Phonetic analysis of the word “boring.” Phonetic transcription Positional changes in paired voiced-voiceless consonants before hissing consonants and their transcription during sound-letter analysis

When pronouncing a combination of letters h And n Mistakes are often made. This is due to changes in the rules of the old Moscow. pronunciation, acc. with cat in many words this combination was pronounced as [shn]. According to modern standards. Russian lit. language combination -chn- usually pronounced as [chn], especially in words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as in words having appeared. in the recent past (camouflage, landing, etc.).

However, trad. pronunciation [shn] is saved in the trace. words: of course, on purpose, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse. In addition, pronunciation [shn] instead of a speller. "chn" is required in female patronymics, ending. on -ichna: Ilyinichna, Lukinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, etc.

Nekot. words with combination -n- acc. from modern norms of letters. languages ​​are pronounced in two ways - or how [shn], or how [chn]: bakery, laundry, penny, decent, dairy, creamy, etc.

In the department cases diff. pronunciation of the combination -n- serves for meaning. word differentiation:

a heart attack is a heart friend;

midnight serenade - midnight owl, night owl.

According to Old Moscow combination of standards -T- pronounced like [PCS] in the word “what” and in words produced. from him: “nothing”, “something”, etc. Nowadays. time, this rule remains in effect for all decree. words, except for the word “something” - [w]. In all other words, the spelling - cht - is always pronounced as [cht]: “mail”, “dream”, etc.

58. Pronunciation of foreign words

The Russian language is characterized by a tendency towards sound adaptability. appearance of borrowings words to Russian phonets. laws acc. no one with this. borrowed words with letter e after the traditionally hard consonant “Russianized” and are pronounced with a soft consonant before e. For example: museum [z"e], academy [d"e]. However, a number of words retain a hard consonant before e. For example: business [ne], test [te].

Notes

1. The sign " " " indicates the softness of the consonant.

2. The sign ":" indicates the length of the consonant.

Russian language. Crib

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Russian language in the modern world. Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication

If you look around, you can find a lot of things created by the mind and hands of man: radio, telephone, car, ship, plane, rocket... But the most amazing and wise thing that humanity has created is language. Almost all people on Earth can speak. They speak different languages, but all languages ​​have one task - to help people understand each other when communicating, when working together. Without language, the life of a person, people, society is impossible; development of science, technology, art. The meaning of language (speech, words) is noted by many Russian proverbs.

· The human word is sharper than the arrow.

· Good speech is good to listen to.

· A bullet will hit one, but a well-aimed word will hit a thousand.

· The wind destroys mountains, the word raises nations.

There are also a number of famous statements on this topic. figures of literature, philosophy, art

· Language is the key to all knowledge and all nature (G. R. Derzhavin).

· Writing gives strength to the flying word, conquers space and time (Ya. K. Grot).

· It is impossible for someone who does not know grammatical properties and rules to glorify himself (A.P. Sumarokov).

Language is one of those general topics. phenomena, cat. operate throughout the entire existence of people. society. The main purpose (or function) of language is serve as a means of communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking, human consciousness, and serves as a means of forming and expressing our thoughts and feelings.

There are more than 2000 languages ​​on our planet. Among them, Russian is one of the most common languages. It includes all the diversity of language. funds, Spanish in communication between people. Despite the fact that languages ​​differ from each other, each of them still has “relatives” among other languages. The Russian language, like Ukrainian and Belarusian, is an Eastern Slavic language. languages. The languages ​​of this group have the same source of origin - the Old Russian language. Hence - a number of similar features (in particular, the similarity of words. composition: nouns - Russian "belok", Ukrainian "bilok", Belarusian "byalok"; adjectives - Russian "white", Ukrainian "biliy", Belarusian "white"; verbs - Russian “belet”, Ukrainian “biliti”, Belarusian “belets”).

The Russian language exists and develops only because it simultaneously fulfills all universal properties. any function language. With the help of language, people communicate, convey to each other thoughts, feelings, knowledge about the environment. us in the world. Any word in our language is not just a set of sounds: it has its own meaning. And we think using these same meanings. Therefore, language is closely related to thinking and cognition. All human knowledge about the environment. reality is fixed in language and expressed in words, phrases and sentences, generally accepted and generally understandable. This allows knowledge to be passed on to people from generation to generation.

In the modern world, the Russian language performs, in addition to those mentioned, three more functions.

Firstly, Russian is a national language. language of the Russian people. Notes were created on it. monuments of art and literature, this is the language of science and culture. The arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their connections contains the information that cat. conveys to us knowledge about the world and people, introducing us to the spirit. wealth, creation many generations of ancestors.

Secondly, Russian is the state language. Russian language Federation. When the USSR existed, the Russian language was not such a language - too many nationalities inhabited the territory of the Soviet Union. Union. Now it is a language, service. not only the needs of people at home and at work, but also the official the language of the state, the language of science, production and, of course, culture.

Third, Russian is one of the international languages. languages.

In international relations of the state enjoy peace. languages, legally proclaimed. United Nations as an official and slave UN languages. These languages ​​are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. Interstate transactions can be carried out in any of the 6 languages. political, economic, scientific and cult. contacts, international meetings, forums, etc.

Studying the Russian language at school is designed to reveal the wealth, beauty and greatness of the Russian nationality. language, strengthen and make more conscious pride in it and love for it. The Russian language is the language of the great Russian people, which has a heroic history, vyd. achievements in culture, science, general. thought, literature, etc. In all these achievements there is a great contribution of the Russian language as a means of communication, as a form of nationality. culture.

The study of the native language should begin with the study of statements about it by those who were fluent in the Russian word.

· Our extraordinary language is still a mystery. It contains all the tones and shades, all the transitions of sounds - from the hardest to the most tender and soft N.V. Gogol.

· We have been given possession of the richest, most accurate, powerful and truly magical Russian language. True love for one's country is unthinkable without love for one's language. We learn language and must learn it continuously until the last days of our lives K. G. Paustovsky.

· The Russian language in skillful hands and experienced lips is beautiful, melodious, expressive, flexible, obedient, dexterous and capacious A.I. Kuprin.

Linguistics as the science of language. Sections of linguistics

The science of language is called linguistics(linguistics, linguistics). School grammar studies basic. sections of the science of the Russian language: phonetics (speech sounds), morphemics (word composition), vocabulary (verbal composition of the language), morphology (words as parts of speech), syntax (phrases and sentences).

IN linguistics Several sections are highlighted.

Lexicology(its subject is the word) - the doctrine of words. composition of the language. Lexicology establishes the meaning of a word and the rules for its use in speech.

One of the main sections of lexicology is semantics(from the Greek "sema" - sign), cat. studies all issues, communications. with the meaning of the word, as well as changing the meaning of the word.

Lexicology studies words. composition of the language in its modern form. condition, as well as basic the ways of its development and the reasons for changing the meaning of the word and words. composition of the language as a whole. Specialist. a branch of lexicology is etymology - science, study origin of the word.

Phraseology considers issues, communications. with meaning, morphological-syntax. and stylist. features of phraseological units, as well as their classification and basic. ways of education.

Phraseologisms– mouth combinations of words that are close in lex. meaning one word (at the end of the world - far away; lather the neck - teach a lesson, punish; walks under the table - small, etc.).

Phonetics- a branch of science that studies sound. structure of language. Phonetics occupies a special place among other linguists. Sci. If lexicology and grammar study meaning. side of language, the meaning of sentences, words and parts of words, then phonetics deals with mater. side of the language, with such its means, cat. have no semantic meaning.

Pract. Phonetics is used in spelling- the science of rights. pronunciation.

Closely connected. with phonetics section graphics studies letters, i.e. the image of sounds in writing, the relationship between letters and sounds.

Word formation - section of the science of language, studied. ways and means of forming new words, as well as the structure of existing words.

In some in textbooks this section is called morphemics(from the Greek "morphe" - form). Morphemes– meaning parts of the word: prefix, root, suffix, ending. They form a morph. composition of the word.

Grammar studies the peculiarities of language construction. Currently Time grammar is one of the most important. sections of the science of language, cat. includes two subsections - morphology and syntax.

Morphology(from the Greek “morphe” - form, “logos” - science, word), studies inflection and parts of speech found in a given language. Words can change according to gender, number, case, person, etc. Although there are some, cat. do not change (conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs). Morphology is closely related to spelling, so this section of the textbook often contains various kinds of spelling. rules.

Parts of speech- this is a morphologist. word classes. According to their role in language, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary.

Independent parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun. Functional parts of speech: preposition, conjunction, particle. In speech the self. and servant words perform different functions. In the sentence self. words, naming objects, their characteristics, actions, etc., act as members of a sentence, and service words often serve to connect selves. words

Syntax studies phrases and sentences.

Sentence and phrase– syntax. units for different purposes, each of them has its own essence. signs. A sentence serves to express a statement and is the main unit of syntax. A phrase is one of the components of a sentence; it represents an auxiliary. unit. In syntax, the rules of grammar are studied. forming sentences and phrases.

Spelling(from the Greek “ortho” - correct, “grapho” - writing) - a section of the science of language, studied. rules for writing words.

There are many cases in Russian where it is unclear which spelling is correct. Select rights. writing is possible only based on the definition. rule. This is the spelling in the word cat. corresponds to def. spelling usually called spelling.

Punctuation studies the rules of using punctuation marks.

Punctuation is closely related to syntax. School grammar gives an idea of ​​10 punctuation marks:

· question mark;

· Exclamation point;

· comma;

· semicolon;

· colon;

· brackets;

· quotes;

· ellipses.

The place in a sentence or text where you need to use punctuation. usually called punctogram.

Stylistics- the study of speech styles and means of language. expressiveness, as well as the conditions for their use in speech.

A culture of speech- a branch of linguistics that studies practice. implementation of literary norms in speech. language.

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Basic linguistic dictionaries

There is a special section of science, zan. theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. It is called lexicography. All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic.

Encyclopedia presents in a condensed form modern. the state of scientific knowledge in any field, i.e. describes the world, explains concepts, gives a biographer. certificates of knowledge personalities, etc. Explanation. part encycl. dictionaries and terminology. reference books are much more informative. parts of linguistics dictionaries.

To the encyclops. and terminal. dictionaries include “Great Soviet Encyclopedia”, “Small Soviet Encyclopedia”, “Children’s Encyclopedia”, “Medical Encyclopedia”, etc.

IN linguistic Dictionaries contain information about a word.

There are different types of linguistics dictionaries: explanatory, foreign dictionaries. words, etymological, spelling, spelling, phraseological, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, dictionaries of linguistics. terms, syntax. dictionaries, etc.

Intelligent Dictionaries describe the meaning of words. Widespread and famous is the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov, cod. more than 50 thousand words, each of the cats. interpretations are given, accompanying. grammatical and stylistic notes, illustrations of usage are given.

The “Dictionary of the Russian Language” in 4 volumes of the USSR Academy of Sciences (the so-called Small Academic) is also very popular. There is the Great Academic Dictionary in 17 volumes and the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D. N. Ushakov. A special place among the talk. dictionaries are occupied by “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. I. Dahl, comp. from 4 volumes and sod. more than 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs, sayings, sayings, riddles, cat. are given as illustrations to clarify the meanings of words.

Compiling a dictionary is associated with great difficulties, since vocabulary is the most inconvenient. level of language structure, poorly under. systematization. Meaning. multi-part structure words are constantly updated. When describing the meaning. structure, it is important to take into account the difference in meaning. and meaning. signs of lex. meanings. If the former indicate the originality of the meaning of the interpretation. words, then the second - emphasize the similarity of words, rel. to def. subject row. Explain. part of the dictionary must be different. completeness, exhaustion.

Related to the problem of polysemy is the question of which meaning is polysemous. words should be considered the main ones, in what sequence to arrange the existing meanings. The lexicographer must also take into account that in addition to polysemy, there is such a thing as homonymy. It is not always easy to determine when decomposition occurs. multi-valued values words diverge to form new words.

A word with its entire system of meanings, gram. and style. litter, as required illus. material is dictionary entry. Word structure. articles depends on the type of dictionary. Usually words. The article contains a title and accent. and grammar. characterization of the word, stylist. qualifications, interpretation formula, selection of quotes and illustrations, historical etymology certificate. character, bibliographer. certificate Word, Rev. words article, usually called title, or a capital word.

In dictionaries it is designated as rights. emphasis, given basic. gram. forms interpretation words. This kind of instructions is called grammatical marks.

At the end of the dictionary entry, various clauses are usually placed. phraseological units.

An essential element of any dictionary is dictionary- a list of words to be clarified and interpreted. A definition is established between the dictionary and the interpretation. addiction. The more complete the dictionary, the more obvious that the words included in it will also be included in the development. definition, in explanation part of the dictionary, and vice versa.

The origin of the word, its path in language, history. changes in its composition are recorded historical And etymological dictionaries (for example, "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" M. Vasmera, "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language " N. M. Shansky).

In phraseological In dictionaries you can find descriptions of mouths. revolutions, learn about their origin and use. In 1967, edited by A. I. Molotkova the first special was published. "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language", in cat. over 4000 phraseological units explained. In 1980, the “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published by V.P. Zhukov, co-ed. explanations of about 1800 of the most commonly used phraseological units.

Information about rights. spelling of the word can be obtained in spelling dictionary, but about rights. pronunciation - in orthoepic. There are dictionaries grammatical, sod. information about morphol. properties of the word. There are also dictionaries dedicated to. description of the department groups of vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

Outstanding Russian scholars

The formation and development of linguistics as a science of language is associated with the names of such scientists as Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov, Vladimir Ivanovich Dal, Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya, Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov, Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov, Alexander Matveevich Peshkovsky, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Victor Vladimirovich Vinogradov , Sergey Ivanovich Ozhegov, Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky, Leonard Yurievich Maksimov.

WITH M. V. Lomonosova (1711-1765) started sir. learning Russian. One of the best poets of the 18th century, note. philologist, writer and teacher. Lomonosov created the first scientific growth. grammar ("Russian Grammar", 1757). In this work, the scientist defined speech. norms of his time and laid the foundations of stylistics. Installing gram. and orthoep. rules, Lomonosov proceeds from his own. observations of live speech.

Lomonosov is credited with developing the scientific classification of parts of speech and creating "three calms" theory. The latter played an important role in the creation of new letters. language. The scientist divided the language into three styles: high, mediocre (medium) and low. The high style was intended for writing heroic odes. poems, trade "words about important matters." Middle - theater for language. plays, satire, poetry. friend letters. Low style - the style of comedies, songs, descriptions of “ordinary affairs.” When using it, it was forbidden to use Tserkovoslav. words, preference was given to Russians themselves, often simpletons. words.

The merit of another prominent Russian linguist, poet and translator - A. Kh. Vostokova (1781-1864)- is the creation of educational books on the Russian language, such as “Abbreviated Russian grammar for use in lower educational institutions” (1831), cat. reprinted 15 times, and “Russian Grammar... more fully expounded” (1831), reprint. 11 times. In "Russian Grammar" the scientist carried out a "sort-out of the entire Russian language" and examined its gram. features at the level of science of its time.

A. A. Potebnya (1835-1891)- emp. Russian and Ukrainian philologist, during his lifetime prol. false erudition. Being very young, the scientist wrote the monograph “Thought and Language” (1862), in cat. the connection between language and thinking was considered. Its main work - "From notes on Russian grammar" in 4 volumes - dedicated to the co-post. analysis of the Ukrainian and Russian languages, history of basic. gram. categories, comparison study of Eastern Slavic syntax. languages ​​- Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

A. A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920)- one of the most outstanding. philologists at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. He mainly concentrated his scientific interests in the field of history and dialectology of slavs. languages. Shakhmatov devoted more than 20 works to the problem of the origin of East Slavic languages. groups. In the last During the years of his life he taught a course on the syntax of the Russian language at St. Petersburg University, hand-written. materials cat. after the death of the author, the banner was published. "Syntax of the Russian language". Many modern ones go back to this work. syntax theories.

A. M. Peshkovsky (1878-1933) was the first in the history of Russian linguistics to show that intonation is grammatic. means that it helps where others do. means (prepositions, conjunctions, endings) are unable to express meaning. One of Peshkovsky’s best works is considered to be “Russian Syntax in Scientific Light” (1914) - a witty and full of subtle observations monograph, cat. the author seems to be talking with his students. Together with them, he observes, reflects, experiments, forcing the reader to become conscious. user of the Russian language.

L. V. Shcherba (1880-1944)- emp. Russian linguist and teacher - called for observations of the living facts of language and speech, for reflection on them. His work “On parts of speech in the Russian language” (1928), in cat. he highlighted a new part of speech - words of the state category - clearly showed which grams. phenomena are hidden behind the terms “noun” and “verb” that are familiar to most.

Shcherba is the creator of Leningrad. Phonologist. schools. He was one of the first to turn to a linguist. analysis of art language works. His pen includes two linguistic experiences. interpretations of the poems “Memories” by Pushkin and “Pine” by Lermontov.

V. V. Vinogradov (1895-1969)- emp. Russian philologist and teacher. His name went down in the cultural history of not only our country, but the whole world. He is credited with creating two languages. Sciences: history of Russian literature. language and science of language. literature. His books “The Language of Pushkin”, “The Language of Gogol”, “Pushkin’s Style”, “Lermontov’s Prose Style” represent an ogre. interest for both the philologist and the applicant.

Vinogradov’s achievements in the field of lexicology and phraseology are significant. He created a classification of lex types. meanings of the word and types of phraseols. units, cat. They are still used in universities. Vinogradov is known to many as the creator and editor-in-chief of the journal "Questions of Linguistics" and as the president of the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature.

The scientist’s scientific heritage is extremely extensive and diverse in terms of issues. He created more than 250 works. One of the center. The monograph "Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word" occupies a place among them. This is the deepest. study of modern morphology. Russian language. The work was awarded the State. prizes in 1951. Many foreigners. Academies of Sciences elected Vinogradov as a member.

A. A. Reformatsky (1900-1978)– note. scientist-philologist. He gained fame in wide circles thanks to the banners. textbook for university students "Introduction to Linguistics". His scientific interests are extremely diverse, and his works are devoted to various. problems of language: phonetics, word formation, vocabulary, writing theory, history of linguistics, the relationship between language and speech. Together with other issues. linguists - Kuznetsov, Sidorov and Avanesov - Reformatsky was the founder of Moscow. phonol. schools, ideas cat. are still being developed today.

Names issued Russian linguists are not known in the same way as, for example, the names of great physicists. However, each of them contributed to the science of language. contribution. Remembering these names and knowing about the theories and discoveries of Russian scientists is the duty of anyone, even the beginning. philologist.

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Sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech

Vocabulary- is a collection of words of a particular language. Words The Russian language contains tens of thousands of words. In words. stocks embody the processes and results of knowledge. human activity, reflects the development of the culture of the people.

Words the composition of the language is in post. movement: some words fall out of use, others appear as new realities arise in the environment. us life, cat. require a name. Science, studied. words the composition of the language is called lexicology. Its subject is primarily lex. the meaning of the word, i.e. content, closed. behind him in society. Lexicology allows you to realize how rich and expressive Russian speech is.

Lex. The Russian language system is changeable, mobile, dynamic. Some words go away along with that reality, cat. they designated, or were replaced by others (the word neck replaced “neck”, hand - “right hand”). Nekot. words disappeared because they could not withstand competition with other, more common ones: thief - thief, cheeks - cheeks, etc. This archaisms. They give speech solemnity and elation. Sometimes it is not the entire word that becomes obsolete, but only one of its meanings. For example, the word vulgar has lost its meaning “ordinary, hackneyed” and acquired in modern times. language has a completely different tone.

