to himself, what he takes under his responsibility. If he is not able to become responsible even for his own action, each time figuring out who to shift its consequences onto, then can we talk about the dignity of such a person? Dignity and sanity as subjective characteristics of a person are, as it were, merged; they can only be discussed in conjunction. Insanity is like a sentence of refusal to be a person, of inability to be responsible for something. Dignity, that is, a measure of the value of a person, is determined both by the skills and abilities of a person and not by the presence of talent or skills.

Personal dignity as a subjective property is manifested in the ability to take responsibility for a matter, for an action. And the more significant the deed, the action imputed to oneself, the higher the dignity of the individual. It is in this sense that dignity is a measure of the value of an individual. From this we can draw two important conclusions for assessing the activity approach from a moral perspective:

the concepts of sanity and dignity represent the approach as focused on the moral foundations of a child’s existence;

reveal the most sensitive aspects and “places” for the application of educational efforts of the teacher: acquiring the qualities of sanity and dignity is the most attractive prospect for a youth.

Subjective personality traits are also manifested in a person’s ability to communicate, interact, establish personal contacts, and mutual understanding. The ability to enter into dialogue and maintain it, the main thing is the developed ability to make semantic transformations not only in oneself, but also in others. To become a subject means to represent oneself to others, to be reflected in others, to continue oneself in them, to “be sealed.” The possibility of broadcasting and interchange of subjectivity lies the deep meaning of pedagogical interaction. The noted personality properties are represented by a whole “family” of concepts that reflect the subject’s focus on realizing his “self” - “self-esteem”, “self-education”, “self-analysis”, “self-restraint”, “self-identification”, “self-determination”, “self-education”.

We will highlight the third block of basic concepts, taking as a basis the methodological and methodological components of the approach, that is, what is designated in the definition of the approach as organization and management. The concepts of “organization” and “management” are interpreted in approximately the same way as is accepted in most successfully implemented concepts of education, namely, as the organization of the educational process and management of personal development by creating favorable conditions for it, which include the educational environment. Motivation of the teacher and the student, the personality of the teacher. At the same time, in the concepts of different authors, flexibility, indirectness, and diversity of forms of this management process are noted, which allows us to speak not so much about strict regulation, but about a carefully organized direction of development. This block includes categories and concepts: educational space, method, mechanisms of education, organization of the educational process, space of activity, result of education, situation of activity, situation of education, sociocultural educational space, means of education, subjective space, management of personality development, forms of education, goal education.

The peculiarity of the above list lies in its saturation with the ideas of situational education. The basic category in this regard is the activity situation, which is a modification of the concept of a pedagogical situation. The specific position of the activity approach in education regarding the relationship between the subject and the situation of activity is the fundamental lack of adaptation to be a person, a subject, which means to emancipate from the situation, to be above it, to strive for its transformation. At the same time, “to be above it” and “to be emancipated” is not only not to depend on the facts of the situation, but also to rise by means of overcoming, “exceeding” tasks, to move above the situation, to enrich the situation with a set of possible activities. The concept of “education mechanism” reflects the individual’s own activity, included in the educational process as a subject and co-author. However, in the case of the activity approach, it is not enough to indicate “one’s own activity.” Not every activity is an activity in the educational aspect. The mechanism of education is focused on “non-adaptive activity”, which manifests itself in the phenomena of creativity, cognitive activity, in the creative transformation of the situation, in self-development, in the readiness not only to follow the intended goal, but also in the process of activity to construct new, more significant and interesting goals and meanings . The mechanism of education is also concentrated in “trans-situational activity” as a person’s readiness not only to independently and consciously perform various actions and deeds, but also to strive for something new, unplanned within the framework of already carried out activities.

The concept of “content of education” includes a joint search for values, norms and laws of life, their study in specific types of activities. It is important in this definition to clarify that the form of search is a modern reflective dialogue between teacher and student, in which the meaning of activity and life itself is found, and the subject of search is new forms, means, combinations and connections.

The concept of “education result” is associated with the category of quality. This is due to the fact that education differs from other pedagogical processes in its orientation not towards quantitative, but towards qualitative transformations of the pupil (as, indeed, of the educator himself). The child is introduced not only to knowledge, but mainly to the meaning of activities, events, his life, which constitutes the essence of a new quality of a person.

Principles as an integral part of the activity approach.

The specific principles of the activity approach are the following:

the principle of subjectivity of education;

the principle of accounting for leading activities and the laws of their change;

the principle of taking into account sensitive periods of development;

principle of co-transformation;

the principle of overcoming the zone of approaching development and organizing joint activities of children and adults in it;

the principle of enriching, strengthening, deepening child development;

the principle of designing, constructing and creating a situation of educational activity;

the principle of mandatory effectiveness of each type of activity;

the principle of high motivation for any type of activity;

the principle of mandatory reflectivity of all activities;

the principle of moral enrichment of activities used as a means;

the principle of cooperation in organizing and managing various types of activities.

Implementation of the activity approach in the practice of education.

The general orientation when using methods of educational activity is determined by theoretical directions, according to which the greatest educational effect is the leading type of activity and the diverse types of activity derived from it. The dynamics of changing the methods used are subordinated to the main idea of the activity approach, which is expressed by the very definition of the essence of education as an ascent to subjectivity. Therefore, it seems to be defined by this method of considering the methods of education in the light of the movement of the child’s personality along the path of formation of subjectivity.

If in preschool age the leading type of activity is play, then the methods of educational work take the form of a game: collective games with peers, games with parents. At the same time, the child builds various types of games - director's game, plot game, game according to the rules, which allows you to create various combinations of gaming activities as the basis of educational methods.

The main mistake that awaits the teacher at this stage, as well as subsequent ones, lies in the absolutization of the leading type of activity. The name itself says that the leading type of activity is not the only one. Thus, along with play as the leading type of activity in preschool age, various forms of productive activity develop (drawing, modeling, design, appliqué, etc.), organized classes are practiced, which open up unlimited possibilities for the variety of educational methods.

