When Catherine 2 was born. Secrets from the life of Catherine II

Ekaterina Alekseevna Romanova (Catherine II the Great)
Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess, Duchess of Anhalt-Zerb.
Years of life: 04/21/1729 - 11/6/1796
Russian Empress (1762 – 1796)

Daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst and Princess Johanna Elisabeth.

Born April 21 (May 2), 1729 in Schettin. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerb, served the Prussian king, but his family was considered impoverished. Sophia Augusta's mother was the sister of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden. Other relatives of the mother of the future Empress Catherine ruled Prussia and England. Sofia Augusta, (family nickname - Fike) was the eldest daughter in the family. She was educated at home.

In 1739, 10-year-old Princess Fike was introduced to her future husband, heir to the Russian throne Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who was the nephew of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich Romanov. The heir to the Russian throne made a negative impression on high Prussian society, showing himself to be ill-mannered and narcissistic.

In 1778, she composed the following epitaph for herself:

Having ascended to the Russian throne, she wished well

And she strongly wanted to give her subjects Happiness, Freedom and Prosperity.

She easily forgave and did not deprive anyone of their freedom.

She was lenient, didn't make life difficult for herself, and had a cheerful disposition.

She had a republican soul and a kind heart. She had friends.

Work was easy for her, friendship and the arts brought her joy.

Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin (according to some sources)

Anna Petrovna

Alexey Grigorievich Bobrinsky

Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina

At the end of the 19th century, a collection of works was published Catherine II in 12 volumes, which included children's moral tales written by the empress, pedagogical teachings, dramatic plays, articles, autobiographical notes, translations.

The reign of Ekaterina Alekseevna is often considered the “golden age” of the Russian Empire. Thanks to her reform activities, she is the only Russian ruler who, like Peter I, was awarded the epithet “Great” in the historical memory of her compatriots.

On April 21 (May 2), 1729, in the German city of Stettin (now Szczecin, Poland), Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Russian empress Catherine II.

In 1785, Catherine II issued the famous lawsnodatory acts - Charters granted to cities and nobility. For the Russian nobility, Catherine’s document meant the legal consolidation of almost all the rights and privileges available to the nobles, including exemption from compulsory public service.The charter to cities established new elected city institutions, expanded the circle of voters and consolidated the foundations of self-government.

In 1773 by order of CatherineII in St. Petersburg, to train specialists in metalworking industries, the first in Russia and the second in the world higher technical educational institution was founded - the Mining School. In 1781, the beginning was made of the creation of a national system of public education in Russia- a network of urban school institutions based on a class-lesson system has been created. In subsequent years, the Empress also continued to develop plans for major reforms in the field of education. IN1783 Catherine's decree was issued II “On free printing houses”, which allowed private individuals to engage in publishing activities. In 1795, by her highest command, Catherine the Great approved the project for the construction of the first public library in St. Petersburg.

During her reign, the Russian empress fought two successful wars against the Ottoman Turks (Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791), as a result of which Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea. Leading an alliance with Austria and Prussia, Catherine participated in the three partitions of Poland. In 1795 the empressA manifesto was issued on the annexation of Courland “for eternity to the Russian Empire.”

The era of Empress Catherine the Great was marked by the appearance of a galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, and artists. Among them, a special place was occupiedadjutant generalI. I. Shuvalov;Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky; Admiral V. Ya. Chichagov; Generalissimo A.V. Suvorov; Field Marshal General G. A. Potemkin; educator, book publisher N. I. Novikov; historian, archaeologist, artist, writer, collector A. N. Olenin, president Russian Academy E. R. Dashkova.

On the morning of November 6 (17), 1796, Catherine II died and was buried in the tomb of the Peter and Paul Cathedral. 77 years after the death of Catherine in St. Petersburg, a monument to the great empress was inaugurated on Alexandrinskaya Square (now Ostrovsky Square).

Lit.: Brickner A. G. History of Catherine II. St. Petersburg, 1885; Grot Y. K. Education of Catherine II // Ancient and new Russia. 1875. T. 1. No. 2. P. 110-125; The same [Electronic resource]. URL:http://memoirs.ru/texts/Grot_DNR_75_2.htm; Catherine II. Her life and writings: Sat. historical and literary articles. M., 1910;Joanna Elisabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst. News written by Princess Joanna-Elizabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst, mother of Empress Catherine, about her and her daughter’s arrival in Russia and about the celebrations on the occasion of joining Orthodoxy and the latter’s marriage. 1744-1745 // Collection of the Russian Historical Society. 1871. T. 7. P. 7-67; The same [Electronic resource]. URL: http://memoirs.ru/texts/IoannaSRIO71.htm; Kamensky A. B. The life and fate of Empress Catherine the Great. M., 1997; Omelchenko O. A. “Legitimate Monarchy” of Catherine the Second. M., 1993; Stories by A. M. Turgenev about Empress Catherine II // Russian antiquity. 1897. T. 89. No. 1. P. 171-176; The same [Electronic resource]. URL: http://memoirs.ru/texts/Turgenev897.htm; Tarle E. V. Catherine the Second and her diplomacy. Part 1-2. M., 1945.

See also in the Presidential Library:

Catherine II (1729–1796) // Romanov Dynasty. 400th anniversary of the Zemsky Sobor of 1613: collection.

Catherine II Alekseevna the Great (nee Sophia Auguste Friederike of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power in a palace coup that overthrew her unpopular husband Peter III from the throne.

Catherine's era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine the Great, the borders of the Russian Empire were significantly expanded to the west (partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and to the south (annexation of Novorossiya).

System government controlled under Catherine the Second, it was reformed for the first time since then.

Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activity, collected masterpieces of painting and corresponded with French educators.

In general, Catherine’s policy and her reforms fit into the mainstream of enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II the Great ( documentary)

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2, new style) 1729 in the then German city of Stettin, the capital of Pomerania (Pomerania). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories it was voluntarily transferred by the Soviet Union, following the Second World War, to Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Gottorp estate, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Johanna Elisabeth's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

His maternal uncle, Adolf Friedrich, was chosen as heir to the Swedish throne in 1743, which he assumed in 1751 under the name of Adolf Friedrich. Another uncle, Karl Eitinsky, according to Catherine I, was supposed to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.