At the same time, new objects appear in our lives, new concepts arise, and this entails the need to define them. This is how new words are born. They are usually called neologisms. For example, cosmodrome, honorik (a cross between a mink and a ferret), bionics.

Words The stock of the Russian language is enriched in different ways, it is important. of them - word formation, i.e., the emergence of new words by constructing them from morphemes existing in the language according to known. models. A widespread method for the emergence of new words is the development of existing ones. new meaning (semantic derivation). Def. Some words appear as a result of borrowings from other languages. This process has intensified in recent years due to numerous zarub. contacts. Examples: voucher, leasing, broker, clearing, barter, dealer, investment, etc. All words in the Russian language can be divided into 2 groups: original, exc. on Russian soil, and borrowed, coming from other languages.

Many words came into the Russian language from other languages: Greek (lamp, icon, sexton, Bible), Latin (school, revolution, exam, linguistics), Turkic (pencil, sundress, chest), German, Dutch (soldier, officer, headquarters , bill) etc.

However, the main source of word replenishment. The composition of the language is not borrowing, but the formation of new vocabulary. units based on the native language, through the use of various. ways of word formation.

In the Russian language there are traces. ways to form words:

1) suffixal:

fly - pilot, teacher - teacher, scatter - scatter, cold - cold;

2) prefixal:

swim - to-swim, from-swim, you-swim; dark - beyond dark; sleepy - sleepless; friend - not-friend;

3) prefixal-suffixal(both a prefix and a suffix are added to the generating stem):

beard - under-the-beard-ok, scream-ra-scream-sya;

4) unsuffixed:

cross - transition?, blue - blue?, deaf - wilderness?, fly - flight?;

5) addition:

a) without connection vowel: raincoat-tent, sofa-bed, launch vehicle;

b) with connection vowel: dry fruits - dried fruits, carriage repair - carriage repair, factory + poultry - poultry farm;

c) addition with suffixation: mow hay - sen O mower;

d) merging words based on the phrase: evergreen, long-lasting;

e) merging words based on a sentence: tumbleweed;

6) abbreviation(formation of compound words).

Wherein:

a) initial letters can be combined - MGU, MPGU;

b) sounds can be combined - university, traffic police;

c) only the first word can be abbreviated - salary, savings bank;

d) parts of two words can be abbreviated - food store;

7) words can also be formed by transitioning one part of speech to another:

Sick(adj.) the child cried . Sick(noun) moaned softly. He left, thanks to(adverb) doctor for help. Thanks to(pretext) the help of a doctor made him feel better;

8) new words can appear as a result of the development of new meanings in nouns. already lasts in the language. time of words (shell or breadbox to indicate garages).

The richness and expressiveness of Russian speech is determined by the presence of various types in the vocabulary of the language. groups of words.

The first one is synonyms(words similar in lexical meaning: brave - courageous, courageous, courageous, daring). Synonyms belong to the same part of speech. They may vary:

a) stylistically: potato (colloquial) - potato (neutral);

b) by compatibility with other words: brown hair, brown wool, brown eyes;

c) by frequency of use: postman - letter carrier, thermometer - thermometer.

Synonyms form a synonym. rows: pilot- pilot, aviator; homeland- fatherland, fatherland. The word, stylistically neutral and most commonly used, is the main one in this series.

Synonyms allow you to diversify your speech and avoid using the same words. And writers skillfully use them, without mechanically replacing repetition. word, but taking into account the meaning. and express shades of Spanish words

Another group of words - antonyms(words that belong to one part of speech, but have opposite meanings: friend - enemy, heavy - light, sad - fun, love - hate). Not all words have antonyms. If a word has multiple meanings, then each meaning can have its own antonym: a bad bucket is a whole bucket, a bad deed is a good deed. The contrast of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech. expression, amplification emotionality of speech: At home new, and prejudices old(A. Griboyedov); To me sad because funny to you (M. Yu. Lermontov), ​​etc.

antithesis- stylist. welcome, cat consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, states. The phenomenon of antonymy is used to create a new concept by combining contrasts. according to the meaning of the words “Living Corpse”, “Optimistic Tragedy”, “Bad Good Man”, etc. This stylist. the technique is called oxymoron.

Another group of words - homonyms(words that are the same in sound, but different in meaning: key (spring) and key (for a lock), mink (animal) and mink (hole), onion (plant) and onion (weapon)).

Homonyms can be full(eg key, mink) or incomplete, coinciding in any form: glass (genus from glass) and glass (3rd person of the verb to drain). Homonymy is often used in humor. works to achieve com. effect.

Knowledge of the sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech allows you not only to speak correctly and beautifully, but also to express your thoughts in writing, for example in essays.

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Visual means of phonetics of the Russian language

Speech is a stream of sounds. They are studied by a branch of the science of language called phonetics. Sound is min. unit, cat. spoken or heard. The sound itself does not possess. meaning, but with the help of sounds you can distinguish the words: lamp-ramp, house - catfish, ox - led.

All sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels And consonants. Vowel sounds are formed by air. jet, cat. passes through the mouth and does not encounter a nickname. obstacles. They are made up of tone. There are 6 vowel sounds in the Russian language. under stress, it is - a, o, i, s, y, e.

Consonant sounds are formed when for air. jets into the mouth. there is no free passage to the cavity. The tongue may touch the teeth or palate, and the lips may close. Air the jet has to overcome these obstacles, and then acc. sounds. There are quite a lot of them in the Russian language: hard sounds are hard and soft, voiced and voiceless, some of them form pairs.

Sounds in a language are needed to distinguish words. This is the most important duty of sounds. If two sounds can independently distinguish words, then we have phoneme, i.e. different. unit of language. For example: house - volume, d And T- phonemes; house - I will give, O And A- also phonemes, since they are the ones that distinguish a given pair of words.

Words are created using sounds. Sounds, if they are not words (conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections), mean nothing, have no meaning. However, sometimes the meaning of the word is assigned to the department. sound, entrance. into this word. Let's give an example with sound R, which is included in the words thunder, thunder, thunderstorm, peals, roar. Enumeration words have long been used by artists to convey words respectively. them natural phenomena. Thus, the poet Tyutchev deliberately includes words containing this sound in the poem “Spring Thunderstorm”:

I love the storm in early May,

When the first thunder of spring

As if frolicking and playing,

Rumbling in the blue sky.

Thunder rolls...

Sound recording is one of the properties of expression. speech. Musicality poet. texts involves penetration into the features of sound. speech, in its ability to make an impression not only with the meaning of words, but also with their sound.

Russian phonet. the system is flexible and expressive. Sound speech is the main form of existence of language, and in thin. in the text, each word is “larger than the same word in a general language text” (Yu. Lotman). In thin in a work, more often in poetry, various types are used. techniques for amplifying phonets. expressiveness of speech. One of the main images. means phonetics is a stylist. reception, comp. in the selection of words that sound similar.

For example:

Peter feasts. And he is proud and clear, And his gaze is full of glory. And his royal feast is beautiful.

(A. Pushkin)

The vowels [o] and [a] and the consonants [p], [p], [t] are repeated here. This makes the verse musical and bright. Repeat depending on quality. sounds are distinguished alliteration And assonance. Alliteration is the repetition of acc. sounds. For example: A roar of thunder passed across the blue sky (S. Marshak). A sonorous trembling [r] in combination with [g] creates the impression of a clap of thunder.

Assonance called repetition of vowels: It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing. (A. Pushkin). Assonance is based on stressed vowels, as in unsudded. The position of vowels often changes. Examples of assonance: I fly quickly along cast iron rails, I think my thoughts. (N. Nekrasov). The sound [у] is repeated, creating the impression of a buzzing, rushing train.

Another method of sound recording is onomatopoeia- use of words, cat. their sound resembles hearing. impressions of the images phenomena. For more than 2 centuries, the lines of A. Sumarokov, where the croaking of frogs is depicted as follows, have remained an example of onomatopoeia: Oh, how, oh, how can we not speak to you, gods!

Rhyme, this striking feature of the verse, is also built on phonets. possibilities of Russian sound. systems - for sound. repetitions:

Mountain peaks Sleep in the darkness of the night. Quiet valleys are full of fresh darkness.

(M. Lermontov)

An important means of organizing the poet. speech is emphasis, it rhythmically organizes the poem.

So, sound recording- one of the most powerful poets. techniques, conclusion carefully selection of combinations of sounds, use of words, cat. their sound resembles hearing. impression of the image phenomena. The repetition of consonant sounds is called alliteration, and vowels - assonance.

Basic elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, raising - lowering the voice, tone of speech, etc.)

Words are divided into syllables. Not all syllables have one. longitude and strength. One of the syllables in the word is highlighted. the strength and duration of pronunciation of a vowel sound. It's called percussion. It is characteristic of the Russian language forceful stress.

Accent- this is that music. tone, on cat. the word is configured, that “voice”, according to the cat. we recognize the word. All words, yavl. self parts of speech usually have stress. Assimilation of rights. stress is associated with a number of difficulties, explain. its features.

The first is that the stress in Russian words is not attached to the definition. syllable in a word (as, for example, in most Turkic languages, in French (where the stress falls on the last syllable), in Polish (the stress is on the previous syllable), in Czech and Hungarian (the stress is on the first syllable)). This stress is called free, it can be on any syllable of the word.

The second feature of Russian stress is its mobility, its ability to change its place depending on the form of the word. For example, the verb ponyat in neodef. form has stress on the second syllable, in past. tense in the masculine gender it moves to the first syllable - p`nolyal, and in the feminine gender - to the last syllable - understood`a.

Large groups of words, men. stress depending on the form is also found among verbs. These are the verbs live, be, vit, pour, give, drink and their prefix. education. Their accent pattern is bizarre and also changes over time. Only the feminine form past remains unchanged. time - with emphasis on the ending.

The mobility of Russian stress leads to the need, along with the formation of forms, declination, and conjugation of words, to be attentive to stress, which, apparently, does not remain constant. This is the difficulty of language, but also one of its colors, when a word sounds new in different forms.

These two properties of Russian stress are taken into account in Russian versification, cat. is based on the number of syllables and the number of stresses, as well as on the ratio of stressed to unstressed syllables. Such a verse is called syllabonic (syllable-stressed). In syllabonic versification there are 5 main ones. sizes: iambic, trochee, amphibrach, dactyl, anapest.

The third feature of Russian accent is its variability over time. Language serves society, it develops, improves, changes.

Any statement is pronounced with some intonation. Differences in intonation depend on changes in 4 acoustics. components:

· sound intensity;

· duration of sound (the more sounds are pronounced per unit of time, the shorter their duration, the faster the rate of speech);

· degree of distinctness of timbre, i.e. quality of sounds.

Changes to these first components of intonation are captured by ear and more accurately calculated using special tools. equipment: oscilloscopes, intonographs, sonographs.

Each speaker has his own average tone of speech. But in some places in the phrase there is a rise or fall in tone. Such movement of tone up or down from the average level is called intonation. In scientific linguistics, the concept of intonation also includes changes in intensity, duration, timbre of a speech beat and phrase.

There are 6 intonations in the Russian language. structures (abbreviated as IR). Each of them has a center - a syllable, on a cat. the main stress (bar, phrasal or logical), pre- and post-central parts (they may be absent in some cases) decreases. That part, cat. located in front of the center, usually pronounced in the middle tone. One IR is distinguished from another by the direction of tone movement in the center and after the center:

· first IR: on the vowel sound of the center there is a decrease in tone, the tone of the post-center part is lower than average;

· second IC: the vowels of the center are pronounced almost the same as the vowels in the pre-central part, and the tone of the post-central part is below the average level;

· third IC: on the vowel of the center the tone rises sharply, and in the post-central part it is below average;

· fourth IC: on the vowel of the center the tone rises sharply, the tone of the post-central part is also higher than average;

· fifth IC: has two centers: on the vowel of the first center there is an ascending tone movement, on the vowel of the second center or on the next vowel there is a downward movement, the tone between the centers is above the average, the tone after the center is below the average;

· sixth IC: on the vowel of the center the tone rises, the tone of the post-center part is higher than the middle.

Intonation distinguishes sentences of different types and reflects neutrality. or subject. the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance conveys a variety of shades of emotions. Intonation is closely related to punctuation, although, of course, you cannot place punctuation marks based solely on it.

For example, in the sentence: “The tired children quickly fell asleep,” a comma can be placed after the word tired, if the definition is given ext. circumstances the meaning of the reason, and then it should be highlighted intonationally.

So, any statement is pronounced with intonation. Intonation- a complex phenomenon, it consists of several. components:

1) in every phrase there is a logical. the emphasis falls on the word that is the most important in meaning in the phrase. Using logical stress can clarify the meaning of a statement, for example:

A) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (not next week);

b) Tomorrow We(our class, not another) let's go to the theater;

c) Tomorrow we let's go to the theater (but we won’t go);

d) Tomorrow we will go to theater(not to the circus);

2) intonation consists of rising and falling of the voice - this is the melody of speech. It is different in every language;

3) speech proceeds quickly or slowly - this forms its tempo;

4) intonation is characterized by the timbre of speech, depending on the target setting;

5) pause - a stop, a break in the movement of tone - always happens at the border of phrases, but can also happen inside a phrase.

It is very important to pause at the right place, since the meaning of the statement depends on it: How surprised he / brother was with his words! How surprised he was/by his brother’s words! There are pauses logical(semantic) and psychological(dictated by feelings).

Using words figuratively to create tropes

Many words in Russian have several meanings at the same time. This phenomenon is called polysemy or polysemy. For example, the word golden has a trace. values:

1) made of gold (gold jewelry);

2) the color of gold, yellow (golden hair, golden field);

3) very good, valuable (golden worker), happy, joyful (golden time of youth); dear, beloved (my golden girl).

The connection between these meanings is obvious: the name of one concept is, as it were, transferred to another. The first meaning is direct, the rest are figurative. Peren. meanings can be associated with a direct one based on similarity (for example, appearance, color), but these connections can be more complex - based on contiguity (gold is a valuable metal, and based on value, the three subsequent values ​​are related to the first).

Words and expressions, used. in translation meaning, created figurative ideas about objects and phenomena are called paths. Tropes include metaphor, metonymy, personification, etc.

One of the artistic tropes. speech is metaphor- word or expression, used. in translation meaning based on similarity. Aristotle also noted that “to create good metaphors means to notice similarities...”

At the heart of every metaphor is the unnamed. comparison of some objects with others that have a common characteristic, but cat. in our minds are associated with a completely different range of phenomena. In a metaphor (as opposed to a simile), the object is not called a cat. figuratively characterized using a trope. For example, Pushkin calls his youth spring: “You have come to terms with the pompous dreams of my spring,” using the translation. The meaning of this word is: the time of blossoming, youth. He often metaphorically calls the end of life a sunset, using the figurative meaning of this word (end, outcome):

Then a novel in the old fashion will take over my cheerful sunset;

And, perhaps, at my sad sunset, love will flash with a farewell smile.

In a metaphor, a writer or poet creates an image - an artist. idea of ​​objects, phenomena, cat. he describes, and the reader grasps and understands exactly what similarity the meaning is based on. connection between transfer and the direct meaning of the word. Endowment of inanimate souls. objects signs and properties of a person is called personification.

One of the poets. tropes is comparison, that is, the bringing together of two phenomena in order to clarify one through the other. In any comparison, you can highlight the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.

Comparisons vary in structure. Most often they appear in the form of comparisons. revolution, adjoining with the help of conjunctions like, exactly, as if, as if, etc. The form of comparison, expression, is often found. noun in creates. case: Letters smolder like ants on the sheets (E. Bagritsky). There are comparisons, cat. are transmitted in the form of comparison. degrees of an adverb or adjective: Out of the darkness a bush crawls, a furry bear cub (V. Lugovskoy); The earth was more fluffy than a carpet underneath him (N. Tikhonov). There are comparisons, cat. are included in sentences using the words similar, similar, reminds: There, the ocean burns with fire like hell, and jellyfish look like the lace skirts of ballerinas (K. Paustovsky).

A special form of figurative comparison is negative. comparisons, in cat. one object is opposed to another:

It is not the wind that rages over the forest, It is not the streams that run from the mountains, It is not the frost-voivode who patrols his domain.

(N. Nekrasov)

This kind of comparison is especially typical for works of oral folk art. creativity. Like any other tropes, comparisons can be general language and individually authored: blue as the sky, green as grass, fast as the wind, bald as a knee. General language. There are a lot of comparisons in the mouth. phrases: spins like a squirrel in a wheel, sticks like a bath leaf, stupid like a cork.

Epithet- one of the types of tropes. The epithet is called thin. definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, cat. emphasizes in the definition. some word to distinguish it. property. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another:

1) noun (tramp wind; maiden rose);

2) adjective (silver birch, fateful watch);

3) adverb and participle (looks greedily, they rush sparkling), but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives, used. in translation meaning.

Epithets are one of the most common. and the authors’ favorite tropes, with the help of cats. they specify phenomena or their properties. For oral adv. creativity is characterized by the so-called. constant epithets. It’s hard not to agree that the best definition of the sea is immediately a challenge. in the imagination, its appearance is the epithet blue, which cannot better convey the vast expanse of the steppe than the epithet freely clear field. The maiden in Russian fairy tales is characterized by the epithet red, and the fellow is kind. In epics, the name of the enemy is inextricably linked, always associated with the epithets dog, thief. The mother of cheese is the earth - this is how heroes of epics and fairy tales affectionately call their homeland.

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Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. Archaisms and historicisms

The Russian language is in post. movement and change. Words the composition of the language changes by updating the vocabulary and accumulating new expressions. funds. Nekot. from obsolete words cease to be used, that is, they become obsolete and fall into disuse. Russian vocabulary fund.

Comparing, for example, lex. modern system Russian language with the "ancient dictionary", we find not only the quantity. changes, but also deeper, quality. These changes are divided into several types.

Changes in the way things are named. Previously, during the times of Ancient Rus', objects were named based on the characteristics of their shape, material, and their contiguity with other objects. Nowadays, the prevailing principle is naming an object according to its function and purpose.

Changes in species. relationships between concepts and their reflections in the dictionary. In ancient times language there were words such as table, bench, bench, chair, bed, etc. However, the words furniture or some other cat. would unite the whole species. there was no name.

The tendency to organize words into similar sets with the same gender. the name increases to the last. stages of language development. These days it is becoming especially obvious.

Changing synonymous relationships between words, increasing synonymous series.

Moving from the general to the specific, let's turn to specifics. evidence of lexical change. Russian language systems - historicisms and archaisms. Both of them are outdated. words. Examples: halberd, arquebus, axe, sei, zelo, etc.

Names of objects, cat. were known only to our ancestors and fell into disuse - these historicisms (halberd, arquebus, ax- names of old types of weapons).

It may be like this: the thing or concept remained, but their names left the language and were replaced by others. Such gone words - archaisms: this - this, very - very, youth - teenager, young man, thoughtful - reasonable. Archaisms may differ from modern ones. not all words, but only a few. sounds (or even just one): piit - poet, fire - fire, corvid - raven. This phonetic archaisms. If in the past the word had a different emphasis, then they speak of accents, or accentol. archaisms: symbol, judge, ghost Another type of archaism is morphological; they are archaic in their morphemic structure: ferocity - instead of modern. ferocity, nervous - instead of nervous, collapse - instead of collapse.