For an adolescent (younger schoolchild), the leading type of activity becomes educational. Therefore, educational methods that contribute to the development of the child’s subjectivity are concentrated mainly in educational activities. The result of a child’s educational activity is, first of all, changes in the student himself, his development. The subject of change becomes the child himself as a subject carrying out this activity, which turns the child himself towards himself, requires reflection, self-evaluation. Naturally, in such a psychological situation, the most adequate methods of education are methods of self-analysis, self-esteem, self-criticism, self-control, and the like.

Relationships between children in the class are built primarily through the teacher; he organizes their joint activities and communication. Therefore, methods of organizing a children's team come to the fore: collective unified requirements, collective self-government, collective self-service, collective competition, etc. The method of collective perspective, which is a distant goal that generates aspiration and voluntary, exciting activity, is also adequate for this situation.

The junior schoolchild has not yet lost interest in the game, although it has ceased to be the leading type of activity. The game will accompany a person throughout his life. The specificity of the method of education through play is that children prefer playing “by the rules.” Younger schoolchildren are extremely sensitive to following rules, and their exactingness in this regard extends not only to their peers, but also to the teacher.

Methods of everyday communication, business, friendly, trusting interaction are extremely relevant for younger schoolchildren: the method of respecting the child’s personality, pedagogical requirements, persuasion, trust, sympathy, etc.

The boy’s high assessment of his educational activities makes him extremely sensitive to the assessments given to him by significant adults, primarily the teacher, parents, and acquaintances. Therefore, in elementary school, objectively favorable conditions are created for the use of not only influencing and interacting methods of education, but also methods that take into account the assistance of children to the educator. These include methods of supporting initiative, methods of self-organization of interaction, and joint learning activities. At the same time, the psychological basis of the unity of teaching and upbringing is the presence of relationships between educational activities and other types of activities, especially labor, which contributes to the formation of the moral qualities of the personality of a primary school student.

The transition from adolescence to adolescence is marked by a crisis of adolescence, which means the formation of a subject of social relations. The problem of leading activity - in the crisis of adolescence, in the formation of a child as a subject of social relations in domestic psychology remains open. In the process of such activity, does the teenager satisfy to the greatest extent his need to establish himself in the system of social relations, to know himself, to become on a par with adults? There are different answers to this question:

communication with peers, which is a unique form of reproducing the relationships that exist between adults;

socially significant activities that help satisfy the need for communication with peers and adults, with adults recognizing independence, self-affirmation and self-esteem;

assimilation of various models of adulthood;

search for new types and forms of socially significant activities.

The following fact also deserves to be taken into account: the idea of a social orientation of activity is central to the racers, Rotaries and other teenage associations of the West. The conclusion here may be this: the difficulties in identifying the leading type of activity are due to the real presence in adolescence of many other ways to resolve the crisis, a range of activities in which a teenager realizes his needs. However, the pedagogical conditions for resolving the developmental crisis at this stage of growing up are obvious. They consist in the use of methods, means and forms of education that ensure the presence of community, compatibility in the life of a child and an adult, cooperation between them, during which the formation of new ways of their social interaction occurs.

The central requirements of the methodology are the inadmissibility of imposing motives for activity that are inappropriate for adolescence. It is advisable to try to impose the motive of educational activity in relation to knowledge at school in general, to general education. But the motive for educational activity can be revived if we are talking about a socially prestigious specialty. In the conditions of the modern Russian school, the problem of adequate motivation is complicated by the attitude of most educators and teachers to compulsion to study as the main way of interacting with a teenager. Motivation for educational activities can be the focus of the teacher’s attention when it comes to productive work, especially paid work, sports, social, political, and artistic activities. The motives for such activities are social approval among peers and adults. A special place in the system of educational methods is occupied by work together with adults and activities for the benefit of other people. Combining paid forms of work with charitable activities contributes to the moral enrichment of a teenager’s personality.

Adolescence is traditionally called transitional, difficult, critical. L.S. Vygotsky believed that the psychological nature of the crisis lies in the emergence of self-awareness. This gives rise to the desire for self-affirmation, self-expression, and self-education. Blocking these needs also forms the basis of the crisis of growing up. There is no doubt that adequate methods of educational work in such conditions are methods that initiate introspection, self-criticism, self-control, self-restraint, and self-punishment. This is all the more relevant because the teenager is uncritical of the true scope of his knowledge, abilities, skills, experience of value-semantic activity. One of the central characteristics of a teenager is an intense search for himself. Often this search is irritating - imitative in nature. “Meeting” as one of the unstable forms of being is most relevant in these situations. These meetings are not organized; they will take place, of course, with an active search for them. A critical attitude towards oneself, a choice of oneself can also take place during the implementation of other forms of unstable existence - disappointment, love, awakening, revelation. Life itself, the real existence of pupils, is full of such unstable states, and the task of the educator is to replace them and make them a method, form, and means of education.

The teenager has a heightened sense of adulthood in relation to himself as an adult. Behind this lies a more private need for respect, trust, tact, recognition of human dignity and the right to independence. The most popular methods of everyday communication, business, friendly, trusting interaction are those that involve respect for the teenager’s personality, discussion of a wide variety of life issues, understanding, trust, and sympathy. Conflict situations as a method of education are also relevant due to the fact that adolescence is an age of not only unmet needs, but also exorbitant demands, which often results in conflicts.

The main incentive for any activity organized by a teacher is its effectiveness. A teenager strives for immediate results, and this result is a source of new needs, a stimulus for new aspirations for activity. Therefore, such methods of organizing a teenage team as a collective perspective, the foreseen result must be combined with the everyday, albeit insignificant, result.

The crisis of adolescence is marked by a sharp increase in knowledge of the peer group in the process of development of the student’s personality. Along with the formation of adult patterns, a friendly, trusting attitude in such groups, the first contacts with smoking, alcohol, and drugs take place. The method of instilling immunity to bad habits is mainly situational in nature. But, taking into account the fact that self-awareness is becoming a central new formation in adolescents, methods of appealing to feelings - conscience, feelings of love, pride, shame, disgust, fear - are becoming popular and largely effective. Of course, external objective activity is important in the directional saturation of the group’s life. But one should take into account the fact that external activity is often adaptive in nature, while internal activity is transformative.