In the family of the Duke of Zerbst, Catherine received a home education. Studied English, French and Italian, dance, music, basics of history, geography, theology. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful girl and loved to show off her courage in front of the boys with whom she easily played on the streets of Stettin. The parents were dissatisfied with their daughter’s “boyish” behavior, but they were satisfied that Frederica took care of her younger sister Augusta. Her mother called her Fike or Ficken as a child (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Russian Emperor, remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed to her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, Johanna Elisabeth’s brother. Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; Elizabeth had previously vigorously supported the election of her uncle to the Swedish throne and exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerbst princess and her mother were invited to Russia to marry Pyotr Fedorovich, who was her second cousin. She first saw her future husband at Eitin Castle in 1739.

Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher).

In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting by an open window in the frosty air. Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

The appearance of Sophia and her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by political intrigue in which her mother, Princess Zerbst, was involved. She was a fan of the King of Prussia, Frederick II, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on Russian foreign policy. For this purpose, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, to remove Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, from affairs, and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept letters from Princess Zerbst to Frederick II and present them to Elizaveta Petrovna. After the latter learned about the “ugly role of a Prussian spy” that Sophia’s mother played at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and subjected her to disgrace. However, this did not affect the position of Sofia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue.

On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, On September 20, 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Pavel.. The birth was difficult, the baby was immediately taken away from the mother by the will of the reigning Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to raise her, allowing her to see Paul only occasionally. So the Grand Duchess first saw her son only 40 days after giving birth. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams, had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9, 1757, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.”

During this period, the English Ambassador Williams was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant sums in the form of loans or subsidies: only in 1750 she was given 50,000 rubles, for which there are two receipts from her; and in November 1756 she was given 44,000 rubles. In return, he received various confidential information from her - verbally and through letters, which she quite regularly wrote to him as if on behalf of a man (for purposes of secrecy). In particular, at the end of 1756, after the outbreak of the Seven Years' War with Prussia (of which England was an ally), Williams, as follows from his own dispatches, received from Catherine important information about the state of the warring Russian army and about the plan of the Russian offensive, which he transferred to London, as well as to Berlin to the Prussian king Frederick II. After Williams left, she also received money from his successor Keith. Historians explain Catherine’s frequent appeal to the British for money by her extravagance, due to which her expenses far exceeded the amounts that were allocated from the treasury for her maintenance. In one of her letters to Williams, she promised, as a sign of gratitude, “to lead Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to give her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all Europe and especially Russia, before their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, I will base my glory on them and I will prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine.”.

Already starting in 1756, and especially during the illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine hatched a plan to remove the future emperor (her husband) from the throne through a conspiracy, which she repeatedly wrote to Williams. For these purposes, Catherine, according to the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, “begged a loan of 10 thousand pounds sterling from the English king for gifts and bribes, pledging on her word of honor to act in the common Anglo-Russian interests, and began to think about involving the guard in the case in the event of death Elizabeth, entered into a secret agreement on this with Hetman K. Razumovsky, commander of one of the guards regiments.” Chancellor Bestuzhev, who promised Catherine assistance, was also privy to this plan for a palace coup.

At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Apraksin, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, as well as Chancellor Bestuzhev himself, of treason. Both were arrested, interrogated and punished; however, Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution and disgrace. At the same time, Williams was recalled to England. Thus, her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizaveta Petrovna (December 25, 1761) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War, and returned to it the lands captured by the Russians. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, sergeant Potemkin and adjutant Fyodor Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy, Lieutenant Passek.

Apparently, there was some foreign participation here too. As A. Troyat and K. Waliszewski write, planning the overthrow of Peter III, Catherine turned to the French and British for money, hinting to them what she was going to do. The French were distrustful of her request to borrow 60 thousand rubles, not believing in the seriousness of her plan, but she received 100 thousand rubles from the British, which subsequently may have influenced her attitude towards England and France.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under unclear circumstances. In her letter, Catherine once indicated that before his death Peter suffered from hemorrhoidal colic. After death (although the facts indicate that even before death - see below), Catherine ordered an autopsy to dispel suspicions of poisoning. The autopsy showed (according to Catherine) that the stomach was absolutely clean, which ruled out the presence of poison.

At the same time, as historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, “The violent death of the emperor is irrefutably confirmed by absolutely reliable sources” - Orlov’s letters to Catherine and a number of other facts. There are also facts indicating that she knew about the impending murder of Peter III. So, already on July 4, 2 days before the death of the emperor in the palace in Ropsha, Catherine sent the doctor Paulsen to him, and as Pavlenko writes, “It is indicative that Paulsen was sent to Ropsha not with medicines, but with surgical instruments for opening the body”.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow. As V. O. Klyuchevsky characterized her accession, “Catherine made a double takeover: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father.”.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized mainly by the preservation and development of trends laid down by her predecessors. In the middle of the reign, an administrative (provincial) reform was carried out, which determined the territorial structure of the country until 1917, as well as judicial reform. Territory Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), in terms of population Russia became the largest European country (it accounted for 20% of Europe's population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

Klyuchevsky about the reign of Catherine the Great: “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 counted 67 battleships and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, it increased more than fourfold, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing imports and exports, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1 million 900 thousand rubles In 1796, the growth of internal circulation was indicated by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles in the 34 years of his reign, while in the previous 62 years only 97 million were issued.”

Population growth was largely the result of annexation into Russia foreign countries and territories (where almost 7 million people lived), which often occurred against the wishes of the local population, which led to the emergence of “Polish”, “Ukrainian”, “Jewish” and other national issues inherited by the Russian Empire from the era of Catherine II. Hundreds of villages under Catherine received the status of a city, but in fact they remained villages in appearance and occupation of the population, the same applies to a number of cities founded by her (some even existed only on paper, as evidenced by contemporaries). In addition to the issue of coins, 156 million rubles worth of paper notes were issued, which led to inflation and a significant depreciation of the ruble; therefore, the real growth of budget revenues and other economic indicators during her reign was significantly less than the nominal one.