It happens that the appearance of a word is quite modern, but its meaning is archaic. This semantic archaisms. Yes, word "a shame", cat. we now use it in the sense "dishonor" in the old days it meant "spectacle" « ordinary» about 150 years ago it meant "done in one day", but not at all "ordinary, ordinary" as it is now. There are also phraseological archaisms. These are called obsolete. mouth combinations of words, sayings, idioms.

The reason for the appearance of historicisms in the language- in changing life, customs, in the development of technology, science, culture. One things and relationships are replaced by others. For example, with the disappearance of such types of clothing as armyak, camisole, caftan, The names of these types of clothing have left the Russian language. They can now only be found in history. descriptions.

Writers use many historicisms in their works, thus helping to “hear the feedback of a distant era.” Take, for example, “The Heroic Poem” by N. Aseev: The princes rode around on horses wearing patterned cones; The marks in the bast shoes repelled the enemies in those stubborn battles.

Some people can be called obsolete. category of words, appearing. not so long ago - in the Soviet Union. era. Remember words like educational program, dispossession, kulak, middle peasant, surplus appropriation system, tax in kind, Social Revolutionary Party, VSNKh (Supreme Council of the National Economy), STO (Council of Labor and Defense), Rabkrin (Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate), etc.

But despite the fact that historicisms belong to the pass. vocabulary, their role is very important even in modern times. texts. The fact is that these words are necessary where it is necessary to display the flavor of the era, to talk about objects and phenomena of the past.

The main reason for the appearance of archaisms- in the development of a language, in updating its vocabulary - some words are replaced by others. Displacement Archaisms do not disappear from use without a trace: they, like historicisms, are preserved in history. novels and essays - to recreate everyday life and language. color of the era. Sometimes outdated. words begin to be used in a new meaning. So, in modern Russian language word returned "dynasty". Previously, it could only be combined with such definitions as royal, monarchical. Now they talk and write about slaves. dynasties, dynasties of miners, lumberjacks, meaning families with an “inherited” profession. So, if historicisms often disappear from use without a trace, then archaisms have in modern times. Russian synonyms: this - this, mirror - mirror, zelo - very, cheeks - cheeks, eyes - eyes, etc.

Ticket 10

The main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Neologisms

New objects constantly appear in our lives, new concepts arise, and this entails the need to name them. This is how new words are born. They are usually called neologisms. It happens that neologisms are created by a specific term. a person when he feels the need to name some reality. As a rule, writers and scientists come up with new words. More often it already exists. words, a new meaning appears, a semantics arises. neologism. Neologisms often arise on the basis of phrases according to the law of speech. savings.

One of the main ways to enrich the vocabulary of the Russian language is word formation- the emergence of new words by constructing them from morphemes existing in the language according to the famous. templates. The method of semantics is widespread. derivations - giving creatures. words with new meaning.

Most neologisms are associated with the development of science, technology, and culture. Many of these words become firmly established in our lives, lose their novelty and become an act. words stock For example, in the 50-70s. a large number of terms and connections appear. with the development of astronautics: astronaut, cosmodrome, cosmovision, telemetry, spaceship, etc.; Most of these words, due to their relevance, very quickly became commonly used and entered into the act. words stock

New words, as already noted, appear in different ways: some are formed according to models from elements existing in the language: car shop, snowmobile, cinema panorama, microdistrict, etc. Others are borrowed, for example sport. terms outsider, dribbling, stopper. Based on borrowings. words in the Russian language, the formation and emergence of new words is also possible - rally, biathlete, lifter.

The first two groups of neologisms are called proper lexical, last group - semantic neologisms. Language. Neologisms can perform not only nominal, but also express. function.

Express - stylist. the saturation of a word in most cases is associated with its semantics. updating and expanding the context of its use. From the tongue. Neologisms should be distinguished from contextual neologisms, or individually-authored. Individual - author Neologisms are words, cat. are formed by word artists, publicists, etc. in order to enhance the expressiveness of the text. Unlike language. neologisms, such neologisms perform not nominative, but express. function, rarely go into letters. language and receive general use.

So is the language. neologisms, indiv. - author neologisms are formed according to the laws of language, according to models from morphemes, named after. in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: to multi-storey, to disperse, to become chamberlain (Mayakovsky); prosin, sparrow (herbs), ringing, cone-feathered, loosen, pannost (Yesenin), etc.

As a rule, each new word in a language is formed according to some word image. diagram or model. The most common is laying down the basics. One of the components of such new words are: cosmo-, radio-, electric-, glass-, etc. For example: radio astronomer, electromusic, film university, ultra-powerful, ultra-long-range, radio emission, television review, super lightning, cosmodrome, television review, etc.

There are others, also quite common. ways of forming neologisms - suffixal and prefixal: dock, antimatter, unmanned, antiparticle, organize, engage, etc.

Neologisms can also be formed by adding reduce. or increase. suffixes. For example: transporters, disorderly, acmeistics, futuristics, expanding, etc.

Based on their composition, neologisms can be divided into several groups:

1) names of new branches of knowledge (aeronomy, interoscopy, exobiology, etc.);

2) names of new mechanisms and devices (driver, chemotron, mosquito, etc.);

3) names of new substances and materials (glass fiber, kormobacterin, benzolone, etc.).

Some words from passive vocabulary became active and became neologisms. These words include the following: democratization, citizenship, priority, transparency, social justice, etc.

Ticket 11

Origin of words: native Russian and borrowed words. Old Slavonicisms

Vocabulary composition of the Russian language- the system is changeable. Lex. its layer is constantly replenished with new words, this is the most changing. part of the tongue. systems.

In words. The composition of the Russian language can be divided into 2 main ones. layer of words depending on their origin: original Russian vocabulary and borrowed vocabulary. The original Russian vocabulary refers to those words, cat. formed immediately in the Russian language in different periods of its development.

There are several groups of native Russian words:

1. Common Slavic words, cat. entered the Russian language from the slavs. base language. These are, for example, names of persons by kinship (brother, sister, mother, father); some names tools and household items. everyday life ( plow, plow, pitchfork, chisel); names of persons by their occupation (weaver, reaper); house names (house, yard) and so on.

2. East Slavic(or Old Russian) words, cat. arose in Russian approx. in the XI-XIV centuries. There are a lot of such words, they are common to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, comp. united Eastern Slav. language.

3. Actually Russian words, appearing starting from the 14th century. after the division of the East Slavs. languages ​​into Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian. This includes all words except borrowed ones.

A special group of borrowings. words make up Old Slavonicisms. This is how the words are usually called, come. from Staroslav. language, ancient language of the Slavs. Old Slavonicisms have some. distinguishes features. Here are some of them:

1) disagreement, i.e. combinations ra, la, re, le in place of the Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - enemy, sweet - malt, milky - milky, breg - shore);

2) combinations ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian ro-, lo- (work - grain grower, rook - boat);

3) the combination of railway in place (stranger - stranger, clothes - clothes, driving - driving);

4) sch in place of the Russian h (lighting - candle, power - can, burning - hot);

5) initial a, e, yu instead of the Russians i, o, u (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - taken away);

6) in the Russian language there are quite a lot of morphemes Staroslav. origin: suffixes - eni-, -enstv-, -zn-, -tel-, -yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride); suffixes of adjectives and participles: - eish-, -aysh-, -ash-, -ush-, -om-, -im-, -enn- (kindest, bitterest, burning, running, driven, kept, blessed); prefixes: voz-, from-, niz-, through-, pre-, pre- (to give, to vomit, to overthrow, excessively, to despise, to prefer), etc.

Once included in the Russian vocabulary, Old Church Slavonicisms were distributed according to 3 main groups. groups. The first group includes words that, having entered the Russian language, completely replaced their Russian equivalents, for example, cloud, good, between, before, vegetables, enemy, good, captivity, burden, time, etc. The second group includes those Old Slavonicisms, cat. exist together with Russian variants of words, for example, glav (head), power (volost), seduce (collapse), dust (gunpowder). As for the third group, this includes the words cat. are in the language so-called. style reserve, for example: vran (raven), blato (swamp), etc.

In addition to Old Church Slavonicisms, the Russian language also included words from other languages. From Greek, even in ancient times, many names from the field of religion (lamp, angel, demon, choir, etc.), scientific terms (geography, mathematics, philosophy), names from the field of science and art (anapaest, comedy, trochee) came. . From Latin in the Russian language there are many scientific and general ones. - watered terms: revolution, constitution, evolution, vertical, etc. Borrowings from Western Europe. languages ​​are significant and explained in numerous ways. contacts with these peoples. Many words came from German and Dutch in the era of Peter I in connection with his reforms (from German - guardhouse, camp, freight; from Dutch - harbor, pilot, flag). Borrowings from English are actively penetrating our language today. time: briefing, clearing, etc. There is a lot of everyday life from French. names from the field of art: bracelet, medallion, coat, etc.

There is also a special type of borrowing, cat. got the name "tracing paper". Translated from French. language it means words. copy. As for the Russian language, there are two types: word-formation tracing paper and semantic tracing paper.

Derivative tracing paper- these are the words that are formed in a foreign language. schemes, but with the help of Russian roots and word images. elements. For example, from Greek. language (anomia - lawlessness, simfonia - agreement, autocrateia - autocracy, etc.); from lat. language (insectum - insect, intelligentia - intelligence, oxigenium - oxygen, 1agricultura - agriculture, etc.).

In addition to cripples, there are their varieties, called... semi-tracing paper- words, one part cat. is not translated into Russian, but can be conveyed through their morphemes. Some words are both calques and semi-calques, for example antisocial, antisocial, intramuscular, etc.

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Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units. Idioms

Before we start talking about phraseologist. units, let’s define what phraseology is. Phraseology is the science of mouth. phrases. Phraseology can be called oral. phrases of a particular language.

In order to understand what phraseological units are, let's look at a few examples. For comparison, let’s take the following phrases: “red scarf” and “red corner”. The first phrase can be called free, because instead of the adjective “red” you can use any other adjective, for example, green, yellow, white, black, etc. As for the second phrase, its meaning will be lost if the adjective “red” is tried replace with any other. Such a phraseologist. the combination can be called non-free or stable.

There is a classification by phraseologists. phrases, developments. academician V. V. Vinogradov. According to it there are phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations. Thus, phraseological units differ in the degree of cohesion of their components. If it is maximum, then it is a phraseologist. fusion, for example, getting into a mess, playing dumb, without hesitation. Phraseologist. adhesions are also called idioms. They cannot be divided, decomposed or translated into other languages. There are also many such phraseologists. adhesions, including cat. includes both archaisms and historicisms, for example:

· goal like a falcon, which means “a ram, a smoothly planed pillar”;

· like the apple of the eye - “pupil”;

· get into trouble, i.e. “into a machine for weaving ropes”;

· turuses on wheels - “movable tower for siege of fortresses”, etc.

If the connection between components is smaller, it is phraseological unities(pull the strap, soap your neck). Here the overall value is the sum of the values ​​of its components. For example, keeping a stone in your bosom, dancing to someone else’s tune, making a mountain out of a molehill, etc.

Thus, neither in phraseologist. adhesions, nor in phraseology. in unities there are no free words. meaning. In phraseologist. combinations, one member of a phraseological unit has the so-called. limited, bound use, and the second - free: a sensitive question, fraught with consequences, pitch darkness.

Sometimes phraseological units include phraseological expressions. This includes proverbs, sayings, wings. words and expressions. The Russian language includes a large number of figurative phraseology. It is characterized by high degree of expression. In this regard, a large amount of it can be found in art, as well as in public works. literature.

The sources of phraseological units in the Russian language are varied. The main part of phraseological units of the Russian language is of original Russian origin. Sources include: prof. speech (sharpen your lasses, hit your backs), jargon (rub in your glasses, beat your card, go for broke - among gamblers) and conversation. speech.

The source of the claim. phraseologies become expressions from the works of writers: happy hours are not observed (A. Griboyedov); affairs of bygone days (A. Pushkin); and the casket simply opened (I. Krylov); knight for an hour (N. Nekrasov); living corpse (L. Tolstoy), etc. Such lips. expressions from art literature and journalism are usually called catchphrases.

Phraseologisms- these are almost always vivid, figurative expressions. Therefore they are an important express. means of language, Spanish writers as ready-made arr. definitions, comparisons, as emotions. – image characteristics of the characters, surroundings reality, etc. For example, K. Paustovsky in the novel “Smoke of the Fatherland,” characterizing the action of one of the heroes, instead of words, without thinking, thoughtlessly uses phraseological units headlong: She was attracted to him by his childishness, the tendency to get carried away headlong, chivalry, irony. attitude towards oneself.

Sometimes writers use phraseological units in a modified, re-formatted form. form. In these cases, the phraseological unit receives new aesthetics. quality. For example, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin uses the phraseological unit to poke his nose somewhere, expanding it: Censorship is accustomed to poking its stinking nose into the very sanctuary of the writer’s thoughts.

Phraseologisms- these are almost always vivid, figurative expressions. Therefore they are an important express. means of language, Spanish writers like goth. figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotions. – image characteristics of the characters, surroundings reality, etc. In modern times. in Russian there is more. number of wings. expressions, cat. entered our speech from the works of artists. literature.

One of the most important signs of a phraseologist. turnover is his post. lexical compound. For example: “stumbling block”, “living on knives”, “Kuzka’s mother”, etc. But nevertheless, the Russian language is rich in such phraseologists. rpm, in cat. lex. composition varies.

Ticket 13

Lexical means of expressive speech

Vocabulary occupies the center. place in the system arr. means of language. The word, as you know, is the main. unit of language, the most deputy. element of his art. funds. And the expressiveness of speech is connected primarily with the word. Many words have the ability to be used in multiple ways. values. This property of them is called polysemy, or polysemy. Writers find in polysemy a source of vivid emotionality and liveliness of speech.

Imagery of speech is created through the use of words in translation. meaning. Words and expressions used in the translation. meaning and creation figurative ideas about objects and phenomena are called tropes. The following trails stand out: metaphor- word or expression, used. in translation meaning, basic on similarity.

Another type of tropes is metonymy. This word, used. in translation meaning, basic on adjacency.

Epithet- this is an artist. definition: If only you knew how lonely, languidly sweet, insanely happy grief I am intoxicated in my soul... (A. Fet)

Comparison- this is a comparison of two phenomena in order to determine one through the other.

Personification- transferring the properties of living beings to inanimate beings. items:

It should not be confused with polysemy homonyms, i.e. coincidence. in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning, the words: key - “spring” and key - “master key”. Different types of homonyms (homophones, homographs, homophores) are also a source of expressiveness of speech.

Homonymous rhymes- a bright means of sound play. I. Brodsky mastered it brilliantly:

Flickered on the slope of the bank Near the brick bushes. A Crow hovered above the pink spire of the bank, screaming.

(The Hills, 1962)

The expressiveness of speech enhances the use synonyms- words, designation the same concept, but different. add. meaning. shades or stylist. coloring. The beauty and expressiveness of a native speaker’s speech can be judged by the way he uses synonyms. Not owning a synonym. With the richness of your native language, you cannot make your speech bright and expressive.

Will express a special place in the system. Lex. means are occupied by antonyms. Antonyms- these are different words, rel. to one part of speech, but having the opposite sex. meanings: friend - enemy, heavy - light, sad - fun, love - hate. Not all words have antonyms.

Antonyms are constantly used in antithesis- stylist. welcome, cat consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, states.

Has a powerful emotional impact on the reader lexical repetition, when a key is highlighted by repeating a word. concept in the text. In poetic works use such types of vocabulary as a means of expression. repeat like anaphora and epiphora. Anaphora

Epiphora- repetition of words or phrases at the end of lines.

Words in the Russian language differ in their sphere of distribution. Some are used freely, unlimitedly and form the basis of Russian letters. language. Such words refer to common vocabulary. These are, for example, names of phenomena, general concepts. - watered life (state, society, development, etc.); economy concepts (finance, credit, bank, etc.); cult phenomena life (theater, performance, actor, premiere, exhibition, etc.); everyday life names (house, apartment, family, children, school, etc.).

Another part of the vocabulary is used to a limited extent. The following groups are distinguished here.

Dialectisms - words, distribution cat. limited to a particular territory. Russian writers and poets skillfully (and moderately) used dial. words as one of them will express. funds.

Vocabulary is limited. usage also applies to the so-called. special vocabulary, i.e. words, used. and understood preem. representatives of the def. sciences, professions. Such vocabulary includes, first of all, terms- words, Spanish for a logically accurate name special. concepts, establishing their differences. signs, for example, medical. terms: scan, bypass, inoperable; linguist. terms: polysemy, semantics, morpheme.

In addition to terms, in special vocabulary is highlighted professionalism, i.e. words and expressions, cat. are not strictly legalized, scientific definitions of certain professions. concepts, but are widely used by specialists in one field or another.

For limited use. vocabulary also includes words called jargon, cat. form the basis of a special social varieties of speech - jargon. These words are used by people. community of interests, habits, activities, social provisions, etc. In the language of art. literature elements jarg. vocabulary is used for speech. characteristics of some characters.

Limited and rarely used vocabulary includes the so-called. argot,character. special artificiality, conventionality, strict secrecy.

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General grammatical meaning, morphological and syntactic features of significant parts of speech (using the example of one part of speech as directed by the teacher)

Words in the Russian language are divided into classes, cat. are called parts of speech. Modern scientific classification of parts of speech is based on taking into account traces. signs:

1) general grammar. value (of an object, action, attribute of an object, attribute of an action, quantity);

2) the general system of change (nouns are declined, adjectives are declined, verbs are conjugated, etc.);

3) general syntax. function.

Based on these characteristics, a trace is identified. parts of speech.

1 . Noun denotes an object in width. sense; has a gender, changes in numbers and cases; in a sentence it is usually the subject or object.

2. Adjective denotes an attribute of an object; changes in gender, number and case, consistent with the noun; in a sentence it functions as a definition or a nominal part of a clause. predicate.

3. Numeral noun denotes quantity; varies by case; can be subject, predicate, object, attribute.

4 . Pronoun as a part of speech it is highlighted in schools. traditions based on its inherent indication. functions. Pronouns are words, cat. They don’t name anything, but they can point to objects (you, no one, someone, he), and to signs (some, some, that), and to quantity (how many, several).

5 . Verb denotes an action or state; conjugates (changes according to persons and numbers); most often it is a predicate in a sentence.

6 . Adverb denotes a sign of an action or attribute, i.e. an adjective; does not change; is a circumstance, less often - a definition.

This is a self, or sign, part of speech. In a sentence they are its members. There are also servants. parts of speech that are not capable of independently being members of a sentence:

1 . Pretext serves to connect words in phrases and sentences (in, because of, through, during, as a consequence).

2. Union serves for one-on-one communication. members of sentences and sentences (a, but, for, as if, etc.).

3. Particle contributes additional meaning in a sentence - denial, doubt, question, strengthening, etc.: (didn’t know about it; Didn’t you know about it?; Even he didn’t know about it; Did he know about it?).

The sound group also stands out. words and interjections, cat. are not members of a sentence, do not name anything, but express feelings and motivations. In speech they appear as indivisible sentences: Ah! Yes! Well! Hooray! Meow-meow, kitty-kitty.

Let's look at each group in more detail. So, noun- this is self. part of speech, the most numerous. In russian language. She calls the phenomena of reality:

· names of objects and things;

· names of living beings;

· names of events and phenomena in general. life;

names of natural phenomena;

· names of substances;

· abstract names properties and signs.