Most often, those children who are preparing to enter a university study in high school. Therefore, the problem of learning motivation fades into the background. In the foreground is the problem of mastering a huge layer of knowledge in connection with the upcoming final and entrance exams to the university. At the same time, not only didactic goals are realized, but also mainly the goals of education, self-education, development and self-development. The student turns from a passive object of pedagogical influence into an active subject. Joint educational activities, preventing the formation of an individualistic orientation of learning, forming a readiness for mutual assistance and solidarity, is the next important area of activity for a teacher in high school. The forms of joint learning activities are diverse. However, in conditions of intensive formation of new interests and motives, focused mainly on the future, extracurricular, cultural, educational and charitable activities are relevant. High school students make presentations, lead the work of clubs, and provide various moral and material assistance to students in need. This practice to some extent contributes to the professional self-determination of boys and girls.

One of the constant psychological characteristics is “withdrawal from school”, feverish activity associated with a variety of activities - communication, participation in youth movements, sports, artistic creativity. The consequences of such a “withdrawal” are missed classes and decreased academic performance. The educator must understand and accept this natural “fermentation,” the confusion of feelings, aspirations, and doubts. There is a search for oneself, the sphere of self-determination, and the student receives help in the form of sympathy, support, and advice. Instructive lectures and punishments will be unacceptable under these conditions.

Youth is a process of self-identification, self-acceptance. This is realized through the isolation of responsibility for its results in the individual’s activities. Important methods of satisfying the needs for self-identification are various assignments associated with constant natural activities within the school and neighborhood. Acceptance of oneself, self-identification needs approval, encouragement, as well as admonition, but not impartial criticism and ridicule.

At the same time, the tendency to manifest oneself in various forms, especially in the manner of dressing, moving, in unique assessments of everyday and cultural phenomena that have a shocking nature, the desire to stand out not due to internal culture, but due to external effects, requires constant and delicate appeal to will, intellect, conscience, shame, pride, aesthetic feeling as methods of educational influence. At the same time, manifestation is a value-orienting activity, of course, in a caricature form. And the educator must take this into account, see in it a form of self-searching, a way of self-affirmation.

Along with self-identification as a value-oriented, search activity, there is also an activity of identification. The real community partner with whom the boy or girl identifies himself is often the Teacher as a social adult. Personal example as a method of education becomes a constantly operating fact that determines the nature of identification.

Thus, despite the real “departure” from school both in subject matter and in value-semantic activities, the teacher-educator of high school students continues to organize and manage various types, types and forms of activity in the interests of developing human subjectivity. The space of organization and management is by no means reduced, but, on the contrary, expanded due to the circulation of internal activities.

Conclusion.

An important methodological and methodological position at this stage of the formation of the subjectivity of the individual is the awareness, comprehension of the fact that all the quirks, all the egoism, all the narcissism and disobedience of early youth are structured around the main thing - around the value-orientation, value-semantic activity of self-determination. This is the essence of the type of activity in early youth. This fact acts as the main guideline for all previous educational activities that contribute to the formation of the individual as a subject of his life, his position, his search for a place in society, that is, self-determination.

List of used literature

1. Zaitsev V.N. Practical didactics. Moscow, 2000

2. Muravyova E.G. Design of learning technologies. Ivanovo, 2001

3. Peterson L.G. What does it mean to be able to learn? Moscow, 2006

4.Selevko G.K. Modern educational technologies. Moscow, 1998

5. Stepanov E.N., Luzina L.M. To the teacher about modern approaches and concepts of education. Moscow, 2002

ACTIVITY APPROACH TO LEARNING AND MAIN CATEGORIES OF PEDAGOGY

Kuznetsov Yu. F.

In recent decades, for the vast majority of psychological, pedagogical and especially didactic research, the concept of activity plays a key, methodologically central role. Whether we are talking about the content of education, where the academic subject must be considered not only as a system of knowledge, but also as an activity, or about didactic principles, forms and methods of teaching - everywhere the concept of activity carries a certain methodological and theoretical load and is considered in conjunction with other concepts of pedagogy .

The founders of the activity approach in educational psychology are the largest domestic scientists - L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev et al.

Their active supporters and successors include L.V. Zankova, D.B. Elkonin,

V.V. Davydov, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzin, A.K. Markov and others. Summarizing their views, the activity approach can be defined as such an organization of training and education in which the student acts from the position of an active subject of knowledge, work and communication , which purposefully forms

Ekaterinburg

educational skills in understanding the goal, planning the course of upcoming activities, its execution and regulation, performing self-control, analyzing and evaluating the results of one’s activities.

Research conducted in the second half of the 20th century in line with the activity approach, on which modern psychological and pedagogical science is based, led to a rethinking of all the main categories of pedagogy.

Thus, revealing the essence of the concept of “pedagogy”, many modern scientists note that this is the science of man, studying purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality; pedagogy “studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life, develops the theory and technology of organizing this process, forms and methods of improving the activities of a teacher and different kinds activities of students, strategy and methods of interaction between teacher and student" ( General pedagogy/Ed. V.A. Slastenina,

2003, part 1, p. 12). Analysis of this definition allows us to identify the central core concept of pedagogy - “pedagogical process”. This process is the subject of the study of pedagogy, and it is precisely this process that pedagogical science researches and develops. Today this concept is recognized as key in pedagogy. It is directly related to the concept of “education”, which is defined in the law “On Education” as “a purposeful process of education and training in the interests of an individual, society, state, accompanied by a statement of the achievement by a citizen (student) of the established state educational levels(educational qualifications)".

What is the pedagogical process?