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population has practically not increased, amounting to about 4%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports. However, in the structure of this export there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and imports were dominated by foreign industrial products. While in the West in the second half of the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution was taking place, Russian industry remained “patriarchal” and serfdom, which caused it to lag behind the Western one. Finally, in the 1770-1780s. An acute social and economic crisis broke out, which resulted in a financial crisis.

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment largely predetermined the fact that the term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. She actually brought some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to life.

Thus, according to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine there was a strengthening of the autocracy, strengthening bureaucratic apparatus, centralization of the country and unification of the management system. However, the ideas expressed by Diderot and Voltaire, of which she was a vocal supporter, did not correspond to her domestic policy. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the equality of all people and the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government. Contrary to these ideas, under Catherine there was a further deterioration in the position of the serfs, their exploitation intensified, and inequality grew due to the granting of even greater privileges to the nobility.

In general, historians characterize her policy as “pro-noble” and believe that, contrary to the empress’s frequent statements about her “vigilant concern for the welfare of all subjects,” the concept of the common good in the era of Catherine was the same fiction as in Russia as a whole in the 18th century.

Under Catherine, the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained virtually unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners, was also eliminated. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Speaking about the reasons for the provincial reform under Catherine, N. I. Pavlenko writes that it was a response to the Peasant War of 1773-1775. led by Pugachev, which revealed the weakness of local authorities and their inability to cope with peasant revolts. The reform was preceded by a series of notes submitted to the government from the nobility, in which it was recommended to increase the network of institutions and “police supervisors” in the country.

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no longer a need to maintain the special rights and management system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Pyotr Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; in the same year, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 they were granted Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining the “patriarchal” industry and Agriculture. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions(state bank and loan office) and expansion of banking operations (since 1770, acceptance of deposits for storage was introduced). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

State regulation of salt prices has been introduced, which was one of the vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product. However, soon the price of salt was raised again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the private monopoly of the merchant Shemyakin on the import of silk, and others.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased- Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials increased especially strongly: timber (5 times), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The country's export volume increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade at the end of the 18th century. early XIX centuries; the number of foreign merchant ships entering Russian ports annually during her reign increased from 1340 to 2430.

As the economic historian N.A. Rozhkov pointed out, in the structure of exports in the era of Catherine there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the volume of imports of which was several times higher than domestic production. Thus, the volume of domestic manufacturing production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles.

Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements and serf labor dominated. Thus, from year to year, cloth factories could not even satisfy the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth “outside”; in addition, the cloth was of poor quality, and it had to be purchased abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, “machines”) harm the state because they reduce the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both were based on “patriarchal” methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively being introduced in the West at that time - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries, which began shortly after the death of Catherine II .

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine’s policy consisted of a gradual transition from protectionism, characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna, to complete liberalization of exports and imports, which, according to a number of economic historians, was a consequence of the influence of the ideas of the physiocrats. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and a ban on grain exports were abolished, which from that time began to grow rapidly. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own magazine. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, significantly reducing tariff barriers compared to the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties of 60 to 100% or more); they were reduced even more in the customs tariff of 1782. Thus, in the “moderate protectionist” tariff of 1766, protective duties averaged 30%, and in the liberal tariff of 1782 - 10%, only for some goods rising to 20- thirty%.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land); The promotion of intensive agricultural methods by the Free Economic Society created under Catherine did not have much result.

From the first years of Catherine's reign, famine began to occur periodically in the village, which some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. Pokrovsky associated with the beginning of mass grain exports, which had previously, under Elizaveta Petrovna, been prohibited, and by the end of Catherine’s reign amounted to 1.3 million rubles. in year. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. The famines became especially widespread in the 1780s, when they affected large regions of the country. Bread prices have increased significantly: for example, in the center of Russia (Moscow, Smolensk, Kaluga) they increased from 86 kopecks. in 1760 to 2.19 rubles. in 1773 and up to 7 rubles. in 1788, that is, more than 8 times.

Paper money introduced into circulation in 1769 - banknotes- in the first decade of its existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, an increasing number of banknotes were issued, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value depreciated by 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of RUB 15.5 million. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenses significantly exceeded income, which was stated by Paul I upon his accession to the throne. All this gave the basis to the historian N.D. Chechulin in his economic research draw a conclusion about a “severe economic crisis” in the country (in the second half of the reign of Catherine II) and about the “complete collapse financial system Catherine's reign."

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of women's education; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination introduced, and Catherine decided to set a personal example for her subjects: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

To prevent their relocation to the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. Total number new subjects acquired in this way by Russia reached 7 million. As a result, as V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote, in the Russian Empire “the discord of interests intensified” between different peoples. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempt from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; the Pale of Settlement was introduced for Jews; From the Ukrainian and Belarusian population in the territory of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the poll tax was at first not levied at all, and then levied at half the amount. The indigenous population turned out to be the most discriminated against in these conditions, which led to the following incident: some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

On April 21, 1785, two charters were issued: “Certificate on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” And “Charter of Complaint to Cities”. The Empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them the crown of the “pro-noble policy” of the kings of the 18th century. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “In the history of Russia, the nobility has never been blessed with such diverse privileges as under Catherine II.”

Both charters finally assigned to the upper classes those rights, obligations and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine’s predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility as a class was formed by the decrees of Peter I and then received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to unlimited disposal of estates; and by decree of Peter III it was finally released from compulsory service to the state.

The charter granted to the nobility contained the following guarantees:

Already existing rights were confirmed
- the nobility were exempted from the quartering of military units and commands, from corporal punishment
- the nobility received ownership of the subsoil of the earth
- the right to have their own estate institutions, the name of the 1st estate has changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”
- it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs
- nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the “Charter” does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs
- Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles. a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote
- only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Despite the privileges, in the era of Catherine II, property inequality among the nobles increased greatly: against the backdrop of individual large fortunes, the economic situation of part of the nobility worsened. As the historian D. Blum points out, a number of large nobles owned tens and hundreds of thousands of serfs, which was not the case in previous reigns (when the owner of more than 500 souls was considered rich); at the same time, almost 2/3 of all landowners in 1777 had less than 30 male serfs, and 1/3 of landowners had less than 10 souls; many nobles who wanted to enter the public service did not have the funds to purchase appropriate clothing and shoes. V. O. Klyuchevsky writes that many noble children during her reign, even becoming students maritime academy and “receiving a small salary (scholarships), 1 rub. per month, “from barefoot” they could not even attend the academy and were forced, according to the report, not to think about the sciences, but about their own food, to acquire funds for their maintenance on the side.”