Thus, one of the main grams. the sign of a noun is its objectivity. Based on their composition, there are several groups of nouns:

· common nouns and proper nouns;

· abstract and concrete;

· animate and inanimate;

· collective and real.

TO common noun include such nouns, cat. denote generalization. names of phenomena and objects. They call the groups odnor. items. Such nouns include, for example, constellation, river, student, etc.

Own nouns are called conc. object or phenomenon, for example, Russia, Germany, Yenisei, etc. In turn, own. nouns are divided into departments. groups: names, nicknames, surnames of people (Nikolai, Chizhik, Bazarov); geographer. and territory. names (Thames, Petrovka, Smolensk region, etc.); names of holidays, historical events, etc.

Inanimate nouns name inanimate objects, for example, car, house, machine tool, etc. a animate, on the contrary - living ones, for example a badger, a mosquito, a fox, a person, a horse, a bear, etc.

Specific nouns are called conc. object, events, facts, animal, etc.

Distracted nouns characterize abstract. concepts, qualities, properties, actions.

Real nouns characterize this or that substance, oxygen, hydrogen, salt, etc.

Collective nouns combine many one-word nouns. objects into one whole, for example, youth, peasantry, merchants, etc.

Concerning adjective, then according to lexico-grammar. features are distinguished quality And relative.

Quality adjectives are characterized by the fact that they denote a characteristic, prin. the subject directly. Quality Adjectives are divided into several topics based on the type of characteristics. groups: signs of emotions. human states (sad, cheerful), signs of color, signs of space and place (narrow, spacious), signs of quality (bad, good), moral intelligence. signs (cowardly, heartless).

Relative adjectives denote a characteristic by pointing out. the relationship of this object to other objects. In turn, rel. adjectives are divided into groups: proper-relative(glassware, stone floor, iron railings); possessive adjectives(mom’s hairpin, grandmother’s cakes, bear’s paw); ordinal adjectives(seventh day, first player, third marriage). Proper-relative ones, in turn, are divided into several subgroups. They are caused by different relationships: attitude to action (drilling machine, dining table, washing machine); relationship to time or place (station area, daily task); relationship to another object (coffee table, thundercloud, crystal vase). Sometimes in transfer. usage relates. adjectives move into the category of quality. (stony face, peaceful conversation, cordial conversation, steel muscles, golden hands).

There are several word forms. types of attraction adjectives: adjectives with the suffixes -on-, -ov- (father’s hat, squirrel’s mink); adjectives with suffixes -sk- (Lermontov’s poems, Turgenev’s girls); adjectives with the suffix -j- (sheep's wool, wolf's paw); adjectives with the suffix - in- (rat tail, chicken egg).

U numeral There are also a number of differences. lexico-grammar. features. There are quantities. numerals (eight over six), numerals of whole units and fractions (one fifth of the crops). There is also such a variety as collective numerals(four, seven).

Several stand out types of pronouns:

· pronouns-nouns (something, someone, you, I, he, someone, they, themselves);

· numeral pronouns (as many as);

· adjective pronouns (my, yours, which, which, whose).

Within the framework of pronouns, several lexico-grammars are distinguished. categories: personal and personally indicated. pronouns (you, we, he, you, I); return pronoun (self); defined pronouns (all, everyone, each, other); indicate pronouns (this, that, that, both); attractive pronouns (our, yours, mine, yours); neg. pronouns (none, nobody, nothing); asks. - relates. pronouns (who, what, which, whose, which); undefined pronouns (someone, anyone, something, something, someone, someone, something).

Among adverbs There are two varieties:

· derivatives (formed from sign parts of speech);

· non-derivatives (about, here, where, then, very, slightly).

Prepositions distinguish prototypes that arose a very long time ago. These include (for, on, from, over, under, through, for, before). They are derivatives, adverbial, verbal, denominal, compound, simple.

Particles make various proposals. meaning. and modal. shades. There are several types of particles: clarified. (exactly, exactly, just, exactly), indicate. (those, here, this, that), will highlight. - will limit. (only, only, only, almost), will strengthen. (even, even, already, and), will give in. (still, still), he asks. (really, really), will motivate. (let it go, come on, come on), will approve. and deny. (not at all, exactly), formative and word-formative. Interjections distinguish between emotional and motivating).

Sometimes just grammar. forms can be used to mean others. Thus, speech is stylistically colored. Here we are talking about verb forms. For example, present verb. tense can be taken to indicate the past. Thus, there is a visual representation of actions. Sometimes the verb in the present. time is used to denote events, cat. should happen in the near future. future: “Farewell, beloved city, we’re leaving for the sea tomorrow.”

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Synonymy of syntactic constructions

The Russian language has an ogre. stock syntactic synonyms, i.e. paral. figures of speech, cat. differ in subtle shades of meaning and can in some cases replace one another: She was sad. - She was sad. - She felt sad. - She was sad!

Or: Ivanov, having made a decision, got down to business. - Ivanov, after making a decision, got down to business. - After making a decision, Ivanov got down to business. - Ivanov, having made a decision, got down to business.

Next examples synonymy syntax. constructions are represented by the expression of comparison in Russian: soared like a falcon; soared like a falcon; flew up like a falcon; took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon.

Two-parts are synonymous. simple sentences with different types of predicates: He was sick (compound noun predicate). - He was sick (simple verb). - He began to get sick (compound verb predicate); He's glad. - He is happy. He turned gray. - He's completely gray.

K syntax. synonyms include also valid. and suffer. rpm: The student read the book. - The book has been read by the student; The plant exceeded the plan. - The plan was exceeded by the plant. The difference between these proposals is that in action. In turn, the subject of the action (student, plant) is put in the foreground, and in the sufferer. the object becomes the main one in the message. Wed. Also: The director called the foreman. - The master has been called by the director. In the first sentence the message refers to the director and his activities, and in the second sentence it refers to the director and his activities. the character is the master.

Sentences with isolation are synonymous. revolutions and complex offers: Captivated by the game, the children did not pay attention to those who approached. - Since the children were engrossed in the game, they did not notice those approaching; The boy sitting by the window stood up. - The boy who was sitting by the window stood up; As she walked off the porch, she dropped her crutch and stood helpless on the steps. - When she left the porch, she dropped her crutch and stood helpless on the steps; I stepped aside, not knowing what to do. - I stepped aside because I didn’t know what to do.

Single participle, designation. accompanying action can be replaced by a predicate verb, but at the same time the connotation of secondary importance and additionality disappears: She smiled affectionately, nodding her head several times. “She smiled affectionately and nodded her head several times.

The synonym appears. relationships and complex sentences when parts are connected with a synonym. Connect. unions: Only somewhere a wheel rattles and a nightingale whistles in the garden (and a nightingale whistles in the garden); The birches blossomed, but the oaks stood bare. - The birches blossomed, but the oaks stood naked; The soloist was rather poor, but the choir was excellent. - The soloist was rather bad, but the choir was magnificent.

Nekot. meaning. relationships can be expressed as complex or complex. proposals. This is how syntax arises. synonyms, different stylist. shades or sphere of use. Complex composition. sentences are distinguished by liveliness, lightness, spontaneity and therefore are more typical for conversation. speeches: It became stuffy in the hut, and I went out into the air to freshen up. - Since it became stuffy in the hut, I went out into the air to freshen up.

There is a synonymy for non-conjunctive complex sentences, compound sentences. and subordinates offers: When winter comes, the pond will be covered with ice (non-union). - Winter will come, and the pond will be covered with ice (compound). - When winter comes, the pond will be covered with ice (compound). Another example: If it's a good day, we'll go out of town. - It will be a good day, and we will go out of town. When it's a nice day, we'll go out of town.

So, the syntax has rich synonyms. possibilities. In conversation In speech, the most common use of one- and two-part sentences is: I suggest getting started. - I suggest starting work. The second sentence is more dynamic, emphasizing categoricalness. Synonymous constructions: Lightning split the tree. - A tree was split by lightning. - The tree is split by lightning.(If the doer is emphasized, it is expressed as the subject; if the action is important, the wordless phrase is used; in the passive construction, attention is focused on the object.)

We can talk about the synonymy of participial phrases and adverbs. def. sentences about the synonymy of complex subordinates. and non-union proposals. Writers and poets skillfully use these means.

Visual means of syntax: syntactic parallelism; rhetorical question, exclamation and appeal; repeated unions and non-unions, etc.

The most important function of language- this is communication. This is his main thing to do. role allows syntax, it is in the area of ​​syntax that the moment of message, communication arises.

Syntax- section of the science of language, in cat. the structure and meaning of phrases and sentences is studied. Basic syntax units - phrase And offer. The sentence performs a communicative function, that is, it serves to communicate, question or motivate, in other words, to communicate. Unlike a sentence, a phrase serves to specify the names of objects, actions, and features. For example: white birch, young birch, green birch, etc. The group is closely connected. in meaning and grammatically the sentences form complex syntactic whole.

Thus, in syntax, phrases, sentences (simple and complex) and complex syntax are studied. whole.

The syntax of a phrase establishes the rules for combining words. These rules are defined by grammar. signs of a word as a particular part of speech. For example, phrases like “ early spring" possible because a noun as a part of speech is capable of attaching an adjective, subordinating it to itself, and the adjective as a consonant. part of speech can take the form dict. noun (gender, number, case). This type of communication is called agreement.

In some In cases, the connection in phrases is determined by the meaning and order of words. This type of communication is called adjacency.

Types of syntax. The connections in a sentence are wider and more varied than in a phrase. Distinguish simple and complex offers. A simple sentence has one gram. basis, in complex - at least two. Syntax also studies ways of connecting parts of a complex sentence: coordinating and subordinating, intonation as a means of connecting parts of a complex sentence.

The words in the sentence are arranged according to definition. laws For rights. constructing a sentence noun. The order of words matters; any rearrangement of the members of a sentence leads to a change in meaning, highlights, emphasizes this or that word. This is easily revealed in the simplest sentences, for example: Even he doesn’t know this (he knows everything); He doesn't even know this (such an elementary thing); He doesn’t even know this (that is, he hasn’t heard about it at all).

In the Russian language, there is a distinction between direct and reverse word order (or inversion). In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, agree. definition comes before def. in a word, inconsistent - after it, addition - after ex. words, circumstance of the manner of action - before the verb: The new foreman quickly established the work of the team. This word order is called stylistically neutral.

At inversions(from Latin inversio - inversion) words are arranged in a different order than is established by the grammar. rules. This will express strongly. means. It is often used in emotions, excitement. speech.

Depict. syntax means are usually called stylistic figures. Stylist in the text. figures are usually represented by special syntax. constructions of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences.

Among the stylist. figures are most often highlighted asyndeton And multi-union.

Asyndeton- intention. skip connection unions between members of a sentence or between simple sentences as part of a complex one. The absence of conjunctions, as a rule, gives the statement dynamism, swiftness, and allows one phrase to convey the richness of the pictures.

Bessoyuznoe single connection members creates the impression of incompleteness, inexhaustibility of the list. series, and sometimes emphasizes the logical. heterogeneity of connections concepts: Everywhere, under the lazy wind, there are turning wings of mills, manors, farmsteads, houses with steep tiled roofs, with stork nests, rows of low willows along the ditches (A. N. Tolstoy).

Such constructions are typical for calm narratives. speech.

Multi-Union- intention. the use of the same conjunction to highlight (logical or intonation) connections. them members of the sentence and enhance the expressiveness of speech.

In art works to enhance figurative expression. speech authors use such a stylist. figure like anaphora (uniformity). Anaphora- this is a repetition of the department. words or phrases at the beginning of passages from cat. consists of a statement.

Among the images syntax means are distinguished exclamation And appeal. Appeal - word or combination of words, called. addressee. Most often, proper names act as addresses, less often - animal names or names of non-souls. items. The appeal is not a member of the sentence, maintaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its inherent calling. intonation.

In some cases space conversion to poetry speech becomes the content of the sentence: A soldier's son who grew up without a father and matured noticeably before his time, in the memory of a hero and father, you are not separated from earthly joys (A. Tvardovsky).

So, the syntax has an ogre. will express. possibilities. The following are known. image means, Spanish in syntax.

1. Syntactic parallelism- It is one. construction of several sentences, when the members of the sentence are arranged in the same sequence and are equally expressed.

2. Rhetorical question- this is an interrogative sentence in structure, but conveying, like a narrative sentence, a message about something.

3. Appeal- bright expression. artistic medium speech. An address is a word or combination of words called. addressee. Most often, proper names act as addresses, less often - animal names or names of non-souls. items. The appeal is not a member of the sentence, maintaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its inherent calling. intonation. If during a conversation. speeches main the function of addresses is the name of the addressee of the speech, then the poet. In addition, appeals are carried out by a stylist. functions: they are often carriers of express. - est. values

4. Non-union lies in the intention. the pass will connect. unions between members of a sentence or between simple sentences as part of a complex one. The absence of conjunctions gives the statement dynamism, swiftness, and allows one phrase to convey the richness of the picture. In thin In works, authors often use polyunion, concl. on purpose. using the same conjunction to highlight (logically and intonationally) the connection. using them as sentence members and enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Rep. conjunctions, firstly, emphasize the incompleteness of the series, and secondly, they express the meaning of intensification.

5. Inversion- arrangement of words in a different order than that established by the grammar. rules. With inversion, words are arranged in a different order than the grammatical order. rules. This is a strong expression. means. It is often used in emotions, excitement. speech.

Another image. the means of syntax is period- such a complex sentence, cat. contains a series of uniformly constructed lines. sentences (for example, subordinate clauses), usually beginning. one. unions and having approx. same size.

Modern Russian literary language and language norm. Orthoepic, lexical, grammatical, spelling norms

By definition, Izv. scientist Vinogradov, liter. language is the common written language of a particular people, the official language. - household, document. - letters communication, science, journalism, art. literature, all manifestations of culture, expression. in words form, often written, sometimes oral. Liter. language is characterized by several signs among cats It should be especially noted:

· processing (linguistic means are selected from the general language inventory based on specific criteria);

· consolidation in writing; universally binding for all members of a given language. team;

· ability to function in all areas of society. life;

· ability to perform various functions (message, communication, influence);

· presence of style. differentiation (there are several styles in literary language);

· normalization (there are strict, mandatory rules for the selection and use of words).

The specifics of the letters. the norm is theirs codification- selection and consolidation of def. form language. means, as well as clarification of their use in the norm. manuals (dictionaries, textbooks, reference books).

For Russian letters. The language is characterized by variability (the presence of variants). The source of variability is live speech. Liter. the norm is flexible over time. The norm is obligatory for all members of the language. team. However, this phenomenon is not limited to letters. language (there are also norms in dialects). The specifics of the letters. the norm is its processing and awareness. Liter. norms are stable and conservative. One of the main features of letters. language is its normalization, i.e. the presence of norms.

Language norm- this is a model, this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given language. society in this era. The norm determines what is right and what is wrong; it recommends the same language. means and methods of expression and prohibits others. For example, you can’t say kolidor, you should say corridor, you can’t say zvonit - only zvonit. Language. norms are objectively formed in the process of language. practices of society members. Norms may change over time, but still over time. they are stable over time. Compliance with the standards makes the use of letters easier. language.

Norms permeate all tiers of letters. language. There are orthoepic norms, that is, pronunciation norms, prescribing how to put emphasis in a word, how to pronounce this or that sound. Under the lexical norms understand the correctness of the choice of word and the appropriateness of its use. For example, meetings. the expression goal scorer is undesirable. Also incorrect cavalcade of clouds, I wish you good success, for the word "cavalcade" denotes a group of horsemen on a ride, and success cannot be bad.

Grammar rules are divided into morphological and syntactic. Morphologist. norms determine the correct formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of gender. plural case numbers a lot of stockings, boots, but socks, you can't talk gestures, making, the slope should not be changed. nouns: in a new coat, incorrect: more better (simply - better) or the smartest (smartest or smartest). Syntax. norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when driving: you can’t talk about that... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience has come (patience), pay for the journey (pay for what?); After watching this film, I became sad (After watching this film, I became sad. Or: I became sad after watching this film).

Under spelling standards understand spelling and punctuation rules. Spelling standards- these are the rules for writing words, they are enshrined in the spelling system. dictionaries, school textbooks on the Russian language and manuals. Punctuation norms dictate the rules for placing punctuation marks. They are set out in textbooks and manuals on the Russian language and in the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” (1956).

The principle of uniform spelling of morphemes is the leading principle of Russian spelling

Speller. There are many rules related to writing roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. But the main one, Ved. the principle is one. Let's look at examples. Why in the word water is the root written o, and in the word grass - a? Why are there different endings in the noun: from the village and to the village? Why should you write oak, but soup? After all, the same sound [p] is heard. Why is sad written with the letter t, but delicious is written without it? There seems to be a different spelling here. rules, but they can be combined on the basis of the Vedas. principle of spelling, which requires that the writer:

1) did not trust his ears and did not write as he heard;

2) checked doubtful spellings;

3) remembered that verification is possible only in the same morpheme (root, ending, etc.);

4) knew how to choose the right test. word.

The main thing is to know the strong positions: for vowels, this is the position. So all rules have one. grounds. They define the Vedas. principle of Russian spelling. This principle, when the sound is checked by a strong position, is called morphological. This principle is the most convenient for Russian writing.

Essence morphologist. The principle of Russian spelling is that kinships are common. words meaning parts (morphemes) retain a single style in writing, although they differ in pronunciation depending on the phonets. conditions, in cat. There are sounds, an entrance. in the meaning parts of a word. Regardless of pronunciation, morphologist. the spelling principle is applied when writing roots (hod, hodok, hodovoy - [hot], [had]ok, [khad]ova); suffixes (oak, linden - oak[ov]y, lin[ъв]y); prefixes (sign, signature - [път]пiст, [pot]pis) and endings (on the river, on the river - on the river[e], on the river[b]).

In addition to the morphologist. principle, cat. is basic in Russian spelling, also used phonetic writing, i.e. writing, resp. pronunciation. The most striking example of such writings is the writing of prefixes, ending. on z: without-, through-, from-, bottom-, once-, through-, through-. Con. the sound з in these prefixes before the voiceless consonants of the root is deafened, which is reflected in the letter: soulless - stupid, lead - exclaim, publish - interpret, overthrow - send down, break - disband, excessive - intersaddler.

Finally, there is also traditional, or historical, writings, phenomena. a relic of the past. An example here would be the writing of the letter after the hard hissing w, ksh and after b: in ancient. in the language, the sounds [zh], [ksh] and [b] were soft and the writing of letters after them was natural, since it corresponded to the pronunciation.

The role of semantic and grammatical analysis when choosing continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling

Merged, hyphenated and separate spellings include different grammars. categories of words: compound nouns and adjectives, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, as well as spelling of particles not with decomp. parts of speech. The principles of writing such words are based on the meaning of the word (its meaning), and on the distinction between a word and a phrase, and on taking into account the word’s belonging to one or another part of speech. For example, spelling complex adjectives like hard-to-reach, fast-cutting, long-lasting and free phrases based on the same words. To write correctly, you need to take syntax into account. sign: if the first component answers the question “how?”, then it is itself. part of speech and written separately: The children playing in the garden for a long time did not want to go home. - Long-playing records have now been replaced by CDs. It is also necessary to take into account the meaning of the word and its belonging to the part of speech when writing nouns and omon. adverbs with them: We looked into the distance for a long time, but could not discern anything. - Call me into the bright distance (V. Shukshin); The same preposition during and adverb on time. Here, the place of stress also changes.

