The first victory over the Tatar-Mongols. Mongol yoke

o (Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongol, Horde) - the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomadic conquerors who came from the East from 1237 to 1480.

This system was aimed at carrying out mass terror and robbing the Russian people by levying cruel exactions. She acted primarily in the interests of the Mongolian nomadic military-feudal nobility (noyons), in whose favor the lion's share of the collected tribute went.

Mongolian Tatar yoke was established as a result of the invasion of Batu Khan in the 13th century. Until the early 1260s, Rus' was under the rule of the great Mongol khans, and then the khans of the Golden Horde.

The Russian principalities were not directly part of the Mongol state and retained the local princely administration, the activities of which were controlled by the Baskaks - the khan's representatives in the conquered lands. The Russian princes were tributaries of the Mongol khans and received from them labels for ownership of their principalities. Formally, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in 1243, when Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich received from the Mongols a label for the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. Rus', according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to regularly pay tribute to the khans twice annually (in spring and autumn).

There was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army on the territory of Rus'. The yoke was supported by punitive campaigns and repressions against rebellious princes. The regular flow of tribute from Russian lands began after the census of 1257-1259, conducted by Mongol “numerals”. The units of taxation were: in cities - yard, in rural areas - “village”, “plow”, “plough”. Only the clergy were exempt from tribute. The main “Horde burdens” were: “exit”, or “tsar’s tribute” - a tax directly for the Mongol khan; trade fees (“myt”, “tamka”); carriage duties (“pits”, “carts”); maintenance of the khan's ambassadors (“food”); various “gifts” and “honors” to the khan, his relatives and associates. Every year, a huge amount of silver left the Russian lands as tribute. Large “requests” for military and other needs were periodically collected. In addition, the Russian princes were obliged, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in round-up hunts (“lovitva”). In the late 1250s and early 1260s, tribute was collected from the Russian principalities by Muslim merchants (“besermen”), who bought this right from the great Mongol Khan. Most of the tribute went to the Great Khan in Mongolia. During the uprisings of 1262, the “besermans” were expelled from Russian cities, and the responsibility for collecting tribute passed to the local princes.

Rus''s struggle against the yoke became increasingly widespread. In 1285 Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich (son of Alexander Nevsky) defeated and expelled the army of the “Horde prince”. IN late XII I - first quarter of the 14th century, performances in Russian cities led to the elimination of the Baskas. With the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the Tatar yoke gradually weakened. Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) achieved the right to collect “exit” from all Russian principalities. From the middle of the 14th century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by a real military threat, were no longer carried out by the Russian princes. Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389) did not recognize the khan's labels issued to his rivals, and seized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir by force. In 1378, he defeated the Tatar army on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, and in 1380 he defeated the Golden Horde ruler Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo.

However, after Tokhtamysh’s campaign and the capture of Moscow in 1382, Rus' was forced to again recognize the power of the Golden Horde and pay tribute, but already Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) received the great reign of Vladimir without the khan’s label, as “his patrimony.” Under him, the yoke was nominal. Tribute was paid irregularly, and the Russian princes pursued independent policies. The attempt of the Golden Horde ruler Edigei (1408) to restore full power over Russia ended in failure: he failed to take Moscow. The strife that began in the Golden Horde opened up the possibility for Russia to overthrow the Tatar yoke.

However, in the middle of the 15th century, Muscovite Rus' itself experienced a period internecine war, which weakened its military potential. During these years, the Tatar rulers organized a series of devastating invasions, but they were no longer able to bring the Russians to complete submission. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow led to the concentration in the hands of the Moscow princes of such political power that the weakening Tatar khans could not cope with. Grand Duke Ivan of Moscow III Vasilievich(1462-1505) in 1476 refused to pay tribute. In 1480, after the unsuccessful campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and “standing on the Ugra”, the yoke was finally overthrown.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke had negative, regressive consequences for the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, and was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Rus', which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to the productive forces of the Mongol state. It was artificially preserved for long time purely feudal natural character of the economy. IN politically the consequences of the yoke manifested themselves in the disruption of the natural process state development Rus', in artificially maintaining its fragmentation. The Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted two and a half centuries, was one of the reasons for the economic, political and cultural lag of Rus' from Western European countries.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources.

From Hyperborea to Rus'. Unconventional history of the Slavs Markov German

Was there a Mongol-Tatar yoke? (Version by A. Bushkov)

From the book “The Russia That Never Was”

We are told that a horde of rather savage nomads emerged from the desert steppes of Central Asia, conquered the Russian principalities, invaded Western Europe and left behind sacked cities and states.

But after 300 years of domination in Rus', the Mongol Empire left virtually no written monuments on Mongolian language. However, letters and agreements of the great princes, spiritual letters, church documents of that time remained, but only in Russian. It means that state language During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Russian language remained in Rus'. Not only Mongolian written, but also material monuments from the times of the Golden Horde Khanate have not been preserved.