In works on traditional (informational-explanatory, authoritarian) pedagogy, as well as in pedagogical practice to this day, the term “pedagogical process” has hardly been used and is not used. Instead, the concept of “educational process” was used. Here you should pay attention to a number of points. Firstly, “since education as a subject of pedagogy is a pedagogical process, the combination of the words “educational process” and “pedagogical process” are synonymous” (I.Ya. Lerner p. 22). Secondly, I.Ya. Lerner points out that the concepts of “pedagogical process” and “educational process” should not be considered synonymous: under educational

process, it is necessary to understand the specific organization of educational and educational activities in a certain educational institution(a specific school, a specific class), and the “pedagogical process” is a concept that reflects the general essential features of this activity, wherever and with whom it is carried out. Thirdly, due to the dominance of the functional rather than the personal

activity approach in pedagogical science Until approximately the middle of the twentieth century, adjacent and isolated processes- educational and educational. Only at the turn of the 70-80s. In the twentieth century, the problem of the unity of the processes of teaching and upbringing grew into the problem of an integral pedagogical process.

Analysis different definitions the concept of “pedagogical process” shows that for him the central meaning-forming concept is interaction: “The pedagogical process is a specially organized interaction between teachers and students, aimed at solving developmental problems.”

and educational tasks” (Ibid., p. 113). Scientists consider teachers and students as figures and subjects to be the main components of the pedagogical process. Thus, the basis of the modern pedagogical process is not subject-object, but subject-subject interaction. In addition, the components of the pedagogical process are also the content of education (the social experience accumulated by humanity assimilated by students) and pedagogical means, with the help of which development takes place social experience. The systematizing factor of the pedagogical process is its goal, understood as a multi-level phenomenon inherent in the social experience, means, and activities of teachers and students being mastered.

In real pedagogical activity As a result of the interaction between teachers and students, various situations arise. Bringing goals into teaching situations gives interaction purposefulness. Pedagogical situation, correlated with the purpose of the activity and the conditions for its implementation, is a pedagogical task. According to modern ideas, it is the pedagogical task that is the main unit of the pedagogical process. The pedagogical process can be represented as operational pedagogical tasks, an organically built series of which leads to the implementation of tactical, and then strategic objectives. All of them are solved according to a scheme that includes four interconnected stages: analysis of the situation and formulation pedagogical task; designing solution options and choosing the optimal one for given conditions; implementation of a plan for solving a problem in practice, including the organization of interaction, regulation and correction of the flow of the pedagogical process; analysis and evaluation of the results of the decision (Ibid., pp. 113-115). All of these stages can be combined into three main parts of the activity: the indicative part - analyzing the situation and setting a pedagogical task, designing solution options and choosing the optimal option for the given conditions; the executive part is the implementation of a plan for solving a problem in practice based on the interaction of subjects of the pedagogical process; control-evaluation part - regulation and correction of the flow of the pedagogical process, analysis of the results of the decision. Thus, the concept of “pedagogical process” is currently considered by scientists from the perspective

activities, with components inherent in this category.

In works on traditional pedagogy until the 60s of the 20th century, in the definitions of “educational process”, words such as “transfer”, “weapon” and the like were most often found, showing that the student is perceived as a passive object of external influence from the teacher - subject of this process. Hence the view of these relationships as subject-object, characteristic of this approach to learning. According to modern concepts of psychological and pedagogical science, based on an activity-based approach to learning, the center of the learning process is the child’s developing personality, his activity, which is organized and directed by the teacher. To explain this important point, E.N. Shiyanov and I.B. Kotov analyze four essential features of the learning process, identified by S.P. Baranov. Firstly, learning is primarily a cognitive activity, from which it follows that the term “cognition” is broader in scope than the term “learning”; learning can be considered as a type of human cognitive activity. Teaching (the activity of the teacher) and learning (the activity of the student) are the external form of a two-way cognitive unified process called learning. But not every human cognitive activity is related to the learning process. Therefore, the second essential feature of the learning process says: learning is a specially organized cognitive activity that differs from social

historical and scientific knowledge its tasks, content, forms and conditions. In individual human development, learning does not arise spontaneously; it is organized and directed by adults. Training arises to solve an important problem - to accelerate knowledge of the world around us in the course of individual development person in order to quickly prepare him for independent life. This is the third essential feature of the learning process: learning is the acceleration of cognition in individual development. At each historical moment, there are certain rates of individual human development, which are based on biological, psychological, social and other laws. A child, interacting with surrounding objects and phenomena, can independently identify and understand only their empirical signs and

properties, but cannot understand the patterns, assimilate scientific system knowledge, which refers to theoretical rather than empirical knowledge. Therefore, the fourth essential feature of the learning process is formulated as follows: learning is the assimilation of patterns recorded in the experience of mankind. Summarizing these features, it is concluded that training is “a specially organized cognitive activity with the aim of accelerating the individual mental and personal development of a person and mastering the known patterns of his existence” (Shiyanov E.N., Kotova I.B. Personal development in training , 1999, pp. 14-16)\

Some researchers include in the definition of the concept of “learning process” such phrases as “the process of teaching and learning activities...”, “a set of consistent and interrelated actions of the teacher and students.” etc. Although such definitions emphasize the two-sidedness (teaching and learning), the subject-subjectivity of the relationship between the student and the trainees, but, as V.K. Dyachenko, system analysis shows that it is impossible to understand the whole by studying each of its parts separately, since the parts themselves are determined primarily by the whole (Dyachenko V.K. Organizational structure educational process and its development, 1989, p. 16). In addition, it is important to take into account the remark of V.I. Zagvyazinsky that joint activity and bilateralism in the educational process are obvious and constitute it external signs, and “in order to reveal the essence of learning, it is necessary to find out its generic and specific characteristics, goals, internal structure, and consider the process in dynamics” (Zagvyazinsky V.I. Learning Theory: Modern Interpretation, 2001, p. 21).