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court).
In 1783, serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (Left Bank Ukraine and the Russian Black Earth Region).
In 1796, serfdom was introduced in New Russia (Don, North Caucasus).
After the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the serfdom regime was tightened in the territories that were transferred to the Russian Empire (Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

As N.I. Pavlenko writes, under Catherine “serfdom developed in depth and breadth,” which was “an example of a blatant contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serfdom regime.”

During her reign, Catherine donated more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles, thereby setting a kind of record. Most of them were not state peasants, but peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants. But, for example, the number of assigned (possession) peasants from 1762 to 1796. increased from 210 to 312 thousand people, and these were formally free (state) peasants, but converted to the status of serfs or slaves. Possession peasants of the Ural factories took an active part in Peasant War 1773-1775

At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

The fact that a woman who did not have any formal rights to this was proclaimed empress gave rise to many pretenders to the throne, which overshadowed a significant part of the reign of Catherine II. Yes, just from 1764 to 1773 seven False Peters III appeared in the country(who claimed that they were nothing more than the “resurrected” Peter III) - A. Aslanbekov, I. Evdokimov, G. Kremnev, P. Chernyshov, G. Ryabov, F. Bogomolov, N. Krestov; Emelyan Pugachev became eighth. And in 1774-1775. To this list was added the “case of Princess Tarakanova,” who pretended to be the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During 1762-1764. 3 conspiracies were uncovered aimed at overthrowing Catherine, and two of them were associated with the name of the former Russian emperor Ivan VI, who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne continued to remain alive in prison in the Shlisselburg fortress. The first of them involved 70 officers. The second took place in 1764, when second lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

In 1773-1775 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

In 1772 took place First section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791; The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place Second section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (part of the territory of modern Ukraine).

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov. During the Kościuszko uprising, the rebel Poles who seized the Russian embassy in Warsaw discovered documents that had a great public resonance, according to which King Stanisław Poniatowski and a number of members of the Grodno Sejm, at the time of the approval of the 2nd partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, received money from the Russian government - in in particular, Poniatowski received several thousand ducats.

In 1795 took place Third section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (Battle of Kozludzhi, Battle of Ryabaya Mogila, Battle of Kagul, Battle of Larga, Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thereby an attempt to unleash new war, after which Türkiye recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Battle of Kerch (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II. At the same time, a number of historians (K. Valishevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, etc.) and contemporaries (Frederick II, French ministers, etc.) explained the “amazing” victories of Russia over Turkey not so much by the strength of the Russian army and navy, which were still quite weak and poorly organized, largely a consequence of the extreme decomposition of the Turkish army and state during this period.

Catherine II's height: 157 centimeters.

Personal life of Catherine II:

Unlike her predecessor, Catherine did not carry out extensive palace construction for her own needs. To move around the country comfortably, she set up a network of small travel palaces along the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow (from Chesmensky to Petrovsky) and only at the end of her life began building a new country residence in Pella (not preserved). In addition, she was concerned about the lack of a spacious and modern residence in Moscow and its environs. Although she did not visit the old capital often, Catherine for a number of years cherished plans for the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the construction of suburban palaces in Lefortovo, Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyn. For various reasons, none of these projects were completed.

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.” Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov, horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite there was cornet Platon Zubov, who became a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

Catherine's love affairs were marked by a series of scandals. So, Grigory Orlov, being her favorite, at the same time (according to M.M. Shcherbatov) cohabited with all her ladies-in-waiting and even with his 13-year-old cousin. The favorite of Empress Lanskaya used an aphrodisiac to increase “male strength” (contarid) in ever-increasing doses, which, apparently, according to the conclusion of the court physician Weikart, was the cause of his unexpected death at a young age. Her last favorite, Platon Zubov, was a little over 20 years old, while Catherine’s age at that time had already exceeded 60. Historians mention many other scandalous details (“a bribe” of 100 thousand rubles paid to Potemkin by the empress’s future favorites, many of who were previously his adjutants, testing their “male strength” by her ladies-in-waiting, etc.).

The bewilderment of contemporaries, including foreign diplomats, the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, etc., was caused by the enthusiastic reviews and characteristics that Catherine gave to her young favorites, most of whom were devoid of any outstanding talents. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “neither before Catherine nor after her did debauchery reach such a wide scale and manifest itself in such an openly defiant form.”

It is worth noting that in Europe, Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a rare occurrence against the backdrop of general debauchery of morals XVIII century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. However, this does not apply to reigning queens and empresses. Thus, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa wrote about the “disgust and horror” that such persons as Catherine II instill in her, and this attitude towards the latter was shared by her daughter Marie Antoinette. As K. Walishevsky wrote in this regard, comparing Catherine II with Louis XV, “the difference between the sexes until the end of time, we think, will give a deeply unequal character to the same actions, depending on whether they were committed by a man or a woman... besides, the mistresses of Louis XV never influenced the fate of France.”

There are numerous examples of the exceptional influence (both negative and positive) that Catherine’s favorites (Orlov, Potemkin, Platon Zubov, etc.) had on the fate of the country, starting from June 28, 1762 until the death of the Empress, as well as on its domestic and foreign policies and even military actions. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, to please the favorite Grigory Potemkin, who was jealous of the glory of Field Marshal Rumyantsev, this outstanding commander and hero of the Russian-Turkish wars was removed by Catherine from command of the army and was forced to retire to his estate. Another, very mediocre commander, Musin-Pushkin, on the contrary, continued to lead the army, despite his mistakes in military campaigns (for which the empress herself called him “a complete idiot”) - thanks to the fact that he was the “favorite of June 28”, one of those who helped Catherine seize the throne.