Phrases such as in my opinion, along the wolf's trail, in the summer garden are written separately. But if the agreed words from these phrases become adverbs, they are written with a hyphen (dash): in my opinion, in a wolf way, in a summer way (warmth).

There are several rules for writing a word not with different parts of speech, but the general rule is this: if it is not a prefix in the word, it must be written together, if not, it is a negative. particle, then separately. For example: Unnecessary things (superfluous), stupid action (stupid). - These things are not necessary, as you think, but completely unnecessary. - Your action is not smart, as you think, but rather stupid. When spelling numerals, it is important to take into account their structure: complex numerals are written together, and compound ones - separately: two hundred - two hundred two, seventy - seventy eight.

There is a peculiarity in the spelling of pronouns with not and neither: they are written together without a preposition (no one, no one) and separately with a preposition (with no one, no one). In some cases, the correct spelling of words depends only on knowledge of the basic rules of Russian spelling. Here are the most important ones:

Rules for continuous writing. General rules

Are being written seamlessly all complex abbreviations words (Sberbank, trade union), words with prefixes (pre-war, infrared, trans-Iranian), compound nouns, adjectives, adverbs, the first element of which is a numeral (five-year plan, two-story, three times). Nouns are written together: compound nouns with the first element agro-, meteo-, aero-, bio-, micro-, neo-; slope. complex nouns with a verbal first part (hold the tree, daredevil, spinner). Compound adjectives are written together if they are formed from nouns written together (water supply - from water supply system), if they are formed on the basis of subordinates. phrases (railway - railway), if they denote a single concept (often these are terms: rarely used, instant). Adverbs are written together if they are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs (until now, forever, through), from collected. numerals with prepositions in or on (double, triple, quadruple), from a full adjective or pronoun with a preposition (hard-boiled, closely, draw, with might and main), from short adjectives with prepositions (to the left, dry, from afar, in vain), from a noun with a preposition (forward, sideways, squatted), by merging prepositions with a pronoun (why, because, therefore, why, why). Negative and undefined pronouns are written together if there is no preposition between the root and “not” or “nor”: no one, no one, no one, nothing. Prepositions are written together: in view of, as a result of, like, instead of, like, about, over. Conjunctions written together: but, and, moreover, so that, too, also, if, supposedly.

Hyphenation rules. General rules

Are written via hyphen lexical formations, rep. is a repetition of the same word (small-small, barely) or repetition of the same root (day-day, a long time ago, rad-radekhonek); combination of two synons. words (unexpectedly-unexpectedly, quietly-peacefully, way-road); complex pores numerals if they are written in numbers (183 million); por. numerals, if they are written in numbers with grams. ending (15th, 128th). Nouns are written with a hyphen if a compound word is formed without a connector. vowel (firebird, cafe-restaurant, prime minister), if they are the name of the water. parties and trends (social democracy, anarcho-syndicalism), complex units of measurement (man-day, kilowatt-hour), the name of the interim. cardinal directions (north-east, north-west), if the names of a complex noun contain a verb or conjunction (love-dislike, Ivan-da-Marya), with gender - with the last. genus. case, if the noun begins with a vowel or consonant l or with a proper noun (half an apple, half a lemon, half a Moscow), if the first part of the noun is a foreign language. elements of chief, non-commissioned, life, headquarters, vice, ex-. Adjectives are written with a hyphen if they are formed from nouns written with a hyphen (social democratic, north-eastern), formed on the basis of a combination of words from sochin. connection (meat-dairy, blue-white-red), indicate quality with extra. shade (bitter salty, pale pink, bright red). Adverbs are written with a hyphen if they begin with po- and end with - omu, - him, - ki, -i (in Russian, in bearish), as well as adverbs like first, second, etc. Complex The prepositions because of, from under, on-over, by-for are written with a hyphen. Words with particles ko-, -kak, - either, - nibi, - then, -ta, - s, -de are written with a hyphen (something, come on, etc.).

Rules for separate writing

Apart nouns are written with a preposition (along the road, past the houses, at the well); pronouns with a preposition (with no one, not with anyone); adverbs, image a combination of a preposition with a noun, if a definition can be inserted between them. word: for a moment (for one moment), at a gallop (at full gallop), to a dead end (to such a dead end that), if the noun begins with a vowel and the preposition ends with a consonant (in exchange, in a short time, alone), if formed from nouns, preserved. at least some. pad. forms in combination with prepositions (on your haunches - on your haunches, on all fours - on all fours, abroad - abroad, under your arms - under your arms); combinations of adverbs with not and neither (not in moderation, not within the power, not for thunder, not in a hurry); all particles, unless they are part of conjunctions or prepositions (no matter what I did, nothing came of it; I heard the same thing; he did the same as me).

Punctuation as a way of reflecting in writing the semantic side of speech, its syntactic structure and intonation features

Punctuation- this is the section studied. rules for placing punctuation marks, as well as the marks themselves. Punctuation is a very important means of writing letters. speech.

Punctuation as an element of letters. Speech is a unique means of communication between people, and between people both writing and reading. In this regard, two sides can be distinguished in it: what is relevant to the writer, and what is relevant to the reader. Thus, punctuation is a means of expressing def. meanings and shades of the writer, cat. are enclosed in the letter. statement. In turn, the reader, when he sees punctuation marks in writing. text, perceives the meanings that they express.

acc. with this it should be concluded that both meanings and shades, cat. expressed by punctuation marks, should not be different for the writer and the reader. acc. With this, the meaning of punctuation marks should be the same for all literate people.

Often, many people use punctuation marks without paying attention to their common usage. use. In this regard, there is a deviation from the basics. punctuation rules. There is nothing wrong with it if the post is incorrect. Punctuation marks do not make it difficult to understand the text. Immediate Contact between the reader and the writer is established in this way only if the general rules are observed. Paragraph. norms.

Russian punctuation also reflects intonation: a dot in place of a large decrease in voice and length. pause, question. and exclamation. signs, intonation dash. For example, the address can be highlighted with a comma, but p. emotionality (and therefore special intonation) dictates another sign - an exclamation mark:

It’s me, mummy,” he said.

Well, God is merciful, mummy! - continued Judushka (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

The choice of sign may depend entirely on the intonation: It will rain, let's go into the forest. - If it rains, let's go into the forest. In the first example there is a simple enumeration, in the second there is intonation of conditionality (When it rains, let's go to the forest). But it should be remembered that intonation. the principle operates in Russian punctuation as a secondary one and is often violated in favor of the structural one: The deer digs up the snow with its front leg and, if there is food, begins to graze (V. Arsenyev). The Bashkir stepped over the threshold with difficulty and, taking off his high hat, stopped at the door (A. Pushkin). In both cases, the comma comes after the conjunction and, since it marks the boundary of the structure. parts (adverbial clauses and adverbial phrases), but there is no pause after the conjunction. Thus, intonation is disrupted. principle in favor of the structural. And intonation in general. the principle rarely operates in its pure form. Usually it is combined with meaning. and structure division of the sentence.

Thus, punctuation is closely related to intonation. There are different intonations in the Russian language. Firstly, intonation can act as a means of conveying meaning. shades, and an indicator of emotions. speech quality.

For letters. genres degree of importance of thought. and subsequent The spelling of punctuation marks will be different. So, for example, in business. documents (reports, reports, statements, programs, etc.) syntax. the structure is simple, so the writer does not have to get confused in the subtle shades of meaning. The situation is completely different with thin. speech, in particular with prose. Since its main the task is to reveal the meaning is important. total phenomena, souls. experiences, people relationships, therefore thin. speech uses everything possible. techniques, cat. has Russian language.

Punctuation marks according to execution. functions are divided into 2 groups:

· separating;

· secreting.

Department. Punctuation marks are used to separate some parts of the text from others, previous. offers from neposr. after him the next one, one one. member from another, etc. This also includes those punctuation marks, cat. are placed at the end of the sentence. Thus, to the department. Punctuation marks include period, exclamation. sign, question. sign, comma, colon, dash, ellipsis, semicolon. However, sometimes the department. functions can serve as highlighting.

Punctuation marks, prin. to the second group, are necessary to indicate syntax. structures, inserted into a proposal as an addition, clarification, explanation, disclosure of the content of the proposal or its members. Select. Punctuation marks can also serve to indicate syntax. structures, sod. name of an object or person, to cat. speech is addressed. Such proposals, despite the complexity of the design, are structurally integral, i.e., they cannot be divided into departments. offers.

Varieties of speech according to the form of language use (oral and written speech). Types of speech according to the nature of the interlocutors’ participation in the communication process (dialogic and monologue speech)

Depending on how the speaker uses language, there are two forms: spoken and written. Let's look at them in comparison.

Oral form:

· primary in relation to writing. Initially, the sound was the only one eating. form of existence of language. The language was only spoken. And until now, oral speech clearly prevails in terms of usage;

· oral speech has the means of sound. expressiveness: tempo and timbre, pauses, logical. accents, sound strength. In addition, it can be accompanied by gestures and facial expressions;

· Orthoep are required for oral speech. requirements (correct pronunciation of sounds, stress placement).

Written form:

· written language is secondary. It arose out of the need to transmit speech over a distance and store it for long periods of time. At first it was only a way of transmitting oral speech, but then it turned out that the difference between them is so great that they talk about a special one, writing. speeches;

· letters speech is more strict, complex in form, more complete and logical in content, it follows the letters. norms. It has a stricter choice of words, more complex sentences;

· this is unusual for written speech, therefore it is less expressive (to some extent, these shortcomings are compensated for by the use of punctuation marks, italics, petite, font, highlighting, etc.);

· To letters. speeches are presented to the speller. and point. requirements.

Currently Over time, there has been an interaction between oral and written language. forms of speech: oral speech is often based on written speech. Reports, speeches, sound. letters, etc. are first composed in writing and then voiced, so such oral speech has many of the features of written speech: preparedness, completeness and correctness, but at the same time it retains such advantages of oral speech as sound. expressiveness, facial expressions and gestures.

Speech also exists in the form monologue or dialogue. Monologue- this is the speech of one person, an address. many listeners (less often just one). This is a development. type of speech, usually prepared in advance. He has a def. design and composition, has rel. completeness (report, lecture, speech at a meeting, etc.).

Dialogue is a conversation between two or more persons. It is connected with the situation, in a cat. speech flows. Each new remark in the dialogue is based on the previous one. Gestures, facial expressions, and indications of the environment play an important role in the dialogue. objects, addresses, interjections, sounds. words, intonation.

So, language exists in 2 varieties: oral and written. Initially, the language was only spoken and the sound was unity. form of his existence. The need to transmit speech at a distance, to preserve speech for a long time. time led to the invention of writing. Written speech appeared. Letters first. speech only recorded the speech sounding, but over time it turned out that the difference between the sounds. speech and writing. so great that they began to talk about 2 languages: sound, oral and written language.

Language of letters. more often expresses intellectual information, so it is used more often in book speech. Oral language usually serves to express emotions, moods, and relationships.

Language. differences between speaking and writing. speech comes down primarily to differences in syntax. In oral speech there are fewer complex sentences, but there are a lot of understatements. replenishment gestures, facial expressions, many incomplete sentences. Letters. speech, on the contrary, requires completeness of expression, coherence, and logic. Letters. language sets the rules for writing and reading. This is how they arose spelling and punctuation.

Speller. and point. norms of letters. languages ​​are mandatory for everyone. The very laws of speech and writing. communications are different. Often in the same situation it is impossible to say or write in the same way.

Text as a speech work. Main features of the text

From a linguistic point of view text- this is a group of proposals, united. into a single whole with one theme using language. funds. The text has a trace. basic signs:

· articulation. The text consists of several. proposals. One, even very common. a sentence is not a text;

· semantic integrity. This quality of the text is manifested, firstly, in the fact that any text is a statement in def. topic (it is often named in the title); secondly, in the fact that by communicating something about the subject of speech, the author realizes his plan, before. his attitude to what he communicates, his assessment of what is depicted (the main idea of ​​the text);

· rel. completeness (autonomy), it has a beginning and an end;

· connectivity. The coherence of the text is manifested in the fact that each last. the sentence is built on the basis of the previous one, incorporating one or another part of it. What is repeated in the last. sentence from the previous one was called “given”, and what was reported additionally was called “new”. “New” is usually highlighted logically. stressed and stands at the end of the sentence. For example: A well was dug in the yard. A frog (new) settled near the well (given). She (given) sat (new) all day long in the shade of the well frame. The role of the “given” is to connect sentences with each other. The role of the “new” is in the development of thought in the text. To connect sentences in the text, “given” and “new,” 2 methods are used: sequential and parallel. At last connection, the “new” of the first sentence becomes “given” in the second, the “new” of the second becomes “given” in the third, etc. With parallel. connection in all sentences the same “given” is preserved, and in each sentence a “new” is added to it. Various types of words may be used in the text. means of communication: ret. words, pronouns, synonyms, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence, words with the meaning of part and whole.

An important means of communication is ratio of types of tense forms predicate verbs, as well as word order. In artistic, journalistic, scientific and business styles, repetition of words is more often used, which ensures the accuracy of speech. Pronouns are widely used in all styles of speech. Parallel repeat communication usually gives speech solemnity and elation. In scientific grammar, the text is considered as the result of the use of language. In this case, the trace is highlighted. its signs:

· expressiveness (text is always expressed in oral or written form);

· delimitation (autonomy) - each text, even the smallest one, has clear boundaries - a beginning and an end;

· such a characteristic of a text as coherence presupposes that the language. units, image text are interconnected in def. ok.

Scheme of coherent speech from the point of view of composition. its units can be represented as follows. way: sentence - prose. stanza - fragment; chapter - part - finished work.

There are texts, comp. from one sentence (less often - two). These are aphorisms, riddles, proverbs, chronicles. notes in the newspaper, etc. There are texts equal to prose. stanza or fragment: a note in a newspaper, a poem or a fable in prose. And, of course, there are texts. volume.

Another important feature of the text is its integrity. The text, in terms of content and construction, is a single whole; it is important for understanding the structure of the text. What matters is the relationship between content and form. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition.

The content of the text is revealed only through its words. form. In this case, the content is related to the topic. Subject- this is what is described in the text, what the narrative is about, the reasoning unfolds, the dialogue is conducted, etc. In non-fiction. In texts, the topic is usually indicated in the title. Titles of the artist works can be directly related to the topic ("Woe from Wit", "Undergrowth"). Artist works, even rel. small in volume (for example, short stories) can reveal several topics, and stories, novels, plays are almost always multi-themed.

Track. a lot text attribute - orderliness. All language. units, image text, all its parts and all contents, meaning. sides def. orderly, organized. The following feature has already been mentioned: articulation. The presence of this characteristic implies that the ways of connecting words in a sentence and parts of a complex sentence are well known.

Distinguish serial (chain) and parallel connection of sentences. When parallel The connections of the sentence are not linked, but compared. The features of this type of communication are one. word order, sentence members are expressed in one way. grammar forms, sometimes repeating the first word of sentences.

With a sequential connection of sentences, one sentence seems to flow into another: each trace. the sentence begins where the previous one ended. For example: I have often marveled at the shrewd impudence of crows. They, as if jokingly, cheated me more than once (A. Platonov).

Based on everything said above about the text, we can give the following definition. Text- this is an expression. in letters or oral order. sequence language. units, unit into the whole theme and main thought.

Functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning

Depending on the content of the statement, our speech is divided into three types:

· description;

· narration;

· reasoning.

The description says simultaneous. signs, in the narration - about the afterbirth. actions, in reasoning - about the causes of properties and phenomena.

Description: A huge bird swam on the black water. Its plumage shimmered in lemon and pink colors. It was as if there was a beak with a red leather bag glued to the head.

Narration: The pelican hurriedly crawled ashore and hobbled towards our rest stop. Then he saw a fish, opened his beak, snapped it with a wooden sound, shouted “wek” and began desperately beating his wings and stamping his paws.

Reasoning: Pelicans cannot dive. This is due to the special structure of the bones and the presence of subcutaneous air sacs (according to K. Paustovsky).

The description can be used in any style of speech, but in a scientific style, the description of the subject should be extremely complete, and in an artistic one, the emphasis is placed only on the most striking details. Therefore the language. funds in art style is more diverse than in the scientific one. In the first there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons and various translations are very common. use of words.

The peculiarity of the story is that it talks about the trail. actions one after another. Shift message. events are the “new” in the sentences of such a text. The “data” is the face, owl. action. Verbs in the past form are often used in the narration. time owls kind. But in order to give expressiveness to the text, others are used simultaneously with these forms.

There are two parts to any argument. The first contains thesis, i.e. a statement that needs to be proven. The second part provides a rationale for the statement. thoughts: given arguments and examples. There is often a third part to the argument - conclusion. Thesis and justification are usually connected by the conjunctions because, since. The conclusion is added with the words therefore, thus, therefore. Complete reasoning, the parts of which are connected by conjunctions, is especially common in scientific and business speech. In conversation and thin In speeches, incomplete reasoning is more common, and conjunctions are omitted.

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Functional speech styles and their main features (using the example of one speech style as directed by the teacher)

Styles- these are varieties of language, conditional. differences in the areas of communication and fundamentals. functions of the language. In linguistics, the study of styles deals with such a special section as stylistics.

There are five spheres of communication (they are also called language. situations): everyday life, science, law, politics, art. As for the main functions of language, then there are three of them: communication, message, influence.

Depending on the speech. situations and functions of language are highlighted. types of styles:

· conversational style (everyday sphere, communication function, less often - messages);

· scientific (field of science, function of communication);

· official business (sphere of law, message function);

· journalistic (the sphere of politics and art, functions of communication and influence);

· artistic (sphere of art, function of emotional influence).

Characteristics of speech styles

Conversational style serves primarily for immediate use. communication with the environment us people. It is characterized by ease and unpreparedness of speech. It often uses conversations. words (young instead of newlyweds, start instead of begin, now instead of now, etc.), words in translation. meaning (window - meaning ‘break’). Words in conversation. style often not only names objects, actions, signs, but also contains their assessment: good fellow, dodgy, careless, smart, clever, cheerful. For chat syntax. The style is characterized by the use of simple sentences. It contains a wide range of sentences that are incomplete, since they are conversational. speech is most often a dialogue.

Scientific style- this is the style of scientific works, articles, textbooks, lectures, reviews. They contain information about a variety of... environmental phenomena us peace. In the field of vocabulary, the scientific style is characterized primarily by the presence of special. vocabulary, terms (declension, conjugation, theorem, bisector, logarithm, etc.). Words are used, as a rule, in their direct meanings, since scientific speech does not allow ambiguity and must be extremely accurate.

Formal business style serves the shire area of ​​legal, administrative, diplomatic relations. Its main purpose - information, message. This style is used when writing diff. documents, instructions, charters, etc. The words in it are used in their literal meaning to avoid them being incorrect. interpretation. The vocabulary of this style contains many words and mouths. combinations, closed it is precisely this style: petition, statement, resolution, order, protocol, appeal, sue, initiate a case; We, the undersigned. There are no frequencies in the syntax of this style. sentences with the meaning of necessity, order (it is necessary to urgently prepare, measures should be taken, etc.).

Journalistic style- this is the style of newspapers, speeches on the act. total –polit. Topics. To the most common genres of journalism are referred to before. article, correspondence, essay, speech at a rally, meeting, etc. In works of journalism, 2 tasks are usually set: firstly, a message, information about the definition. social phenomena or acts and, secondly, an open assessment of the statement. questions in order to actively influence the listener or reader in order to attract the interlocutor to support that position, cat. occupied and defended by the author.