Having analyzed these points, V.I. Zagvyazinsky gives the most acceptable, in our opinion, definition of this concept: training is “a purposeful, socially and individually conditioned and pedagogically organized process of personal development of students, occurring on the basis of mastering systematized scientific knowledge and ways of activity, all the wealth of spiritual and material culture of

1 It should be noted that V.K. Dyachenko and some other scientists consider communication, not cognition, to be a generic sign of learning, and Yu.K. Babansky, combining these views, points to the unity of cognition and communication in teaching (Pedagogy / Edited by Yu.K. Babansky, 1983, p. 133).

humanity" (Ibid., p. 23). It should be noted that in these definitions the main objective learning is highlighted as the development of the personality of the students, and not as their mastery of a certain amount of knowledge, skills and abilities: “The assimilation of knowledge through educational activities in itself only expands the consciousness and thinking of the student, but does not develop them (in this sense, the old saying about that “knowing a lot does not improve the mind”). Their development occurs in the process of formation and development of the educational activity itself, when, during the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, educational and mental actions arise and take shape” (Davydov V.V. Theory of Developmental Training, 1996, p. 172). Thus, in order for the student’s personality to develop during the learning process, it is necessary to create conditions for him to master learning activities with all its component parts: indicative, executive, control and evaluation.

Research in psychology

pedagogical science, carried out in line with the activity approach, also influence ideas about the principles of teaching. Under the principles of learning, most modern researchers, following V.I. Za-Gvyazinsky, understand “...instrumental, given in the categories of activity, expression of the pedagogical concept,...methodological

expression of known laws and patterns, knowledge about the goals, essence, content, structure of learning, expressed in a form that allows them to be used as regulatory norms of practice” (Zagvyazinsky V.I. Theory of Learning: Modern Interpretation, 2001, p. 35). Specifying this definition, he very accurately formulates the essence of the principles of teaching, which is to give recommendations to teachers on ways to regulate relations between participants in the learning process, on ways to resolve contradictions, achieve measure and harmony, allowing them to successfully solve educational problems (Ibid., p. 37) .

In addition to clarifying the definition of the concept of “learning principles,” their nomenclature and content are being revised. Many traditional principles are replenished with new content, taking into account the active nature of the educational process. For example, the content of the principles of scientific character, accessibility, awareness, visibility, etc. has been supplemented and revised. Thus, the famous researcher of psychological and pedagogical problems L.Ya. Zorina showed that the implementation of the principle of science and princi-

The principle of systematicity in the form in which they are interpreted in traditional pedagogy cannot lead to systemic knowledge, since the concepts of “systematicity” (system) and “systematicity” (consistency)

have different meanings. Subjecting experimental research principle of scientific teaching, she identified three interrelated conditions (features), which reflect the qualitative characteristics of the scientific content of education and lead to the implementation of a knowledge system: a) compliance with the level modern science; b) creating in students correct ideas about general methods scientific knowledge; c) showing schoolchildren the most important laws of the cognition process (Zorina L.Ya. Didactic foundations for the formation of a systematic knowledge of high school students, 1978). To form scientific systemic knowledge, according to scientists (V.V. Davydov, L.Ya. Zorina, I.Ya. Lerner, etc.), the ability to identify the essential properties and characteristics of the objects being studied is not enough, as is customary in traditional pedagogy. Two more areas are important - to have a general idea of the entire structure of what is being studied, i.e. be able to isolate leading concepts and categories in the educational subject (material) being studied, establish and explain their connections (causal, functional, etc.) with other concepts and categories, and students’ mastery of methodological knowledge and skills, which is reflected in the last two conditions formulated by L .I. Zorina. Exactly methodological knowledge and the skills of a schoolchild, according to modern ideas, form the basis of his educational activity, because they help the student to create in his mind a generalized complete indicative basis of actions (FBA) or to decide on the directions of searching for methods of cognitive activity 2.

Another principle - the principle of accessibility in traditional pedagogy requires when studying educational material go from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, from known to unknown, from facts to generalizations, etc. The same principle is in the concept of developmental education by V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin is realized not from the simple, but from the general, not from the close, but from the main thing, not from

2 Methodological knowledge is understood as “information about methods of activity, methods of cognition and the history of acquiring knowledge” (Pedagogy: Great Modern Encyclopedia / Compiled by E.S. Rapatsevich, 2005, p. 178).

elements, but from the structure, not from the parts, but from the whole (Davydov V.V. Theory of Developmental Training, 1996).

In addition to revising the content traditional principles teaching, scientists identify and justify new didactic principles. For example, V.I. Zagvyazinsky analyzed general principles education and organization of activities, social functions and learning goals and on this basis substantiated the idea of a guiding principle. Since knowledge in educational activity, he notes, is not a goal, but a means, a condition for the formation of personality, one of the leading principles should be the principle of developing and educating education, and all other principles should regulate the conditions and methods of implementing this leading principle ((For- Gvyazinsky V.I. Theory of learning: Modern interpretation, 2001, p. 39).

Modern requirements, according to scientists, the implementation of the following system of teaching principles corresponds:

The principle of developing and educating education;

The principle of sociocultural conformity (cultural conformity and natural conformity), which requires building education in accordance with nature, internal organization, the inclinations of a developing person, with the laws of the natural and social environment surrounding the child;

The principle of scientific content and methods of the educational process, reflecting the connection of learning with modern scientific knowledge and with the practice of life (the connection of theory with practice);

The principle of systematicity in mastering the achievements of science and culture and the principle of the systematic nature of educational activities, knowledge and skills of the student;

The principle of consciousness and activity of schoolchildren in learning, which expresses the essence of the activity concept of learning;

The principle of visibility, reflecting the unity of the concrete and abstract, rational and emotional, reproductive and productive as an expression integrated approach;

The principle of accessibility, which requires the degree of learning difficulty that a student can overcome with the help of a teacher in the process of properly organized activities in the student’s “zone of proximal development”;

The principle of effectiveness of training and development, which consists in thoroughness

and the strength of mastering key elements, logic, structure of the disciplines studied, practical skills and abilities;

The principle of positive motivation and a favorable emotional climate for learning, which provides for business cooperation and co-creation of teachers and students based on an awareness of the common goals of the activity;

The principle of a rational combination of collective and individual forms and methods of educational work that ensure the development of the individual, his individual self-realization (Ibid., pp. 38-47).