In addition, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the morals of the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc. Contemporary M. M. Shcherbatov wrote that favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era, and historians agree with this.

Catherine had two sons: (1754) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov), as well as a daughter, Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly from the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky), who died in infancy. Less likely is Catherine's motherhood in relation to Potemkin's pupil named Elizaveta, who was born when the empress was over 45 years old.

Time of Catherine II (1762–1796)

(Start)

The situation of the accession of Catherine II

The new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who very sharply declared his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childish capricious nature. In such circumstances, Catherine's accession to the throne has much in common with Elizabeth's accession to the throne. And in 1741, the coup was carried out by the forces of the noble guard against the non-national government of Anna, full of accidents and the tyranny of non-Russian temporary workers. We know that the coup of 1741 resulted in the national direction of the Elizabethan government and the improvement of the state position of the nobility. We have the right to expect the same consequences from the circumstances of the coup of 1762, and indeed, as we will see, the policy of Catherine II was national and favorable to the nobility. These features were adopted into the empress's policy by the very circumstances of her accession. In this she inevitably had to follow Elizabeth, although she treated the practices of her predecessor with irony.

Portrait of Catherine II. Artist F. Rokotov, 1763

But the coup of 1741 put Elizabeth at the head of the government, an intelligent but poorly educated woman who brought to the throne only feminine tact, love for her father and sympathetic humanity. Therefore, Elizabeth's government was distinguished by reasonableness, humanity, and reverence for the memory of Peter the Great. But it did not have its own program and therefore sought to act according to Peter’s principles. The coup of 1762, on the contrary, placed on the throne a woman who was not only intelligent and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. Therefore, Catherine’s government not only returned to good old models, but led the state forward according to its own program, which it acquired little by little according to the instructions of practice and abstract theories adopted by the empress. In this, Catherine was the opposite of her predecessor. Under her there was a system in management, and therefore random persons, favorites, had less influence on the course of state affairs than was the case under Elizabeth, although Catherine’s favorites were very noticeable not only by their activity and power of influence, but even by their whims and abuses.

Thus, the circumstances of Catherine’s accession to the throne and the personal qualities of Catherine determine in advance the features of her reign. It is impossible not to notice, however, that the personal views of the empress, with which she ascended the throne, did not fully correspond to the circumstances of Russian life, and Catherine’s theoretical plans could not be translated into action due to the fact that they had no basis in Russian practice. Catherine was educated on the liberal French philosophy of the 18th century. , adopted and even openly expressed her “free-thinking” principles, but could not put them into practice either due to their inapplicability, or due to the opposition of the environment around her. Therefore, a certain contradiction appeared between word and deed, between Catherine’s liberal direction and the results of her practical activities, which were quite faithful to historical Russian traditions. That is why Catherine is sometimes accused of the discrepancy between her words and deeds. We will see how this discrepancy came about; We will see that in practical activities Catherine sacrificed ideas to practice; We will see that the ideas introduced by Catherine into Russian social circulation did not, however, pass without a trace, but were reflected in the development of Russian society and in some government events.

First reign

The first years of Catherine's reign were a difficult time for her. She herself did not know current state affairs and had no assistants: the main businessman of Elizabeth’s time, P. I. Shuvalov, died; She had little confidence in the abilities of other old nobles. One Count Nikita Ivanovich Panin enjoyed her trust. Panin was a diplomat under Elizabeth (ambassador to Sweden); She was appointed teacher of Grand Duke Paul and was retained in this position by Catherine. Under Catherine, although Vorontsov remained chancellor, Panin became in charge of Russia's foreign affairs. Catherine used the advice of the old man Bestuzhev-Ryumin, whom she returned from exile, and other persons from previous reigns, but these were not her people: she could neither believe in them nor trust them. She consulted with them on various occasions and entrusted them with the conduct of certain affairs; she showed them external signs of favor and even respect, standing up, for example, to greet Bestuzhev as he entered. But she remembered that these old men had once looked down on her, and more recently they had destined the throne not for her, but for her son. While lavishing smiles and courtesies on them, Catherine was wary of them and despised many of them. She would not want to rule with them. For her, more reliable and pleasant were those persons who elevated her to the throne, that is, the younger leaders of the successful coup; but she understood that they did not yet have either the knowledge or the ability to manage. These were guards youth who knew little and were poorly educated. Catherine showered them with awards and allowed them into business, but felt that it was impossible to put them in charge of affairs: they had to ferment first. This means that Catherine does not introduce those who could be immediately introduced into the government environment because she does not trust them; those she trusts, she does not bring in because they are not yet ready. This is the reason why, at first under Catherine, it was not this or that circle, not this or that environment that constituted the government, but rather a collection of individuals. In order to organize a dense government environment, it was, of course, necessary to take time.

So, Catherine, not having reliable people fit for power, could not rely on anyone. She was lonely, and even foreign ambassadors noticed this. They also saw that Catherine was going through generally difficult moments. The court environment treated her with some demands: both people elevated by her and people who had power earlier besieged her with their opinions and requests, because they saw her weakness and loneliness and thought that she owed them the throne. The French ambassador Breteuil wrote: “In large meetings at court, it is interesting to observe the heavy care with which the empress tries to please everyone, the freedom and annoyingness with which everyone talks to her about their affairs and their opinions... This means that she strongly feels her dependence to bear it."

This free circulation of the court environment was very difficult for Catherine, but she could not stop it, because she did not have true friends, she was afraid for her power and felt that she could preserve it only with the love of the court and her subjects. She used all means in order, in the words of the English Ambassador Buckingham, to gain the trust and love of her subjects.