The vocabulary of this style contains many words and phrases. total revolutions - watered character: progressive humanity, struggle for peace, advanced ideas.

Art style used in art works to paint a picture, depict an object or event, or convey to the reader the author’s emotions. Statements thin. styles are distinguished by imagery, clarity, and emotionality. K har. language. means styles include words with specific words. meaning, words in translation. use, emotional - evaluative words, words with the meaning of a characteristic, object or action, words with the meaning of comparison, juxtaposition; owl verbs type with the prefix for-, designation. beginning of action, trans. use of tenses and moods (On this Dunyasha andfall in love Akim!), emots. – painted offers: Suddenly something broke through in the still air, the wind rushed strongly and whirled across the steppe with a noise and a whistle. Immediately the grass and last year's weeds began to murmur, and dust swirled on the road, ran across the steppe and, carrying straw, dragonflies and feathers with it, rose to the sky in a black spinning column and fogged the sun (A. Chekhov).

Language of fiction represents the most complete expression of the general national language. In the works of art. The literary artist uses almost unlimited literature. freedom to choose a language. means for creating the most convincing, memorized. images, for esthetes. impact on the reader. Therefore the language is bad. literature is able to include all the wealth of letters. and general language.

To create in the reader an idea of ​​the era, place of action, and everyday life, the writer uses outdated elements in the narrative. words (historicisms, archaisms), words of local dialects.

In stylistics there is such a concept as stylistic resources of the language. These include style. painted vocabulary (steal - neutral, kidnap - book, steal - colloquial); style painted morphemes (man's, officer's, chauffeur's, soldier's - colloquial, think about, collect - colloquial, rejoice, love - bookish); style possibilities of parts of speech (five kilograms of oranges - five kilograms of orange - loose, on vacation - book, on vacation - loose, on a sofa bed - loose, on a sofa bed - book); style means in syntax (due to the drought, the harvest was low (book) - because of the drought...(neutral); the task completed by the students (book) - the task completed by the students (neutral)).

The term " orthoepy"is used in linguistics in two meanings:

1) a set of norms of a literary language related to the sound design of significant units: norms of pronunciation of sounds in different positions, norms of stress and intonation;
2) a science that studies the variation of pronunciation norms of a literary language and develops pronunciation recommendations (spelling rules).

The differences between these definitions are as follows: in the second understanding, those pronunciation norms that are associated with the action of phonetic laws are excluded from the field of orthoepy: changes in the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed syllables ( reduction ), positional deafening/voicing of consonants etc. With this understanding, the sphere of orthoepy includes only those pronunciation norms that allow for variability in the literary language, for example, the possibility of pronunciation after hissing words as [ A ], and [ s ] ([heat], But [zhysm"in]).

Among the norms that allow for variability in pronunciation in the same position, it is necessary to note the following norms, updated in the school course of the Russian language:
1) pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e in borrowed words,
2) pronunciation of combinations in individual words Thu And chn How [ PC ] And [ shn ],
3) pronunciation of sounds [ and ] And [ and" ] in place of combinations lj, zzh, zzh,
4) variability of positional softening of consonants in individual groups,
5) variability of stress in individual words and word forms.

It is these pronunciation norms related to the pronunciation of individual words and word forms that are the object of description in spelling dictionaries.
School textbooks define orthoepy as the science of pronunciation, that is, in the first meaning. Thus, all pronunciation norms of the Russian language belong to the sphere of orthoepy: realization of vowels in unstressed syllables, devoicing/voicing of consonants in certain positions, softness of a consonant before a consonant and etc.

Basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation

In the Russian literary language, due to certain sound laws (assimilation, dissimilation, reduction) In words, the pronunciation of individual sounds and their combinations was established, which did not correspond to the spelling. We write what, whom, went, studied, but we must pronounce [ what ], [cavo ], [hadil ], [student ], etc. This is generally considered to be the pronunciation norm of the literary language, which was established long before the appearance of the rules of orthoepy. Over time, pronunciation rules were developed that became mandatory for literary speech.

The most important of these rules are the following

1. Vowel sounds are pronounced clearly (in accordance with their spelling) only under stress ( conversation AND li, x ABOUT dim, cm E ly, b E ly, n ABOUT Sim). In an unstressed position, vowel sounds are pronounced differently.

2. The vowel o in an unstressed position should be pronounced as a sound close to a [ V A Yes], [X A R A sho], [To A force], [mountains AT ], and write - water, good, mowed, city .

3. Unstressed e, i should be pronounced as a sound close to i [ V AND sleep], [pass AND private], [pl AND satiate], [P AND R AND smatreli], and write - spring, sowing, dance, reviewed .

4. Voiced consonants (paired) at the end of words and before voiceless consonants in the middle of a word should be pronounced as their corresponding paired unvoiced [ du P ], [mountain T ], [bread P ], [Maro WITH ], [daro Sh ka], [gris P ki], [about Z bah], [small D bah], [re WITH cue], and it is written - oak, city, bread, frost, path, fungi, request .

5. The sound g should be pronounced as a plosive, except for the word God, which is pronounced aspirated. At the end of words, instead of r, there is a paired voiceless k [ other TO ], [books TO ], [boots TO ], [mo TO ], and it is written - friend, books, boots, could etc.

6. Consonants s, z before sibilants zh, sh, ch should be pronounced as long sibilants [ AND burn], [AND feverish], [be LJ worn out], but it is written burn, with heat, lifeless . At the beginning of some words sch sounds like sch [SCH astier], [SCH no], [SCH italy], and it is written - happiness, counting, counting .

7. In some words the combination chn pronounced like [ cane ShN A], [bored ShN A], [Me and ShN itza], [square ShN IR], [Nikiti ShN A], [Savvy Sh on], [laundry ShN and I], but it is written of course, boring, scrambled eggs, birdhouse, Nikitichna, Savvichna, laundry . In some words, double pronunciation is allowed - bakery -[bulo ShN and I], lactic - [molo ShN th], but only bakery, dairy is written. In most words, the combination chn is pronounced in accordance with the spelling (eternal, dacha, durable, night, stove).

8. Words that should be pronounced as [ what], [shtoby].

9. When a series of consonants coincides - rdc, stn, stl etc. usually one of these sounds is not pronounced. We write: heart, honest, stairs, happy , and we pronounce [ se RC e], [what CH th], [le CH itza], [now SL willow].

10. Endings -wow, -him should be pronounced as ava, iva [ red AVA ],[syn WILLOW ], [kavo], [chIVO], and write red, blue, whom, what.

11. Endings -tsya,-tsya(study, studies) are pronounced like - tsa [teach CC A], [daring CC A], [meeting CC A].

12.V words of foreign origin, firmly established in the Russian language, consonants before [e] (e) soften: pool, bacterium, bulletin, brunette, beret, vinaigrette, motto, decoration, incident, card index, category, boat, coffee, museum, Odessa, president, remark, director, rhesus, theme, theory, term, tenor, thermometer, plywood, overcoat, effect and so on.

13. However, in some cases before [e] (e) However, the pronunciation of hard consonants is noted. This rule applies primarily to dental consonants [d], [t], [n], [s], [z]: an[te]nna, a[te]lye, biz[ne]s, bifsh[te]ks, [,de]kol[te], [de][te]active, in[te]rvyu, in[te ]rier, kash[ne], ko[te]j, o[te]l, past[te]el colors, polo[ne]z, sin[te]tika, so[ne]t, [te]mbr, [te]mp, [te]nnis, [te]rmos, [te]st, tos[te]r, computer[te]r, fo[ne]tika, cita[de]l, she[de]vr.

14. Double consonants both in native Russian words and words of foreign origin in most cases pronounced as single(i.e. without their extension). We write: Russia, Russian, eleven, public, made, chord, cancel, accompaniment, assistant, neatly, balloon, Saturday, gram, flu, class, correspondent, tennis etc., and we pronounce these words without doubling these consonants, with the exception of a few words in which double consonants are written and pronounced ( bath, manna, gamma and etc.).

In a number of foreign words after consonants and And is written e, although pronounced uh(diet, hygiene, atheist, atelier, muffler, coffee, pince-nez, parterre), exceptions: sir, mayor, peer. After other vowels, e is more often written and pronounced (poetry, poet, silhouette, maestro, but: project, register).

In a number of foreign words, after consonants that are pronounced softly, it is written and pronounced e(museum, technical school, academy, dean, decade, cologne, plywood, tempo).

In Russian words after f, w, c pronounced uh, but it is always written e(iron, even, six, quieter, whole, at the end).

13. Double consonants, both in native Russian words and words of foreign origin, are in most cases pronounced as single consonants (that is, without their extension).

We write : Russia, Russian, eleven, public, made, chord, cancel, accompaniment, assistant, carefully, balloon, Saturday, gram, flu, class, correspondent, tennis, etc., and we pronounce these words without doubling these consonants, for with the exception of a few words in which double consonants are written and pronounced (bath, manna, gamma, etc.).

Orthoepic analysis of the word

Orthoepic analysis of a word is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Read the word to yourself. Think and decide if the word might sound different.
2. Look in a spelling dictionary to see how the word is pronounced correctly.
3. Pronounce the word correctly. (If a written analysis is carried out, then write down the word with explanations (notes) of pronunciation and stress.)

A sample of spelling analysis.

Krasi"vee - stress is only on the second syllable.
Kone "chn O [ shn ].
ku ne" [ pe "] uncl., noun.

Words with the combination CHN, CHT can be

divided into three groups:

1. those in which CHN is pronounced only as [ШН]:

of course, boring, on purpose, scrambled eggs, laundry, birdhouse,

bachelorette party, bachelor party, mustard party, what, something, something,

as well as female patronymics in ChNA:

Ilyinichna, Kuzminichna, Fominichna;

2. those in which CHN is pronounced only as [CH"N]:

exactly, successful, point, camouflage, something, etc.;

3. those in which both pronunciation options - [CH"N[ and [SHN[:

candlestick, bakery, maid, penny, decent, nothing.

4. In some cases, pronunciation options differentiate

different lexical meanings:

heart attack - heart's friend, pepper shaker (vessel for pepper) - damn pepper (about an angry, grumpy woman).

Pronunciation of consonants before E in borrowed words:

[d"]: debate, debut, motto, deduction, disinfection, declaration, decoration,

democracy, demon, cologne, Odessa, residence, deputy, depression,

academy, ideal, etc.

[T"]: tenor, competent, patent, pate, terror, therapist, protest, term, etc.

[z"]: newspaper, zebra, marshmallow, diesel, museum, reserve, etc.

[With"]: pool, cassette, session, safe, sect, semester, senate, service, sideboard,

serenade, selector, etc.

Exercise 3.

Place emphasis on the following words. For help, consult a dictionary.

Apostrophe, peanut, asymmetry, pamper, pampered, bows, being, religion, exorbitant prices, barge, bartender, gastronomy, genesis, corrugated, engraver, dogma, treble, agreement, absolutely, heretic, blinds, long, enviable, regular, clog, rings, let's call, iconography, iris, spark, gradually, flounder, catalogue, rubber, quarter, pantry, whooping cough, copy, self-interest, more beautiful, beautiful, kitchen, maneuvers, briefly, meager, for a long time, backhand, obituary, oil pipeline, newborn, guardianship, wholesale, provision, facilitate, adolescence, lampoon, loop, pizzeria, anticipate, reward, pullover, overpass, symmetry, convocation, carpenter, dancer, meatballs, cakes, shoe, deceased, Ukrainian, phenomenon, flyleaf, petition, Christian, cement, chain, gypsy, scoop, scarves, chassis, sorrel, expert.

Apostrophe, peanut, asymmetry, pamper, pampered, bows, being, religion, exorbitant prices, barge, bartender, gastronomy, genesis, corrugated, engraver, dogma, treble, agreement, absolutely, heretic, blinds, long, enviable, regular, clog, rings, let's call, iconography, iris, spark, gradually, flounder, catalogue, rubber, quarter, pantry, whooping cough, copy, self-interest, more beautiful, beautiful, kitchen, maneuvers, briefly, meager, for a long time, backhand, obituary, oil pipeline, newborn, guardianship, wholesale, provision, facilitate, adolescence, lampoon, loop, pizzeria, anticipate, reward, pullover, overpass, symmetry, convocation, carpenter, dancer, meatballs, cakes, shoe, deceased, Ukrainian, phenomenon, flyleaf, petition, Christian, cement, chain, gypsy, scoop, scarves, chassis, sorrel, expert.

Vocabulary.

Exercise 1.

Choose Russian words that correspond to the given Old Church Slavonicisms. For which words is the task impossible?

Blato, doctor, rook, helmet, scarf, esen, ignoramus.

Exercise 2.

What words are originally Russian?

Passenger, intermission, sneakers, baby kangaroo, lyceum, lyceum student, telegram.

Exercise 3.

Replace foreign words with native Russian ones. For which word is this task impossible?

Discomfort, goalkeeper, revision, intuition, prologue.

Exercise 4.

Divide the words into two groups. Explain your answer. Can the above words be grouped differently?

Director, collector, praise, set, collector, leader, compliment, set.

Exercise 5.

Establish the similarities and differences between the words POROKH, ASHES, POWDER, POWDER,

Exercise 6.

Find the extra word. Explain your answer.

Proclaim, attraction, fence, bracelet, environment.

Exercise 7.

Find lexical units in Russian that are associated with the words:

1) lat.ossiro“to occupy, seize”;

2) lat . humanus"humane";

3) italian. fresco"fresh";

4) lat. disputere“disassemble, argue”;

5) lat.letum"death";

6) lat. fixus“solid, motionless”;

7) franc.danal"ordinary";

8) franc. isoler“to separate, separate”;

9) lat. accentus"emphasis";

10) English. bluff deception".

Exercise 8.

What are the similarities between these words? Distribute them into groups. Justify your answer.

Finger, footman, chain mail, friendship, barber, boyar.

Exercise 9.

What questions should you answer yes to?

1. Is it possible to meet TOLMAC today?

2. Is it true that LANITAS live in the forest?

3. Do RAMENS come in liquid form?

4. Is it true that celibacy is a mandatory part of the Catholic wedding ceremony?

5. Is it true that RUBLE and RUBLE are historically related words?

6. Is it true that KOSHCHEY in Ancient Rus' is a man in charge of horses in the prince’s squad?

7. Is it true that in the 19th century the SHAPOKLYAK was worn on the head?

8. Is it true that nowadays there are no longer bon vivants?

9. Is it true that in the 18th century the piano was called the TICHOGROUS?

10. Is it true that a shako is a ceremonial weapon in the Russian army of the 18th century?

Exercise 10.

Find outdated words and indicate their lexical meanings. Explain what helped you determine the meanings of seemingly unclear words.

1. I, kids, am not a swagger! Don't be a coward of my nobility.

(V. Zhukovsky)

2. You know, prince, I still don’t understand why you decided to choose me as the confidant of your secrets.

(F. Dostoevsky)

3. And the years went by... I walked in the steppes

Only a wild wind in the open space...

But then Monomakh died,

And in Rus' there is hardship and grief.

(A. Maikov)

Exercise 11.

What meanings have formed for the listed words over the past decade?

Freeze, plywood, pirate, password, roller.

Basic lexical units

Synonymous series - These are synonyms united by a common meaning and arranged in a certain order.

The general meaning of a number of synonyms is most clearly expressed core word, or dominant. Dominant begins a synonymous series and is usually a stylistically neutral word. For example: Housing - dwelling, den, lair;

Good - excellent, wonderful, excellent, magnificent.

Contextual synonyms- these are words that are similar in meaning only in a certain context. Out of context, such words are not synonyms. For example: Even Sophia's love, first, tender and pink love, didn't hold him back.

And in the evening he entered charming, fragrant, light world… .

Contextual antonyms- these are words that acquire certain meanings in a certain context. For example: Chased tiny- lost hunk

Homonyms - These are words that are identical in spelling and pronunciation, but different in lexical meaning.

For example: Bloody the battle ( battle) - black the battle(servant) - lexical method;

(nautical the battle, fist the battle, the battle bulls - synonyms).

Tact(rhythm) - tact(sense of proportion) - morphological method (based on a comparison of derived words and word forms).

Omoforms - words that have the same sound and spelling in any one or more grammatical forms, for example: oven (n.) - oven (v.).

Homophones- words that are different in spelling, but pronounced the same way, for example: onion - meadow, mushroom - flu.

Homographs- words that are written the same way, but have stress on different syllables, for example: flour" - mu"ka, zamo"k - za"mok.

Paronyms- words with the same root, similar in sound, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in their meaning: subscription - subscriber, great - majestic, hostile - enemy,

Paronomases- words that are similar in sound but have different roots: clarinet - cornet, boatswain - pilot, injection - infection. Such words are brought together only by accidental sound similarity.

Paronyms.

Exercise 1.

Determine which sentences contain errors associated with mixing paronyms. Write down the sentences, filling in the missing letters and punctuation marks. Please use the correct password.

1. Turning at the huge moon, we walked along the open

stone length to the mouth of the river.

2. He always acted carefully because he was a dangerous person.

3. We (didn’t) notice how the wind rose and (across) the sky (across) the ...

dark rainy...I'm cloudy...

4. Turning to the guest of the program, the host said I would like to ask

a personal question for you.

5. The relocation of village residents is also associated with huge

with...expenses and in addition with a dramatic...fragment of the court...

people are forced to leave their homes.

6. Studying at university is (not) easy - you need to do it in a short time

master a large amount of new material.

7. Many facts about climatic and temperature conditions

the timing of processing...the nature of illumination...affects the development

r...sthenia.

8. Our boat... approached... the island around......

a light strip of shallows.

9. In the chancellery, officials stood...sleep...about with a businesslike look.

10. Our tourist group was introduced to itself

the instructor (did not) give us the same thing.

Exercise 2.

From the given paronyms, select the desired word.

1. The regiment reigned militant - militant mood.

2. Increasingly rare mushroom - fungal diseases

sown seeds and young plants.

3. This enterprise has not created any stock of vegetables.

for processing. Preservation - canning they are being conducted

from delivered raw materials, as they say, from wheels.

4. Many of our films received vocation - gratitude And

our viewers and abroad.

5. City shook - shook the numbness of everyday life.

Vocabulary.

The main features of borrowed words:

1. Double consonants at the root of a word: ka ss a, bah ll get off.

2. Confluence of vowel sounds: oa zis, moz ai ka, hello and about, d uh l.

3. At the end of the word there is an unstressed sound [O]: ra"dio, kaka"o, ske"rtso.

4. Pronunciation of a hard consonant before [E] (letter E): par[te]r,

portmo[ne], pyu[re].

5. The letter E is at the root of the word: poet, energy, sir.

6. The combination of the letters JO and БО: mayonnaise, broth.

7. Immutability of nouns and adjectives:

coat, muffler, taxi, kangaroo; beige, khaki.

Issues of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - spelling(from Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking before an audience: government and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, Russian and foreign teachers languages, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the problems of oral culture among various sectors of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, and live speeches by government officials, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, and specialists in various fields of science and culture has become widespread.

Mastery of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate spoken speech is gradually being recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.

Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy developed in such a way that the basis of literary pronunciation was Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered.”

Deviation from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional peculiarities of pronunciation, incorrectly placed emphasis, “reduced” conversational intonation, and ill-considered pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of a public speech.