Ideas about the content of education have changed significantly, which was defined in traditional pedagogy most often as a set of knowledge, abilities and skills (KAS) to be acquired by schoolchildren in the learning process. “To give knowledge”, “to explain to students”, “to ensure that schoolchildren acquire such and such a volume of knowledge” - these are the most characteristic expressions found among adherents of traditional pedagogy. With such a knowledge-oriented approach to the content of education, the focus of the teacher’s attention is knowledge, which is an absolute value and overshadows the person himself with his personal and individual properties.

Under properly organized training L.S. Vygotsky understood something, the content of which is not oriented towards current level development, but in the zone of proximal development, runs ahead of development, leads it along (Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology, 1991, p. 449). Such learning creates a zone of proximal development, sets in motion internal processes of development, which at first are possible for the child only through interaction with adults and cooperation with friends, but gradually these processes become the internal property of the child himself (Ibid., p. 388). In addition, in truly developmental training and education, only focusing on the zone of proximal development is not enough; here, according to the active nature of cognition, accepted by L.S. Vygotsky, another condition suggests itself - “the personal activity of the student, and all the art of the educator should be reduced to directing and regulating this activity” (Ibid., p. 82).

The position on the personal activity of a schoolchild in the assimilation of social experience is basic, and therefore has been studied in some detail by various scientists. Given

The position is based on the principle of the activity approach to the psyche, which postulates the inextricable connection of all mental neoplasms with human activity. N.F. Talyzina, warning teachers against the desire to “give schoolchildren knowledge,” wrote that “all the ideal wealth accumulated by humanity and represented by the system scientific concepts, laws, established forms of thinking, cannot be transferred to the next generation in finished form, by “transplanting” from one head to another. The new generation can learn all this only through their own activities aimed at the world of things, the knowledge of which we want to convey to them. The desire to convey new knowledge immediately in speech form, through one verbal communication, bypassing the world of things and actions with them, philosophically means considering the psyche as a reflection not of the external world, but as a reflection of people’s consciousness.

The role of the older generation is that it organizes the activities of the new with the world of things in such a way as to reveal to them those aspects of them, those patterns that must be learned” (Talyzina N.F. Management of the process of knowledge assimilation, 1975, p. 34) .

From the above it follows that knowledge arises only as a result of certain actions of the student himself with the object being studied, from which it follows that knowledge is secondary in relation to actions. To know does not just mean to remember something, but to be able to carry out activities related to this knowledge. Thus, knowledge or the sum of knowledge is not the goal of learning, but its means. Knowledge is acquired in order to use it to perform actions, carry out activities, and not so that they are simply remembered. Primary in learning is the activity, actions and operations with the help of which the student himself carries out cognitive actions in order to acquire the knowledge he needs. But, since the system of operations that ensures the solution of educational problems of a certain type is called a method of action, the ultimate goal of education is the formation in schoolchildren of methods of action that ensure the ability to learn, i.e. formation of educational activities, during which the most effective development their entire personality.

With an activity approach to determining the essence of the content of education, as emphasized by I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin,

A.V. Petrovsky V.S. Lednev and others, the absolute value is not alienated from

personality knowledge, but the person himself. According to V.S. Lednev, the content of education is the content of the process of progressive changes in the properties and qualities of the individual, a necessary condition which is a specially organized activity. He classifies the purpose of education, the activity of the individual and the experience that this individual acquires in the activity as three main factors (determinants) that determine the structural components of the content of education. Target modern education- development of those personality traits that she and society need for inclusion in socially valuable activities (Lednev V.S. Contents of education: essence, structure, prospects, 1991).

Serious research on the content of education was carried out by domestic scientists I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Roll up. In the holistic process of personality development, researchers identify several main directions (lines, sides) along which the child’s development is simultaneously carried out: the development of the cognitive sphere, including the formation of intelligence and the development of cognitive mechanisms; development of activity, which includes the formation of goals, motives, and the development of their relationship, mastering the methods and means of activity; personality development, which involves the formation of the personality’s orientation, its value orientations, self-awareness, self-esteem, interaction with the social environment, etc. (Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology, 2001, pp. 101-102). All these areas of human development (intellectual, activity and personal) are interconnected and interdependent. Developed personality as defined by I.Ya. Lerner is a person who has mastered knowledge, methods of activity (skills and skills), experience of creative activity and an emotional and sensory attitude to the world.

AND I. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin, taking into account these directions, identified four interconnected structural elements of social experience that characterize a developed personality:

a system of knowledge about nature, society, technology, thinking and methods of activity (knowledge about thinking and methods of activity refers to methodological knowledge);

experience in implementing methods of activity, in the process of which skills and abilities are formed to apply this knowledge in different conditions (to know does not mean to be able to, the student needs to master the skills and abilities of using the equipment

acquired knowledge);

experience of creative activity, during which a person learns to independently apply previously acquired knowledge and skills in non-standard and problematic situations, he develops new ways of acting on the basis of already known ones (independent transfer of knowledge and skills to a new situation; vision new problem in a familiar situation; vision of the structure of the object and its new function; independent combination of known methods of activity into a new one; finding different ways to solve a problem and alternative evidence; building a fundamentally new way to solve a problem, which is a combination of known ones);

experience of emotional-value relations, which allows the formation of a system of assessments (rules, norms, views, ideals, values), on the basis of which a person builds his attitude towards knowledge, skills, the world around him, towards activities, towards people, towards himself, and, acting as indicators of a person’s upbringing.

Thus, according to I.Ya. Lerner, the content of education is a pedagogically adapted system of social experience, including knowledge, skills, experience of creative activity and emotional value attitude to the environment, the assimilation of which ensures the comprehensive development of the individual, prepared for the preservation and development social culture, to active participation in society ( Theoretical basis content of general secondary education / Ed. V.V. Kraevsky, I.Ya. Lerner, 1983, p. 146-151).