Catherine had real reasons to fear for her power. In the first days of her reign, among the army officers gathered for the coronation in Moscow, there was talk about the state of the throne, about Emperor John Antonovich and Grand Duke Paul. Some found that these persons had more rights to power than the empress. All these rumors did not develop into a conspiracy, but they greatly worried Catherine. Much later, in 1764, a conspiracy to free Emperor John was discovered. From the time of Elizabeth, Ivan Antonovich was kept in Shlisselburg. Army officer Mirovich conspired with his comrade Ushakov to release him and carry out a coup in his name. Both of them didn't know that former emperor In prison he lost his mind. Although Ushakov drowned, Mirovich alone did not give up the cause and outraged part of the garrison. However, at the very first movement of the soldiers, according to the instructions, John was stabbed to death by his overseers and Mirovich voluntarily surrendered into the hands of the commandant. He was executed, and his execution had a terrible effect on the people, who, under Elizabeth, had become unaccustomed to executions. And outside the army, Catherine could detect signs of fermentation and displeasure: they did not believe the death of Peter III, they spoke with disapproval of G. G. Orlov’s closeness to the empress. In a word, in the first years of power, Catherine could not boast that she had solid ground under her feet. It was especially unpleasant for her to hear condemnation and protest from among the hierarchy. Metropolitan of Rostov Arseny (Matseevich) raised the issue of the alienation of church lands in such an inconvenient form for the secular authorities and for Catherine herself that Catherine found it necessary to deal harshly with him and insisted on his removal and imprisonment.

Portrait of Grigory Orlov. Artist F. Rokotov, 1762-63

Under such conditions, Catherine, understandably, could not immediately develop a definite program of government activity. She had hard work to cope with environment, apply to it and master it, take a closer look at the affairs and main needs of management, choose assistants and get to know more closely the abilities of the people around her. It is clear how little the principles of her abstract philosophy could help her in this matter, but it is clear how much her natural abilities, observation, practicality and the degree of mental development that she possessed as a result of her extensive education and habit of abstract philosophical thinking helped her. Working hard, Catherine spent the first years of her reign getting to know Russia and the state of affairs, selecting advisers, and strengthening her personal position in power.

She could not be satisfied with the state of affairs that she found upon ascending the throne. The government's main concern—finance—was far from stellar. The Senate did not know exactly the figures for income and expenditures, military expenditures resulted in deficits, troops did not receive salaries, and financial management disorders terribly confused already bad matters. Getting acquainted with these troubles in the Senate, Catherine gained an understanding of the Senate itself and treated its activities with irony. In her opinion, the Senate and all other institutions had gone beyond their foundations; The Senate arrogated to itself too much power and suppressed any independence of the institutions subordinate to it. On the contrary, Catherine, in her famous manifesto of July 6, 1762 (in which she explained the motives for the coup), wanted “every state place to have its own laws and limits.” Therefore, she tried to eliminate the irregularities in the position of the Senate and the defects in its activities and little by little reduced it to the level of a central administrative-judicial institution, prohibiting its legislative activity. She did this very carefully: to speed up the process of affairs, she divided the Senate into 6 departments, as it was under Anna, giving each of them a special character (1763); began to communicate with the Senate through Prosecutor General A. A. Vyazemsky and gave him secret instructions not to encourage the Senate to perform legislative functions; finally, she carried out all her most important activities besides the Senate with her personal initiative and authority. The result was a significant change in the center of government: the diminishment of the Senate and the strengthening of individual authorities who stood at the head of individual departments. And all this was achieved gradually, without noise, with extreme caution.

Ensuring her independence from the inconvenient old orders of government, Catherine, with the help of the same Senate, was actively involved in business: she was looking for means to improve the financial situation, solving current management issues, looking closely at the state of the estates, and was preoccupied with the matter of drawing up a legislative code. In all this no definite system was yet visible; the empress simply responded to the needs of the moment and studied the state of affairs. The peasants were worried, embarrassed by the rumor of liberation from the landowners - Catherine was dealing with the peasant issue. The unrest reached great proportions, guns were used against the peasants, the landowners asked for protection from peasant violence - Catherine, taking a number of measures to restore order, declared: “We intend to inviolably preserve the landowners with their opinions and possessions, and keep the peasants in due obedience to them.” Along with this matter, something else was going on: Peter III’s charter on the nobility caused some confusion due to the shortcomings of its edition and a strong movement of nobles from the service - Catherine, having suspended its effect, in 1763 established a commission to revise it. However, this commission came to nothing, and the matter dragged on until 1785. Studying the state of affairs, Catherine saw the need to draw up a legislative code. The Code of Tsar Alexei is outdated; Peter the Great already took care of a new code, but to no avail: the legislative commissions that were under him did not develop anything. Almost all of Peter's successors were preoccupied with the idea of ​​drawing up a code; under Empress Anna, in 1730, and under Empress Elizabeth, in 1761, even deputies from the estates were required to participate in legislative work. But the difficult task of codification failed. Catherine II seriously considered the idea of ​​​​processing Russian legislation into a coherent system.

While studying the state of affairs, Catherine wanted to get acquainted with Russia itself. She undertook a number of trips around the state: in 1763 she traveled from Moscow to Rostov and Yaroslavl, in 1764 to the Ostsee region, in 1767 she traveled along the Volga to Simbirsk. “After Peter the Great,” says Solovyov, “Catherine was the first empress who undertook travel around Russia for government purposes” (XXVI, 8).

This is how the first five years of the young empress’s internal rule passed. She got used to her surroundings, took a closer look at things, developed practical methods of activity, and selected the desired circle of assistants. Her position was strengthened, and she was not in any danger. Although during these five years no broad measures were discovered, Catherine, however, was already making broad plans for reform activities.

Private bussiness

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst (1729-1796) was born in the German city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland) in the family of the city governor Christian August and Johanna Elisabeth. She received a home education - languages, fine arts, history, geography, theology.

Frederica's fate was decided in 1743, when Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir Peter Fedorovich (the future Russian Emperor Peter III), remembered that her mother had bequeathed to her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, Johanna Elisabeth's brother. In 1744, the Zerbst princess was invited to Russia to marry her second cousin Peter Fedorovich.

Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, trying to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. In particular, she studied Orthodoxy under the guidance of the famous preacher Simon of Todor.