Erroneous pronunciation through radio and television is “replicated” to a huge audience, wittingly or unwittingly assimilated and reinforced, thereby eroding the idea of ​​correctness and purity of speech, which is necessary for every cultured person. In addition, there are certain negative socio-psychological consequences of profanity, which tends to spread (especially in conditions of round-the-clock broadcasting). Since the majority of the listener first of all pays attention to the content side of the information, the sound side of speech is not controlled by him, but is recorded on a subconscious level. In these cases, everything that contradicts the established tradition of designing Russian sounding speech: a violation of the intonation pattern of the phrase and the text as a whole, unjustified logical stress, pauses that do not correspond to the natural “flow” of speech, causes an intuitive feeling of protest in the listener, creating a feeling of anxiety and psychological discomfort.

Working on your own pronunciation and improving your pronunciation culture requires a person to have certain knowledge in the field of orthoepy. Since pronunciation is largely an automated aspect of speech, a person “hears” himself worse than others, controls his pronunciation insufficiently or does not control it at all, is uncritical in assessing his own pronunciation, and is sensitive to comments in this area. The rules and recommendations for spelling, reflected in manuals, dictionaries and reference books, seem to him to be overly categorical, different from the usual speech practice, and common spelling errors, on the contrary, are very harmless.

Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge of Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary, from the point of view of methodological recommendations:

¦ learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;

¦ learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;

¦ listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is mastered by radio and television announcers, masters of literary expression;

¦ consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;

¦ correct them through constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.

The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of the two main styles of pronunciation: full recommended for public speaking, and incomplete(colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by compliance with the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech in general. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is excessive reduction of vowels, loss of consonants, unclear pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including function words), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.

§ 235. Pronunciation of vowels

The main feature of Russian literary pronunciation in the area of ​​vowels is their different sound in stressed and unstressed syllables with the same spelling. In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo reduction. There are two types of reduction - quantitative(when the longitude and intensity of sound decreases) and high quality(when in an unstressed position the sound itself changes). Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable undergo less reduction, and more in all other syllables. Vowels [a], [o], [e] are subject to both quantitative and qualitative reduction in unstressed syllables; vowels [i], [s], [y] do not change their quality in unstressed syllables, but partially lose duration.

1. Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable:

a) after hard consonants in place O And A [A]: w[a]da?, n[a]ga?, M[a]skva?, s[a]dy?, z[a]bo?r ; after hard sizzling and And w on site A And O a weakened sound is also pronounced [A]: f[a]ra?, f[a]ngler, sh[a]gi?, sh[a]fer .

Note 1. After hard sizzling and, w and after ts before soft consonants a sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [s uh ] : w[s] uh ]le?t, unfortunately uh ]leniyu, w[s uh ]ke?t , in plural forms of the word horse: lose[s] uh ]where, los[s] uh ]dy?m etc... in the forms of indirect cases of numerals on - twenty: twenties uh ]ti?, thirty uh ]ti? etc.; in rare cases, sound [s uh ] pronounced on the spot A in position before hard consonants: rzh[s uh ]Noah. w[s] uh ]smi?n .

Note 2. Unstressed [O] pronounced in conjunctions But And What , and is also allowed in some foreign words, for example: b[o]a?, b[o]mo?nd. rococo?. F[o]re?c .

Note 3. Preservation O in unstressed syllables is a feature of regional pronunciation, therefore the pronunciation M[o]skva?, p[o]ku?pka, p[o]e?dem, v[o]zi?t. railway station not up to standard;

b) after hard hissing f, w And ts on site e a reduced sound is pronounced like [s] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [s uh ]: w[s uh ]na?, sh[s uh ]pt?t, ts[s uh ]lu?y ;

c) after soft consonants in place of letters I And e , as well as after soft hissing h And sch on site A a weakened sound is pronounced [And] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [And uh ] : m[i uh ]sno?y, R[i uh ]za?n, m[i uh ]sti?, h[i uh ]sy?, sh[i uh ]di?t , as well as in the plural forms of the word area: area uh ]where, area uh ]dy?m etc.;

d) on the spot I And e a sound is pronounced at the beginning of a word [And] with an overtone [e] , denoted [And uh ] in combination with the previous one [th]: [yi uh ]here?, [yi uh ]nta?r, [yi uh ]ytso?.

Note. Preservation [A] in an unstressed syllable after soft consonants is a feature of regional pronunciation, therefore the pronunciation [v’a]za?t, bi?na, h[a]sy?, [ya]ytso?, [ya]vi?tsya does not correspond to the norm.

2. Vowels in other unstressed syllables:

a) at the absolute beginning of a word in place of letters A And O a weakened sound is always pronounced [a]: [a]rbu?z: [a]kno?, [a]car, [a]deflection;

b) after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st prestressed one, in place A And O a reduced sound is pronounced, intermediate in sound between [A] And [s] [ъ]: g[ъ]lova?, k[ъ]randa?sh, i?bl[ъ]k[ъ] ;

c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st prestressed one, in place and I And e pronounced reduced, average in sound between [And] And [e] , short in duration, designated conventionally [b]: [n’t]tacho?k, [l’l]soru?b, you?[n’t]su, wh[b]love?k .

3. Vowel and at the beginning of the root after a prefix or preposition, ending in hard consonants, pronounced like [s] : from the institute - and [zy]institute , with Igor - [we are] heartbroken ; saving in this position [And] and the softening of the consonant before it is a regional feature of pronunciation and not up to standard.

4. Stressed vowel sounds in place e And e . Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text e And e , since only the letter is used to designate them e (except for educational literature for primary schoolchildren and foreign students). This situation leads to a distortion of not only the graphic, but also the phonetic appearance of the word, and causes frequent pronunciation errors. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two sets of words:

a) with a letter e , in whose place it sounds [e]: scam, spineless, bluff, being, icy conditions, firebrand, grenadier, stout, hagiography, alien, religious procession (But Godfather ), fishing line, non-existence, perplexed, unappreciated, guardianship, sedentary (settled life), successor, legal successor, surveillance, modern, yoke, barley and etc.;

b) with a letter e , in whose place it sounds [O]: hopeless, buckets, engraver, bile (acceptable bile ), biliary (acceptable gall ), mockery, traveling salesman, priest (But priest ), maneuvers, mercenary, convicted, brought in, transferred, brought in, sturgeon, fable, laid down, brought, brought, obscene, scrupulous, belt, smart, tesha, fur (coarse-haired), lye and etc.

In some pairs of words, different meanings are accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel [O] or [e]: expired (term) - expired (in blood), catechumen (screams like a catechumen) - catechumen (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening).

§ 236. Pronunciation of some consonants

1. Consonant [G] in literary pronunciation explosive, instant sounding, when deafened it is pronounced as [To]: sleep[k], bere[k] . Pronouncing “Ukrainian” in its place G , conventionally designated [h] , does not correspond to the norm: [h]ulya?t, boots[h]i? . The exception is the word God , at the end of which it sounds [X] .

2. Instead of h in words of course, boring, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, laundry, rag, rag picker , in female patronymics ending in - ichna (Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna etc.), as well as in words what, to, nothing pronounced [w] .

3. In words man, defector at the place of combination zhch , in the form of the comparative degree of adverbs tougher, harsher (And more scathingly ) in place stch , as well as in place of combinations zch And sch pronounced [sch]: loader, customer, carver, subscriber, sandstone, happy, happiness, account, electronic counting, counter, self-financing, count and etc.

4. When several consonants accumulate in some combinations, one of them is not pronounced:

a) in combination stn not pronounced [t]: teaching? [s'n']ik, ve?[s']nik, what? I?ro[sn]y ;

b) in combination zdn not pronounced [d]: po?[zn]o, right?[zn]ik, nae?[zn]ik , but in a word abyss It is recommended to leave the sound low [d] ;

c) in combination stl not pronounced [t]: happy, envious, conscientious ; in words bony And lay [t] preserved;

d) in combination stl not pronounced [T] ; this produces a double consonant [ss]: maximal? [ss]ky, turie?[ss]ky, rasi?[ss]ky .

5. In some words with a cluster of consonant sounds stk, zdk, ntk, ndk not allowed to fall out [t]: daughter-in-law, trip, summons, typist, bulky, laboratory assistant, student, patient, Irish, Scottish, but: fabric shotla[nc]a .

6. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:

A) necessarily softens I n before soft ones h And With: pe?[n’s’]iya, prete?[n’z’]iya, rece?[n’z’]iya, face?[n’z’]iya ;

b) in combinations TV, dv may soften T And d: Thursday, Tver, hard [t’v’] and [tv’]; door, two, move [d’v] and [dv’] ;

c) in combinations sound And St. may soften h And With: beast, ring [z’v’] And [sound’]; light, candle, witness, saint [s’v] And [sv’] , and also in the word snake [z’m’] And [zm’] ;

G) n before soft T And d softens: ba[n't']ik, vi[n't']ik, zo[n't']ik, ve[n't']il, a[n't']ichny, ko[n't ']text, remo[n't']irovat, ba[n'd']it, I[n'd']iya, stip[n'd']iya, zo[n'd']irovat, and [n'd']ivid, ka[n'd']idat, blo[n'd']in.

§ 237. Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms

Some grammatical forms of verbs, nouns, and adjectives are characterized by special rules for the pronunciation of sounds in suffixes and endings.

1. In verbs with a particle- xia in an indefinite form and in the third person singular and plural at the junction of an ending and a particle is pronounced [ts]: meet, meet - meet [ts], check in, check in - mark [ts], check in - mark? [ts], say goodbye - goodbye? [ts].

In the form of the imperative mood in place of the combination - there are two soft sounds sound [t's'']: mark - mark? [t's''], meet - wind? [t'''] .

2. In the endings of the genitive case of masculine and neuter forms of adjectives, numerals, pronouns - Wow /-his on site G pronounced [in]: big house (lake) - big?[vy], blue flag (sea) - si?ne[vy] . The same rule applies to words today - every[v]o?day, total - ito[v]o? .

Note. In surnames ending with - aho (Shembinago, Zhivago ), sound is pronounced [G] .

3. Graphic abbreviations, found in the text, for example, initials for last name , as well as abbreviations like l (liter), m (meter), kg (kilogram), ha (hectare), p/o (“mailbox”), etc. (so on), s (page) and etc. in reading they “decipher” i.e., they “expand” into full words. Graphic abbreviations exist only in written speech for visual perception only, and their literal reading is perceived either as a speech error or as irony, appropriate only in special situations.

§ 238. Peculiarities of pronunciation of Russian names and patronymics

The combination of first name and patronymic is used in various situations, both in written and oral speech: in official decrees on awards, appointments, orders, lists, for example, on personnel records, the composition of production and educational groups, in business and private correspondence, in circulation to the interlocutor, in introducing and naming third parties.

In an environment of official, business communication between people, especially in the work of a teacher, translator, editor, lawyer, businessman, government or commercial employee, there is a need to address people by name and patronymic. Many Russian names and patronymics have pronunciation options that it is advisable to take into account in a given communication situation. So, when meeting a person, when introducing a person for the first time, a distinct, clear pronunciation that is close to the written form is recommended.

In all other cases, incomplete, contracted forms of pronunciation of names and patronymics, which have historically developed in the practice of literary oral speech, are acceptable.

1. - th (Vasily, Anatoly, Arkady, Grigory, Yuri, Evgeny, Valery, Gennady ), ending in combinations - evich, - evna with a preceding separator b: Vasil Evich, Vasil Evna; Grigory Evich, Grigory Evna . When pronouncing female patronymics, these combinations are clearly preserved: Vasil Evna, Anatole Evna, Grigory Evna etc. In male patronymics, full and contracted variants are allowed: Vasya?[l'j'v']ich and Vas[l'ich], Anato?[l'j'v']ich and Anato?[l'ich], Grigo?[r'j'v']ich and Grigo?[r' ich] etc.

2. Patronymic names formed from male given names - to her And - ah (Alexey, Andrey, Korney, Matvey, Sergey, Nikolay ) end in combinations - eevich, - eevna, - aevich, - aevna: Alekseevich, Alekseevna, Nikolaevich, Nikolaevna . In their pronunciation, the literary norm allows both full and contracted variants: Alexeyevich And Alex?[i]h, Alekse?evna And Alek[s'e?]vna; Sergeevich And Serge?[i]h, Sergeevna And Ser[g'e?]vna; Korne?evich And Corn?[i]h, Korne?evna And Kor[n'e?]vna; Nikolaevich And Nikola?[i]h, Nikolaevna And Nikola?[vn]a etc.

3. Male patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ovich , can be pronounced both in full and contracted form: Anto?novich And Anto?n[y]ch, Aleksandrovich And Alexa?ndr[y]h , Iva?novich and Iva?n[y]ch etc. In female patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - Aries , full pronunciation recommended: Alexander aries, Boris aries, Kirill aries, Victor aries, Oleg Aries etc.

4. If the middle name begins with And (Ivanovich, Ignatievich, Isaevich ), then in pronunciation with a name ending in a hard consonant, and turns into [s]: Pavel Ivanovich - Pavel[y]vanovich, Alexander Isaevich - Alexander[y]saevich .

5. Not usually pronounced ov n And m: Iva?[n: ]na, Anto?[n: ]a, Efi?[mn]a, Maxi?[mn]a .

6. Unstressed words are not pronounced - ov in female patronymics from names ending in V: Vyachesla?[vn]a, Stanisla?[vn]a .

§ 239. Pronunciation of borrowed words

Some of the borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language has some orthoepic features that are fixed in the literary norm.

1. In some words of foreign language origin, in place of the unstressed O sound is pronounced [o]: ada?gio, boa?, bomo?nd, bonto?n, kaka?o, radio, three?o . In addition, stylistic fluctuations in high-style text are possible; preservation of unstressed [O] in words of foreign origin - one of the means of attracting attention to them, a means of highlighting them. Pronunciation of words nocturne, sonnet, poetic, poet, poetry, dossier, veto, credo, foyer etc. with unstressed [O] optional. Foreign names Maurice Thorez, Chopin, Voltaire, Rodin, Daudet, Baudelaire, Flaubert, Zola, Honore de Balzac, Sacramento etc. also retain unstressed [O] as a variant of literary pronunciation.

In some borrowed words in literary pronunciation, after vowels and at the beginning of the word, the unstressed sound sounds quite clearly [e]: duelist, muezzin, poetic, aegis, evolution, exaltation, exotic, equivalent, eclecticism, economy, screen, expansion, expert, experiment, exhibit, ecstasy, excess, element, elite, embargo, emigrant, emission, emir, energy, enthusiasm , encyclopedia, epigraph, episode, epilogue, era, effect, effective and etc.

2. In oral public speech, certain difficulties are caused by pronouncing a hard or soft consonant before the letter in borrowed words e , for example, in words pace, pool, museum etc. In most of these cases, a soft consonant is pronounced: academy, pool, beret, beige, brunette, promissory note, monogram, debut, motto, recitation, declaration, dispatch, incident, compliment, competent, correct, museum, patent, pate, Odessa, tenor, term, plywood, overcoat; word pace pronounced with a hard voice T .

In other words, before e a hard consonant is pronounced: adept, auto-da-fé, business, western, prodigy, riding breeches, dumbbell, grotesque, neckline, delta, dandy, derby, de facto, de jure, dispensary, identical, boarding school, international, intern, karate, square, cafe, muffler, codeine, code, computer, motorcade, cottage, bracket, open-hearth, billionaire, model, Art Nouveau, Morse, hotel, parterre, pathetic, polonaise, purse, poetess, resume, rating, reputation, superman and others. Some of these words have been known among us for at least one hundred and fifty years, but do not show a tendency to soften the consonant.

In borrowed words starting with a prefix de- , before vowels dis- , as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo- , with a general tendency towards softening, fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard are observed d And n , For example: devaluation, deideologization, demilitarization, depoliticization, destabilization, deformation, disinformation, deodorant, disorganization, neoglobalism, neocolonialism, neorealism, neofascism.

Firmly pronouncing consonants before e recommended in foreign-language proper names: Bella, Bizet, Voltaire: Descartes, Daudet, Jaurès, Carmen, Mary, Pasteur, Rodin, Flaubert, Chopin, Apollinaire, Fernandel [de?], Carter, Ionesco, Minnelli, Vanessa Redgrave, Stallone and etc.

In borrowed words with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains hard before e: strap [rete], genesis [gene], relay [rele], genetics [gene], cafeteria [fete], pince-nez [pe; ne], reputation [re; me], secretary [se; re; te], ethnogenesis [gene] and etc.

In relatively few words of foreign origin, fluctuations in the pronunciation of the consonant before e , for example: with the standard pronunciation of a hard consonant before e in words businessman [ne; me], annexation [ne] pronunciation with a soft consonant is acceptable; in words dean, claim soft pronunciation is the norm, but hard pronunciation is also acceptable [de] And [te] ; in a word session Hard and soft pronunciation options are equal. It is non-normative to soften the consonants before e in the professional speech of representatives of the technical intelligentsia in words laser, computer , as well as in colloquial pronunciation of words business, sandwich, intensive, interval .

Stylistic fluctuations in the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e are also observed in some foreign-language proper names: Bertha, Decameron, Reagan. Major, Kramer, Gregory Peck and etc.

3. Solid [w] pronounced in words parachute, brochure . In a word jury pronounced soft hissing [and'] . Names are pronounced the same way Julien, Jules .

LIII. FEATURES OF RUSSIAN ACCESS

§ 240. Russian word stress

Word stress in Russian is characterized by diversity(can stand on any syllable and any part of a word: but? news, science, education, bourgeoisie etc.) and mobility (in different grammatical forms a word can move from one syllable to another: head?, head? accepted, accepted?; brave, brave? etc.).

Prepositions, conjunctions and particles usually do not have independent stress and are adjacent to independent parts of speech: out of town, haven't you been?, father, will he come, sit down? . In some cases, the emphasis shifts to the preposition: up the mountain, on? gender, for? night . Thus, independent and function words have the same verbal stress, making up a single phonetic word in sound.

Note. A small number of service parts of speech have weak stress and do not change the quality of the “stressed” vowel. These are unions but, as if, for sure, then... then , some prepositions that do not violate the semantic connection with adverbs ( along, opposite, besides, next to, between etc.), particle Well .

Compound words and words with prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, over-, super-, ex- and others may have, in addition to the main one, incidental(or secondary) accent, conventionally indicated by the sign gravis ( ‘ ). But among the complex words there are many single-stressed ones: pre-war, independent, car, hostel etc. Collateral stress usually comes first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and basic- second (closer to the end of the word): oath?crime?, co?ntra?ka, o?kolo?mny, pro?organization, construction, aircraft construction, waterproof?, main?v?ch, inter?regional? th, inter?republican?skiy, dust jacket, vice-president?nt, e?ks-champion?n and etc.