In connection with the above, it is obvious that the full development of personality in the learning process is possible only if the above-mentioned four elements of social experience that make up the content of education are reflected in educational subjects (programs, plans and textbooks). In different academic subjects, one or another type of educational content (an element of social experience) to be mastered by schoolchildren is revealed with greater or less depth. In accordance with this, scientists offer their didactic grounds for classification educational subjects. So, according to I.K. Zhuravlev and L.Ya. Zorina, each educational subject has a multi-purpose meaning, but among these meanings in each its main function is visible, denoting its leading component, focusing on which it is possible to identify

There are six groups (types) of educational subjects. Thus, in academic subjects on the basics of science 3 (geography, history, biology, physics, chemistry, astronomy), the leading component is subject scientific knowledge, and the skills of practical, creative and evaluative activities in these subjects occupy an auxiliary function and are aimed at mastering the leading component is the system of scientific knowledge. In the second group of academic subjects (labor, physical education, drawing, a foreign language, a set of technical disciplines), the leading component is methods of activity, i.e., skills and abilities that must be firmly mastered to the level of their free use, and knowledge is subordinate here, auxiliary function and aimed at mastering skills. The leading component of the third group of subjects (fine arts, music) is the education of aesthetic

a value attitude towards the environment, a certain, for example, figurative, vision of the world, and knowledge, skills and abilities, occupying an auxiliary function, help to form adequate emotions and assessments in schoolchildren. Each of the following three groups of academic subjects is mixed, because it consists of two leading components - knowledge and methods of activity (mathematics); knowledge and vision of the world (literature); methods of activity and vision of the world ( native language). I.K. Zhuravlev and L.Ya. Zorina quite rightly believe that when developing the content of an academic subject ( curricula, plans, textbooks) it is important to take into account, along with other provisions, its leading and auxiliary components, and suggest ways to implement this provision (Ibid., pp. 191-202, 211-244).

As we see, the activity approach in psychological and pedagogical science changes views on educational subjects, which are usually classified only in accordance with the division of sciences according to the object of study (natural sciences and human sciences) into three cycles of disciplines - natural sciences (mathematics)

3 According to L.Ya. Zorina, the fundamentals of science is understood as “a body of knowledge consisting of two parts: the foundations of all modern fundamental theories and a certain complex of knowledge reflecting facts and laws that have not yet been formalized in science into a theory. The foundations of sciences are knowledge that, while differing from the knowledge recorded in science itself in depth and volume, corresponds to them in content and the nature of the connections between their elements” (Theoretical foundations of content., p. 217).

subjects, physics, chemistry, biology, etc.), humanitarian (literature, native and foreign languages, history, social science, economic geography, music, visual activity etc.), labor and physical training. Classification by I.K. Zhuravlev and L.Ya. Zorina is based on taking into account the main function, the leading component of the social experience that is realized in each academic subject.

Culture, the social experience of the people, reflected in the content of education, can be absorbed by schoolchildren at the empirical or theoretical levels with different methodological teaching systems. The methodological system of teaching is understood as “the unity of goals, content, internal mechanisms, methods and means of a specific teaching method” (Zagvyazinsky V.I. Theory of Learning: Modern Interpretation, 2001, p. 75). There are informational and explanatory traditional

training system, developmental training system L.V. Zankov, developmental education system V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, a system of programmed and problem-based learning, etc.

V.V. Davydov and his followers note that with the traditional information and explanatory system of education, the vast majority of schoolchildren acquire knowledge, skills and abilities at the empirical level, at which there is no qualitative difference between everyday ideas and concepts characteristic of theoretical consciousness (Formation of educational activities of schoolchildren / Under edited by V.V. Davydov et al., 1982, pp. 14-15). Developmental education system V.V. Davydov and D.B. El-konina, pursuing the formation of educational activities, without rejecting the empirical path of knowledge, its goal and end result is aimed at mastering by schoolchildren the content of education in theoretical level. V.V. Davydov points out that “the content of educational activities is theoretical knowledge, the mastery of which through this activity develops in schoolchildren the foundations of theoretical consciousness and thinking, as well as creative level implementation of practical activities" (Theory of Developmental Education, 1996, pp. 146-147). According to V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, the content and methodology of teaching should be focused not so much on familiarization with facts, but on understanding the relationships between them, establishing cause-and-effect relationships, and transforming relationships

into the object of study. Based on this, they propose to rebuild the content of educational subjects and the logic (methods) of its deployment in the educational process according to the principle: from the general to the parts and again to the general (deductive-inductive way of cognition).

Scientists, focusing on productivity (interiorization) individual activities from the collective, when analyzing the forms of organization of educational activities, they indicate that the individual form of its implementation begins to take shape in the collective. V.V. Davydov, draws attention to the importance of organizing, especially at the beginning of learning, collective learning activities in groups and the whole class (educational discussions, extensive communication of the “students-students”, “students-teacher” type) with the creation of conditions for its gradual transformation into an individual one (Ibid., p. 249).

VC. Dyachenko, having analyzed general-class (frontal) and brigade (group) forms of training in accordance with the general criteria for collective work, points out that they cannot be considered collective, since “merely the “fact of presence” in a group is not yet collective activity” ( Organizational

structure of the educational process and its development, 1989, p. 79). He quite correctly believes that with such forms of training there is no single common goal of activity, but only a coincidence of individual goals. “Collective,” in his opinion, “can only be called training in which a collective (group of people) trains and educates each of its members and each member actively participates in the training and education of their comrades in joint educational work” (Ibid., p. 96). Understanding the organizational form of training as the structure of communication between teachers and students, V.K. Dyachenko identifies and substantiates in detail its four forms: individual, group, dynamic pair, individual-isolated, for example, communication through written speech(Ibid., 1989).