On July 9, 1744, Sophia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy, receiving the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Catherine I), and the very next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

On October 1, 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Pavel. After this, the relationship between her and Peter, which had been tense before, completely deteriorated - Peter called his wife “spare madam” and took mistresses, however, without interfering with Catherine’s love affairs. The couple separated even more after the husband's accession to the throne under the name of Peter III in 1762 - he began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace.

As emperor, Peter III did not gain popularity - he concluded an agreement with Prussia that was unfavorable for Russia, announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rites. The sovereign's reputation in the guard suffered especially badly. Supporters of the coup, which was “ripening” even before his ascension to the throne, also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, the 33-year-old intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife looked advantageous. She eventually led the coup on July 9, 1762, taking the oath of the guards units in the absence of her husband. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under unclear circumstances (presumably poisoned). Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name Catherine II. To justify her own (and not the seven-year-old heir Paul’s) rights to the throne, Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” According to Vasily Klyuchevsky, “Catherine made a double takeover: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father.”

First important step The new ruler began to reform the Senate, which was divided into six departments. At the same time, the general powers of the Senate were reduced - in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became just a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. Thus, the center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her cabinet with secretaries of state, which can be considered the beginning of the transition to the policy of absolutism. The Legislative Commission, which was convened, whose task was to systematize the laws, existed for a year and a half, after which it was dissolved under the far-fetched pretext of the need for deputies to go to war with the Ottoman Empire.

Catherine considered the crown of her legislative activity to be the “Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and the “Charter of Grant to Cities,” published in 1785. Both charters finally secured pre-existing rights and privileges for the upper classes and introduced a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility was freed from the quartering of military units and commands, from corporal punishment (as were, according to the second document, merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens), received the right of ownership of the bowels of the earth and the right to have their own class institutions. According to historian Nikolai Pavlenko, “in the history of Russia the nobility has never been blessed with such diverse privileges as under Catherine II.”

A parallel process naturally became the ongoing enslavement of peasants, who were called “slaves” not only by later historians and foreign contemporaries, but also by happy owners, as well as the empress herself. Decrees that worsened their situation were adopted throughout the reign of Catherine; Thus, since 1763, the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings was entrusted to the peasants themselves; two years later, the owners were given the right to send a peasant for disobedience not only to exile, but also to hard labor for an arbitrary term. To prevent the system from causing unwanted disruptions, after another two years the peasants were forbidden to complain about their master.

Such “pressure” could not pass without leaving a trace - a series of uprisings of varying scales followed. The plague epidemic caused the Plague Riot in Moscow in 1771. The uprising, which became one of the largest in the 18th century, was nevertheless suppressed by troops under the command of Grigory Orlov extremely quickly - in just three days. Events unfolded completely differently two years later in the Urals.

Here, the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev, who declared himself Peter III (he was not the first, but the most successful of those who posed as the miraculously escaped emperor), managed to gather under his banner representatives of a variety of social and ethnic groups, each of which had its own reasons for dissatisfaction. The core of the army was the Cossacks, dissatisfied with the loss of privileges, who were quickly supported by workers (mostly assigned peasants, who, due to their obligation to work at the factory, did not have time for their own farming), peasants and ethnic minorities (Bashkirs, Kazakhs and others). Full-scale Civil War lasted until 1775, becoming the largest confrontation of this kind from 1612 until the revolution. One of the consequences of the hardly suppressed uprising was some relaxation in relation to the Cossacks and (it became easier for them to obtain nobility), the peoples of the region (Tatar and Bashkir princes and Murzas were equal) in rights and liberties to the Russian nobility) and workers (limitation of the working day, increase payment). In addition, the uprising became one of the pretexts for the liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich. The situation of the peasants did not change at all.

A more important consequence of the uprising, however, was the disaggregation of the provinces - 23 provinces were transformed into 53 governorships, each of which was divided into 10-12 districts. Since there were clearly not enough district centers, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements to cities; In total, 216 cities appeared in Russia (including the construction of new ones). The provincial division introduced by Catherine remained until 1917.

The main directions of foreign policy during Catherine's reign were Polish and Turkish. Under her, three divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place - (1772, 1773 and 1795) between Russia, Austria and Prussia; The result was significant territorial acquisitions by Russia. In 1794, an attempt was made to resist the "tripartite annexation", but the uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko was crushed by the troops of Alexander Suvorov, and soon after the third partition, as a result of the three-power conference on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its sovereignty.

The result of the first “Catherine” Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 (declared by the Ottoman Empire) was the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, according to which the Crimean Khanate received formal independence (de facto becoming a vassal of Russia), and Russia received a solid indemnity and the northern coast of the Black Sea .

In 1787, Türkiye tried to regain what was lost. The consequence was the brilliant victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov and - ultimately - the Yassy Peace Treaty of 1791, which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia and pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester. In general, as a result of two wars, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia; The empire's authority on the world stage grew enormously. Another important result of the war was the Treaty of Georgievsk, which established a Russian protectorate over Georgia. According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II.

The reign of Catherine II is often called the time of “enlightened absolutism.” The Empress was indeed well acquainted with the ideas of the European Enlightenment and its bearers - her correspondence with Voltaire and personal acquaintance with Diderot became textbook. A significant impetus was given to education: the Public Library, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Novodevichy Institute for the education of bourgeois maidens, and pedagogical schools were founded in both capitals. A network of city schools based on a class-lesson system was created. The Academy of Sciences under Catherine became one of the leading European scientific institutions.

Catherine herself was engaged in literary activities - among her works are translations, fables, fairy tales, comedies, essays, librettos for five operas; participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” published since 1769, and considered herself a patron of the arts. True, researchers note that the empress’s favor extended to a much greater extent to foreign authors, although it was during her reign that the glory of Denis Fonvizin and Gavrila Derzhavin flourished. Her attitude towards other remarkable literary contemporaries was completely different.