The correct choice of stress in a word is of great importance in working on the culture of oral speech. Below are examples in which erroneous stress is most common. These can be either individual words or some grammatical forms of words:

1) Common nouns:

agent, agronomy, alphabet, apo?krif, apostrophe, are?st, asymmetry, pampering, barman, devilishness, bla?govest, barrel , brave, clanging, gross, val?m val?t, religion, supremacy, evening, genesis, citizenship, grotesque, ground?e, gave? y-la?ma, hyphen?s, dia?spore, dioptre?i, dispensary, do?gmat, shaft, confessor, blinds?, muzzle?, enviable, sign, is? sk, and?canopy, iconographer, from time immemorial?, ische?rpat, katalo?g, ka?tarsis, rubber?k, pantry?ya, klobu?k, colo?ss, coll?ps, whooping?sh, kra ?working, flint, kitchen, marketing, masterful?, messiah, mimicry, hours-long, garbage chute, intention, real estate, wakeful(eye), not? netskiy, untrodden, unspeakably, unregulated (relationship), oil pipeline, newborn, provision, depreciate, facilitate, encourage, education, one-part, wholesale, inquire, review(for manuscript), review (deputy), open, partly, mindful, fir, plateau, repeated, adolescent, anticipate, force, acquisition, dispossession, sanitation, discreet, concoct ?in, concentration, means, joiner, status, statue, story, taboo?, customs, customs, trades, dancer, totem, herbal simple, deepen, Ukrainian, reduce, strengthen, facsimile, extravaganza, phenomenon(phenomenon), needle, cotton, movement, price, Christian, chassis, sorrel, expert, linguistic (norm), linguistic (sausage).

In many words there are fluctuations in stress placement: equal options - denim And denim, hazy And frosty, combo?iner And combine operator, metallurgy And metallurgy, propolis And propolis, a loop? And a loop, face And woman in labor, rust And rust, sa?zhen And soot, cottage cheese And cottage cheese, fa?nza And fanza? ; with standard stress huh?vgustovsky acceptable Augustovskiy , at birch bark acceptable birch bark? , at shell acceptable shell , at wary acceptable wary ; with standard stress industry - obsolete industry , at smart - obsolete smart , at ra?course - obsolete raku?rs ;

2) Proper names:

Aigi?, E?evno, Aze?f, A?be, Ko?be, Eli?n Peli?n, Zahoder?r, Per?res de Que?ler, Steinbeck, Sa?linger, Rua?l A Mundsen, Balmont, Vorontsova-Dashkova, Kapisa, Sergiy Radonezhsky, Seraphim Sarovsky, Salvador Dali, Jeremiah, Picasso, Zosima. Alexi?y, Ignaty Loyo?la, protopo?p Avvaku?m, Julian Tu?vim, Sokolo?v-Mikito?v, Sa?yudis, Ana?dyr, Balashi?ha, Great U? Styug, Ki?zhi, Ra?donezh, Mount Na?rodnaya, Stavropol Territory, Hanno?ver, Che?ti-Mine?i, Apoca?lipsis, Kali?Gula, Mol?kh, Carnegie Hall, Comedy? France?z. Metropolitan O'Pera, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Peru, Quebec, Sydney, Massachusetts, Missouri, Foro's, Sri Lanka.

Variable stress is allowed in some proper names: Newton (but traditionally: Newton ), Re?mbrandt (but traditionally: Rembra?ndt ), Lee?ncoln (but traditionally: Linko?ln ), Da?vid Co?perfield (but traditionally: David Copperfield Ice ).

Note. In cases where one proper name refers to two (or more) persons, objects, concepts, it is necessary to clarify the specific meaning of this word and, using encyclopedic dictionaries, find out the correct emphasis. For example, Washington George, first US President, but traditionally Washington- the capital of USA, Makbe?t - a character in Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, but in the title of Leskov's story "Lady Ma?kbet Mtsensk district".

§ 241. Stress in individual grammatical forms

The mobility of Russian stress, i.e. its transfer from one syllable to another in various grammatical forms of a single phonetic word, causes a number of difficulties in the pronunciation of these forms.

1. Shifting emphasis to prepositions on, for, under, by, from, without possible if the sentence after the noun does not have words explaining it:

1) in combination with a preposition behind

"on the other side, behind" , For example: atgo for? river, for? mountain; pawn for? cheek, for? ear; lay hands on? back, behind? head;

"during" do for? year, for? day, for? night, for? winter; pay for? year, for? day and so on.;

2) in combination with a preposition on (with accusative case) meaning:

"in the direction of, on top of smth" , For example: fall (sit, lie down) on? floor, climb on? mountain, did something hit it? hand, on? nose, put the load on? back, put something on? head, on? legs, on? hands;

“indicating the point of contact with the support” , For example: lie down on? back, fall on? back, on? hands on? head, stand on? legs, on? hands on? head;

"based on the specified period" (with time units), for example: stock up (stretch, enough) for? year, for? day, on? night, on? winter, take out a loan for? year and so on.;

"indication of the measure of difference" , For example: on the? a year older, by? a day earlier, on? head up and so on.;

3) in combination with a preposition By (with dative case) - with the meaning of this preposition "on the surface, within" (about movement), for example: walk on? semi, by? field, by? yard, walk around? forest, fly through? sky, float across? sea, scatter across? semi, by? forest.

With other meanings of these prepositions, stress transfer may not occur, for example:

A) take something for a mountain, for a river, for a leg, for a winter, he is valued for his head, for his hands, a reward for his head, I fear for his hair, for head, legs;

b) pay attention to the hands, to the legs, to the nose, to the floor, to the day, despite the night, to the winter, the land tax;

V) longing for the sea, for the sky, to judge by the yard, for the forest, everyone got a field.

Stress transfer usually does not occur, if in a phrase a noun is followed by a word or words that explain it (subordinate to it or connected with it by a coordinating connection), for example:

A) beyond the Ural River, for a year and two months, for a year of hard work, for a day of his duty, holding the hand of a comrade, taking hold of his father’s shoulders;

b) to Mount Yaman-Tau, put the load on the back of the porter, put a hat on the head of a neighbor, older by a year and two months;

V) around the yard? hotels, on the snow and ice of the Gulf of Finland, on the Laptev Sea.

2. Stress in adjective forms.

1) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short feminine form: loud, loud?, loud, loud, louder; long, long?, long, long, long; longer; bad, bad, bad, bad; heavy, heavy?, heavy, heavy; rights(no full form) right?, right?, right? you;

2) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and to the suffix of the comparative degree: glorious, glorious, glorious?, glorious, glorious, glorious; whole, whole, whole?, whole, whole, whole; satisfying, satisfying, satisfying?, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying; lean, fast, fast, fast, fast, fast; yu?ny, yun, yuna?, yu?no, yu?ny, yun?e;

3) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and plural (as an equal option), as well as to the suffix of the comparative degree: poor, poor, poor?, poor, poor?, poor; pale, pale, pale?, pale, pale?, pale; important, important, important?, important, important?, more important; faithful, faithful, faithful?, faithful, faithful?, faithful; free(free) , free, free?, free, free?, free, slender, slender, slender?, slender, slender?, slender;

4) movable stress accompanied by alternation e And e: far, far, far?, far? And far, far away? And far away, yes? more; cheap, cheap, cheap?, cheap, cheap, cheap?vle; hard, tough, tough?, tough, tough, tougher; light, easy, easy?, easy?, easy?, easier; dark, dark, dark?, dark?, dark?, darker; clear, clear, clear? And clear, clear, clear, clear .

3. Difficulties in placing stress in verb forms(indefinite form, personal forms, participles, gerunds):

1) verbs ending in - edit with indefinite stress on the last syllable: bombarded, bombarded, bombarded; engraved, engraved, engraved; make-up, make-up, make-up; rewarded, rewarded, rewarded; formed, formed, formed; costume, costume, armor(armor), armored, armored; corrugated, corrugated, corrugated; grouped, grouped, grouped; sealed, sealed, sealed;

2) verbs with roots call for: called?, called, called?, called, called; named, called?, named, called, called, called, called, called, named, called; called, called?, called, called, called, called, called, called;

3) verbs with roots rub: rubbed, rubbed, rubbed, rubbed? and acceptable rubbed, rubbed ; same stress pattern in verb forms wipe, wipe ;

4) verbs lock, unlock: locked, locked?, locked, locked, locked, locked, locked in and acceptable locked, locked, locked, locked?, locked, locked; oh?now, unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked, oh?first, unlocked?in and acceptable unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked, unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked . Same verb stress pattern die except for the form dead , where the stress falls on the root vowel;

5) verbs remove, borrow, understand, accept, undertake, take away, take over and verb begin : With nyal, removed?, removed, removed, removed (shi), removed, removed, removed?, removed, removed; busy, busy, busy?, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy?, busy, busy; similar stress pattern in verb forms accept And undertake; understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood; take away, oh?take away and acceptable taken away, taken away?, oh?taken away and acceptable taken away, oh?taken away and acceptable taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away?, taken away, taken away; adopted, adopted and acceptable adopted?, adopted?, adopted and acceptable adopted, adopted and acceptable adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted?, adopted, adopted; begin, started, started?, started, started, started, started, started, started, started?, started, started;

6) verbs to depart, to arrive: I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll kill, I'll kill, I'll kill, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose ; same stress pattern in verb forms arrive ;

7) verbs with roots give (you?give, publish, transfer, sell, surrender ); in the verb you?give in all forms the emphasis falls on the prefix; published, published, published, published, published, published, published, published, published?, published, published, published, published , and?published, and?created, published? and acceptable And?built, and built, and built ; similar stress pattern in verb forms sell ; Pforward?t, pass?m, pass?t, pass?st, pass?m, pass?te, pass?t, passed? and acceptable passed?l, passed on?, passed on? and acceptable passed on, passed on and acceptable transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted? and acceptable transmitted, transmitted, transmitted; give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up and acceptable gave up .

PREPARING TEXT FOR VOICE OVER

§ 242. Pausing

Studying the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation, analyzing “difficult cases” of placing stress in words and grammatical forms, an attentive, thoughtful attitude to the sounding side of speech are necessary prerequisites for independent work on improving the culture of oral speech. But the acquired orthoepic information only partly ensures the successful preparation of a public speech, the ability to pronounce (or read) the finished voluminous text of a message, report, speech, report, etc. The methodological recommendations proposed below can be taken into account in the process of the speaker’s preliminary work on the text of the speech.

1. Pausing- dividing a sounding phrase into smaller speech segments (speech beats, or syntagms) is one of the most important features of sounding speech. Another feature is the presence of pauses, which naturally occur at the boundaries of speech bars and individual phrases.

Speech tact, or syntagma, is the minimum unit of content. A sentence in spoken speech is perceived by the listener and translated from one language to another according to individual speech beats. Different divisions of a phrase into speech beats can interpret the meaning of a sentence differently, for example: “Execution cannot be pardoned” , in which two pause options are possible: 1) Execute/cannot be pardoned ; 2) Cannot be executed/pardoned . Or: 1) Need to study/work/and relax ; 2) We must learn to work/and relax .

2. Correct pausing, i.e., correct division of the text into phonetic phrases, and phrases into speech bars, is the first stage in preparing the text for voicing. Although the sound segment between pauses (syntagma) can vary in length, its average length is usually seven syllables. But the speech tact (syntagma) has a relatively complete meaning and a certain syntactic design. For example: On the banks of the Moscow River,/opposite the southern port of the capital,/a modern residential area has grown up.// Pauses break up a given simple sentence into separate phrases. Another example: In order to divide speech into beats, / we need stops, / or, in other words, / logical pauses.// This complex sentence is divided into simple ones (pause after the word so you ), simple - into phrases. Thus, thoughtful pausing helps the logical analysis of individual sentences, complex syntactic wholes (see Chapter XLIX), and the entire complete text.

3. In the Russian language, orientation to punctuation marks can serve the basis for correct pausing of text. Thus, in a simple sentence with isolated participial, participial, comparative phrases, introductory and insertive sentences, and appeals, punctuation marks that highlight these syntactic constructions are signals for a pause. For example: On the southwestern outskirts of the US capital/ - Washington, / where Highway No. 95, / leading from the city to the south, / crosses the muddy Potomac River on two bridges, / opposite Arlington Cemetery, / stands a building made of grayish reinforced concrete.//

Note. The pause may be absent with isolated single introductory words and single gerunds: The adoption of a new law is, of course, necessary; When leaving, turn off the lights.

4. Pausing in cases of missing punctuation:

1) between the subject group and the predicate group: A road trip across America/looks like a trip across the ocean// (I. Ilf, E. Petrov);

2) after adverbial words, usually with the meaning of place, time, reason, as well as after additions at the beginning of the sentence: One autumn evening in 1969/in the editorial office of the newspaper “Pravda”/a conversation turned to “One-Storey America” at a meeting of young satirists//(Shatunovsky, Strelnikov);

3) before the union And , if with three or more homogeneous terms it combines the last two: Occasionally / we came across farms scattered throughout the prairie steppe / with the obligatory red barn / silo /And a mighty hundred-year-old tree in front of the porch of the house (Shatunovsky, Strelnikov).

5. Psychological pause It arises in addition to the logical one and is possible when the speaker wants to especially highlight a word and attract the attention of listeners to it. In the second case, we can talk about the ability to “hold a pause,” which is possessed by actors and experienced speakers.

Below is the text prepared for the speech with preliminary marking of pauses. Red oblique lines(/) (in texts a continuous oblique line) indicates mandatory pauses, blue oblique lines (¦ ) (dashed line in texts) - to possible, optional.

For Vysotsky, there are no forbidden topics, / he fearlessly, / with defiant courage / wrote and sang about everything / that worried him. / But this was the freedom / which is ensured morally, / by an exact attitude to the subject¦ or phenomenon. / Vysotsky ¦ not only records,/conveys,/reflects the drama of life./He is dramatic himself,/by the nature of his subjectivity,/individuality,/talent.//Everything/that he did,/and everything that he achieved, / - this is from restlessness, / from the feeling of anxiety that did not leave him.//

The dramatic, / in the words of A. S. Pushkin, / is associated with “passions” and outpourings of the human soul. / In full accordance with this exact observation! / Vysotsky¦ at the very time / when half-whispers reigned / on the one hand ,/and pop noisiness/ - on the other hand,/began to speak and sing in an “open voice”,/passionately,/hysterically,/sometimes turning to shouting.// Just like people sing at home,/in a free,/uninhibited ,/an environment not constrained by strict rules.//(V. Tolstykh, In the Mirror of Creativity).

§ 243. Intonation of the text

The expressive sound of the text is facilitated not only by correct pausing, but also by correct, natural intonation, which meets the requirements of the traditionally established literary norm.

In Russian there are two main types of intonation: ascending(with rising tone) and descending(with a decrease in tone). Rising intonation can also be called intonation of incompleteness, and downward- intonation of completeness.

A special increase in tone, accompanied by increased verbal stress and greater intensity of the stressed syllable, is called logical stress. It is used to semantically emphasize a word or phrase in a sentence. There is a certain pattern between the methods of intonation and punctuation marks, on the one hand, and the semantic relationships in a sentence, on the other.

1. Falling intonation(lowering tone), conventionally indicated in texts by an icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold italic

1) point: Moscow. 7 October. Today an exhibition dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Marina Tsvetaeva opened at the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts;

2) ellipsis(if it denotes completeness of thought): "Petersburg is taken Finns... Kolchak took Syzran. Tsaritsyn..." (Bunin);

3) comma in non-conjunctive and complex sentences with enumerative relations between parts: “On July evenings and nights, quails no longer call and corncrakes, nightingales do not sing in the forest ravines, there is no smell flowers. Daytime blues forgotten, all is forgiven, and the steppe easily breathes in wide breasts…» (Chekhov);

4) semicolon(the pause between parts is longer than with a comma);

5) colon in a simple sentence: The company requires workers: mechanics, turners, milling operators; in a complex sentence: And my request is next: take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language… (Turgenev).

2. Rising intonation(increasing tone), conventionally indicated in the texts by an icon (highlighted in the examples bold), is required in cases where the following punctuation marks are used:

1) exclamation point: I beg attention! Please stop debate!;

2) question mark: What is special about the current stage of development? society?;

3) comma:

a) in a series of homogeneous members of a simple sentence, connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (in meaning "And" ), or without conjunctions, is accompanied by the intonation of the same type of enumeration: The team has come together business, cheerful, vigorous. Everyone works to the fullest return and enthusiasm;

b) in a simple or complex sentence in the presence of adversatives ( but, but, however ), separating ( either...or, then...that, not that...not that etc.), double comparative ( both...and; although..., but; if not...then etc.) conjunctions are accompanied by heterogeneous, heterogeneous intonation: rising intonation is replaced by descending: Small spool, Yes roads. Is not Street, A avenue. In economics there is no other choice: either force, or ruble ;

c) in a simple sentence with isolated members of the sentence: The editors thank readerswho sent their wishes. IN decision, adopted at meeting, the results of the work are summed up. Despite the difficult weather conditions, the transcontinental flight took place;

d) in a simple sentence in the presence of introductory words and addresses, if they are highlighted in speech time, that is, accompanied by a pause: Reportedly print, the visit of the head of government may not take place;

e) in a complex sentence on the border of its constituent simple sentences: To me Seemsthat the translation style will not be violated if we convey foreign proverbs in moderation and with tact Russians, which correspond to them in content and style, especially in cases where the literal translation is awkward and wordy(K. Chukovsky);

4) a dash in a simple sentence: Life live- not a field go. On right- sea, left- mountains; in a complex sentence: Century live- century study .

3. Rising intonation(increasing tone) is required in all cases when a pause at the boundaries of speech beats (syntagms) occurs in the absence of a punctuation mark:

OftenYou can still hear here statement:/the market in its pure form/no longer exists nowhere,/especially in industrial countries.// Cruel delusion.// If not say/illiteracy¦and blindness.// Yes,/the state today/is trying to correct everything market.// Yes,/monopolies/plan their production,/fight for control of market.// But over market,/and not over anything others!// ...Nothing useful from Togo,/what's the story economyaccumulated for century,/modern farming has not lost. // AND, I'll add,/- can not lose.// Because the market and social division labor/Not detachable.// And the deeper this division labor, /those wider, /more branched¦ market.// A Means,/and his instruments:/money,/price,/taxes,/credit/currency well.// (N. Shmelev, Either power or the ruble).

4. Logical stress(a special increase in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of a stressed syllable, in texts) conventionally indicated by the icon (") (in the examples the letter being stressed is highlighted bold), is allowed only when semantically highlighting the word and phrase in the phrase:

1) within one simple sentence, it is recommended to resort to logical stress no more than once, thus emphasizing new information that is important for a given statement, since changing the place of logical stress changes the meaning of the message as a whole. For example, a sentence Pushkin was born in Moscow may have three options for setting logical stress, depending on what you need to pay attention to: a) PatShkin was born in Moscow; b) Pushkin familyAndwas in Moscow; V) Pushkin was born in Moscowe.

The presence of more than one logical stress in a simple sentence is allowed in a series of homogeneous members, if it is necessary to emphasize each of them: Pushkin's draft is a precious documentent, in which all the articles are recordedAdiy of the creative process, all its aftereffects are preservedecontinuity, all gradual layersenia;

2) in a connected text, logical stress helps the speaker clearly highlight the beginning of a new thought, emphasizes the function words that form the compositional beginnings: firstly, secondly, thus, so, of course, naturally, in the end etc.;

3) stands out accented class of words, the logical emphasis of which is typical for public speaking, since with their help the speaker expresses his attitude to the subject of speech: very, completely, absolutely, not at all, again, again, before, always, annually, usually; is, is not, is not, is possible, should not; important, little, a lot etc.;

4) stand out "reference points" text - words naming the object of speech; first of all, these are terms, as well as words that clarify the meaning of terms and explain them.

Below is an excerpt from N. Shmelev’s article, divided into speech beats, containing intonation markings and logical stress with a focus on pronunciation norms of public speech.

Legend:

(/) continuous oblique line indicates mandatory pauses, (¦ ) broken oblique line - for possible, optional pauses;

- falling intonation(lower tone);

- rising intonation(increasing tone);

(") - logical stress (a special increase in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable in texts).