The use of an activity approach in the analysis of pedagogical phenomena has significantly changed ideas about teaching methods as ways of interconnected activities of the teacher and students aimed at solving educational, educational and developmental problems in the learning process. In the traditional information-explanatory teaching system, a classification is usually used that subdivides didactic methods depending on the main

a new source of knowledge - verbal, visual, practical. This classification, as most modern researchers quite rightly note, does not reflect the student’s cognitive activity in the educational process. In recent decades, about six more classifications of teaching methods have appeared, significantly different from the traditional one. Two of them deserve special attention (Yu.K. Babansky and I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin), which most take into account the activity nature of teaching.

Classification presented by Yu.K. Babansky, based on a holistic approach to teaching methods, includes three groups of methods: methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities, which include four subgroups - according to the source of transmission and perception of educational information (verbal, visual and practical), according to the logic of transmission and perception of information (inductive and deductive), according to the degree of independent thinking of schoolchildren when mastering knowledge (reproductive, problem-search), according to the degree of management of educational work (methods independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher); methods of stimulating and motivating learning, including two subgroups - interest in learning (cognitive games, educational discussions, emotional and moral situations), duty and responsibility (beliefs in the importance of learning, presenting demands, exercises in fulfilling requirements, rewards and punishments); methods of control and self-control in training, consisting of three subgroups - oral, written and laboratory

practical (Pedagogy/Ed. Yu.K. Babansky, 1983, pp. 177-210).

But, considering this classification, one should agree that, although it is attractive, it has not been fully developed (General Pedagogy / Edited by V.A. Slastenin, 2003, part 1, p. 276).

The most rational and justified classification is I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin, who linked teaching methods with the content of education to be mastered by schoolchildren. They showed that each of the four elements of social experience that make up the content of education has its own specific content and requires its own method of assimilation and certain teaching methods, and sometimes their combinations. Having analyzed different classifications of teaching methods (according to sources of knowledge),

ny; for didactic purposes; according to the components of a teacher’s activity, etc.), they developed a classification, highlighting two main groups of methods: reproductive (explanatory-illustrative and actually reproductive) and productive (problem presentation, heuristic and research).

Each of the listed methods, in their opinion, corresponds to its own elements of mastered social experience, its own characteristics of the activities of the teacher and students. With the explanatory-illustrative method, the teacher provides ready-made information by various means(spoken word, text, visuals, etc.), and schoolchildren perceive, comprehend and remember it. This is the most economical way to transfer knowledge, but when using this method, the skills and abilities to use the acquired knowledge are not formed. Such skills and abilities are acquired by using the reproductive method of education. Here the teacher shows a sample of performing an activity, using instructions (algorithms, rules), organizes multiple repetitions of this method of activity, including programmed training, and students perform actions according to the model. With the problem-based method, the teacher identifies, classifies and poses problems to students, formulates hypotheses, shows ways to test them, and students follow the logic and content of evidence, receive samples of reasoning, and the deployment of cognitive action. With the heuristic method, the teacher, with questions and tasks, leads students to formulate problematic task, its division into parts (a series of particular tasks), stimulates the search for evidence, formulation of conclusions from the given facts, comparison of these facts with the conclusion, shows how evidence is found, conclusions are drawn, etc., and schoolchildren actively participate in heuristic conversations, master the techniques of analyzing educational material in order to pose a problem and find ways to solve it, etc. Each step involves the cognitive activity of schoolchildren, but they have not yet developed the ability to see and solve the entire problem on their own. With the research method, the teacher presents students with problems that are new to them, develops and gives students research tasks, etc., and schoolchildren perceive problems and master techniques for independently posing problems, finding ways to solve them, etc. (Pedagogy/Ed. P.I. .Fagkasisty,

2001, p. 253-256). A positive point is that the authors of this classification absolutely correctly insist “on the need to use a combination of receptive-

reproductive and productive methods of teaching and the types of teaching corresponding to them, and not just one of these methods and types of teaching” (Ilyasov I.I. Structure of the learning process, 1986, p. 146).

Research by a number of scientists has led to the identification of modeling as a method of constructing and working with analogues and substitutes for the objects being studied. Researchers indicate that modeling is both one of the learning activities that are part of educational activities, and a very important method for schoolchildren to master systemic scientific knowledge (Davydov V.V. Theory of developmental learning, 1996; Salmina N.G. Types and functions of materialization in training, 1981; Friedman L.M. Visualization and modeling in training, 1984; etc.).

Thus, all the main didactic categories have undergone a serious revision over the past decades, based on research carried out from the position of the activity approach adopted by modern psychological and pedagogical science. The activity-based approach is understood as such an organization of learning in which the student acts from the position of an active subject of cognition, work and communication, who purposefully develops learning skills in understanding the goal, planning the course of upcoming activities, its execution and regulation, performing self-control, analyzing and evaluating the results of their activities.

The learning process is considered as a purposeful, specially organized process of personal development of students, occurring on the basis of mastering systematized scientific knowledge and methods of activity, all the wealth of spiritual and material culture of mankind (V.I. Zagvyazinsky). A methodological system of teaching means the unity of goals, principles, content, forms, methods and means of a specific method (kind, type) of teaching (V.I. Zagvyazinsky). The content of education is considered as a pedagogically adapted system of all social experience, including knowledge about nature, society, technology, thinking and methods of activity (methodological knowledge); experience in carrying out known types of activities based on acquired knowledge; experience of creative activity; experience emotionally

value attitude to the world (I.Ya. Lerner). The principles of teaching are understood as an expression of a pedagogical concept, which reflects the known laws and patterns of teaching about its goals, essence, content, structure, and acts as regulators of the practical activities of teaching (V.I. Zagvyazinsky). The organizational form of education means the structure of communication between the teacher and schoolchildren, the structure of communication used in the educational process (V.K. Dyachenko). Teaching methods are understood as ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving educational, educational and developmental problems in the learning process (Yu.K. Babansky).

Activity approach in pedagogy. Systemic, personal, activity-based approaches to pedagogy Activity-based approach

ACTIVITY APPROACH

ACTIVITY APPROACH

Rubinstein's approach

Leontiev's approach

Activities

Password recovery