The most affected of them were Alexander Radishchev and Nikolai Novikov. Although in “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” there are no calls for the elimination of serfdom, much less the overthrow of the existing system, the author was sentenced to death by quartering (after pardon, replaced by a 10-year exile to Tobolsk) - because his book is “filled with harmful speculation that destroys public peace, detracts from the respect due to authority...” Novikov’s magazine “Truten”, which allowed itself to write about the arbitrariness of landowners towards peasants, endemic corruption and other ills of society, was closed. Taught by bitter experience, the publisher in the new magazine “Zhivopiets” tried to avoid sensitive social topics, but he too suffered the same fate. Finally, although the study of books published by Novikov, specially “ordered” by Catherine, did not reveal anything “harmful” in them, in 1785, by personal decree of the Empress, the publisher was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, from where only Paul I released him.

The empress, who ruled Russia controversially for 34 years, died on November 17, 1796 from a cerebral hemorrhage in the Winter Palace. She was buried in the tomb of the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

What is she famous for?

"Tsar Baba" (in her own words), under which Russian empire acquired the status of a great power, the first in terms of population in Europe. During her era, the country made extremely important territorial acquisitions (expansion of a similar scale would occur only during the reign of Alexander II), the amount of state revenues quadrupled, and the army was doubled. The name of the “golden age” was firmly attached to Catherine’s reign (although this is true mainly in relation to the nobility).

What you need to know

One of the most striking - and invariably arousing the widest interest - signs of Catherine's time was favoritism. Repeated attempts were made to count the number of “persons especially close to the Empress.” The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov (according to some assumptions, the father of Paul I), who after his connection with Catherine (and, apparently, partly as a result of it) became the king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky, Grigory Orlov, Grigory Potemkin. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to the latter. The Empress had two sons: Paul I and (from Grigory Orlov) Alexei Bobrinsky; daughter Anna died in infancy.

Catherine’s personal life is surrounded by many “scandals, intrigues and investigations.” There is no doubt that her favorites received undeserved rewards that had a solid material and/or career equivalent: for example, Field Marshal Rumyantsev was removed from command of the army to please Potemkin, who envied him, despite his undeniable military merits. The morals that reigned at court, generally “looking at faces” and not at merit, set a bad example locally: corruption became one of the integral features of the reign of Catherine II.

Direct speech

About the state:“In Russia everything is secret, but there are no secrets.”

About serfs:“There are no slaves in Russia. The serf peasants in Russia are independent in spirit, although they feel coerced in their bodies.”

On the welfare of the people:“Our taxes are so light that there is not a man in Russia who does not have a chicken whenever he wants one, and for some time now they have preferred turkeys to chickens.”

About the welfare of the people -II (1770 - the year of the hunger riots):“In Russia everything goes as usual: There are provinces where they hardly know that we have been at war for two years. There is no shortage of anything anywhere: they sing thanksgiving prayers, dance and have fun.”

About the sad fate of the ruler (addressing Denis Diderot):“You write on paper that will endure anything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful.”

About the passion for literature and lawmaking:“I cannot see a clean pen without immediately wanting to dip it into ink.”

About myself (prepared autoepitaph):“Here lies Catherine the Second. She arrived in Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of fourteen, she made a threefold decision: to please her husband, Elizabeth and the people. She left no stone unturned to achieve success in this regard. Eighteen years of boredom and loneliness prompted her to read many books. Having ascended the Russian throne, she made every effort to give her subjects happiness, freedom and material well-being. She easily forgave and did not hate anyone. She was forgiving, loved life, had a cheerful disposition, was a true Republican in her convictions and had a kind heart. She had friends. The work was easy for her. She liked social entertainment and the arts."

Belgian Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne about Catherine's reign:“Ekaterina collected the unfinished fragments and unfinished parts that remained in Peter’s workshop. Having supplemented them, she built a building and now, through hidden springs, sets in motion the gigantic composition, that is, Russia. She gave her device, strength and strength. This structure, strength and strength will flourish hour by hour more and more if Catherine’s successors follow in her footsteps.”

Alexander Pushkin about the reign of Catherine:“The reign of Catherine II had a new and strong influence on the political and moral state of Russia. Enthroned by the conspiracy of several rebels, she enriched them at the expense of the people and humiliated our restless nobility. If to reign means to know the weakness of the human soul and to use it, then in this regard Catherine deserves the surprise of posterity. Her splendor dazzled, her friendliness attracted, her generosity attracted. The very voluptuousness of this cunning woman asserted her dominion. Producing a weak murmur among the people, accustomed to respecting the vices of their rulers, it aroused vile competition in the highest states, for no intelligence, no merit, no talent was needed to achieve second place in the state.”

Friedrich Engels about Catherine's era:“The court of Catherine II turned into the capital of the then enlightened people, especially the French; she managed to mislead so much public opinion that Voltaire and many others sang the praises of the “northern Semiramis” and proclaimed Russia the most progressive country in the world, the fatherland of liberal principles, the champion of religious tolerance.”

Vasily Klyuchevsky about the nobleman of Catherine’s era:“... He was a very strange phenomenon: the manners, habits, concepts, feelings he had acquired, the very language in which he thought - everything was foreign, everything was imported, and at home he had no living organic connections with those around him, no serious business ... in the West, abroad, they saw him as a Tatar in disguise, and in Russia they looked at him as if he were a Frenchman accidentally born in Russia.”

8 facts about CatherineII

• The system of public administration under Catherine II was reformed for the first time since the time of Peter I
• It was under Catherine II that serfdom was introduced in Little Russia and Novorossia
• The first few meetings of the Statutory Commission were devoted only to how to name the Empress in gratitude for her initiative in convening the department; then the title “Catherine the Great” appeared
• Catherine was awarded the Russian Orders of St. Catherine, St. Andrew the First-Called, St. George and St. Vladimir, the Swedish Order of the Seraphim, and the Prussian Orders of the Black and White Eagle
• Using materials prepared on Catherine’s instructions, Voltaire wrote a history of Peter I, which was skeptically accepted by his contemporaries
• Catherine sniffed tobacco - but, in order not to poison her subjects with the smell, she took a pinch with her left hand
• The total number of Catherine's favorites, according to authoritative estimates, is 23 people
• Among the actresses who played the empress in the movies are Pola Negri, Marlene Dietrich, Bette Davis, Svetlana Kryuchkova, Marina Vladi, Nonna Grishaeva

Materials about CatherineII