Academician Nikolai Gromov says that if the Mongols really conquered and plundered Rus' and Europe, then material values, customs, culture, and writing would remain. But these conquests and the personality of Genghis Khan himself became known to modern Mongols from Russian and Western sources. There is nothing like this in the history of Mongolia. And our school textbooks still contain information about the Tatar-Mongol yoke, based only on medieval chronicles. But many other documents have survived that contradict what children are taught in school today. They testify that the Tatars were not conquerors of Rus', but warriors in the service of the Russian Tsar.

Here is a quote from the book of the Habsburg ambassador to Russia, Baron Sigismund Herberstein“Notes on Muscovite affairs,” written by him in the 15th century: “ In 1527, they (the Muscovites) again fought the Tatars, resulting in the famous Battle of Khanik».

And the German chronicle of 1533 says about Ivan the Terrible that “ he and his Tatars took Kazan and Astrakhan under his kingdom“In the minds of Europeans, Tatars are not conquerors, but warriors of the Russian Tsar.

In 1252, the ambassador of King Louis IX traveled from Constantinople to the headquarters of Batu Khan with his retinue. William Rubrukus ( court monk Guillaume de Rubruk), who wrote in his travel notes: « Settlements of Rus are scattered everywhere among the Tatars, who mixed with the Tatars and adopted their clothing and way of life. All travel routes in huge country served by Russians, at river crossings there are Russians everywhere».

But Rubruk traveled through Rus' only 15 years after the start of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke.” Something happened too quickly: the way of life of Russians was mixed with the wild Mongols. He further writes: “ The wives of the Rus, like ours, wear jewelry on their heads and trim the hem of their dresses with stripes of ermine and other fur. Men wear short clothes– caftans, chekmenis and lambskin hats. Women decorate their heads with headdresses similar to the headdresses of French women. Men wear outerwear similar to German" It turns out that Mongolian clothing in Rus' in those days was no different from Western European clothing. This radically changes our understanding of the wild nomadic barbarians from the distant Mongolian steppes.

And here is what the Arab chronicler and traveler wrote about the Golden Horde in his travel notes in 1333 Ibn Batuta: « There were many Russians in Sarai-Berk. The bulk of the armed, service and labor forces of the Golden Horde were Russian people».

It is impossible to imagine that the victorious Mongols for some reason armed Russian slaves and they constituted the bulk of their troops without offering armed resistance.

And foreign travelers visiting Rus', enslaved by the Tatar-Mongols, idyllically depict Russian people walking around in Tatar costumes, which are no different from European ones, and armed Russian warriors calmly serve the Khan’s horde, without offering any resistance. There is a lot of evidence that the internal life of the northeastern principalities of Rus' at that time developed as if there had been no invasion; they, as before, assembled veche, chose princes for themselves and kicked them out. .

This doesn't look very much like a yoke.

Were there among the invaders the Mongols, black-haired, slant-eyed people whom anthropologists classify as the Mongoloid race? Not a single contemporary mentions this appearance of the conquerors. The Russian chronicler, among the peoples who came in the horde of Batu Khan, puts in first place the “Cumans,” i.e., the Kipchak-Polovtsians (Caucasians), who from time immemorial lived sedentary lives next to the Russians.

Arab historian Elomari wrote: "In ancient times this state (Golden Horde XIV century) was the country of the Kipchaks, but when the Tatars took possession of it, the Kipchaks became their subjects. Then they, that is, the Tatars, mixed and became related to them, and they all definitely became Kipchaks, as if they were of the same kind with them.”

Here is another interesting document about the composition of the army of Khan Batu. In a letter from the Hungarian king Bella IV to the Pope, written in 1241, says: “When the state of Hungary, from the Mongol invasion, was turned into a desert for the most part like a plague, and like a sheepfold was surrounded by various tribes of infidels, namely Russians, wanderers from the east, Bulgarians and other heretics from the south...” It turns out that the horde of the legendary Mongol Khan Batu is fought mainly by Slavs, but where are the Mongols or at least the Tatars?

Genetic studies by biochemist scientists at Kazan University of the bones of mass graves of the Tatar-Mongols showed that 90% of them were representatives of the Slavic ethnic group. A similar Caucasoid type prevails even in the genotype of the modern indigenous Tatar population of Tatarstan. And there are practically no Mongolian words in the Russian language. Tatar (Bulgar) - as many as you like. It seems that there were no Mongols in Rus' at all.

Other doubts about real existence The Mongol Empire and the Tatar-Mongol yoke can be boiled down to the following:

1. There are remains of the allegedly Golden Horde cities of Sarai-Batu and Sarai-Berke on the Volga in the Akhtuba region. There is a mention of the existence of the capital of Batu on the Don, but its location is not known. Famous Russian archaeologist V. V. Grigoriev in the 19th century, in a scientific article, he noted that “There are practically no traces of the existence of the Khanate. Its once thriving cities lie in ruins. And about its capital, the famous Sarai, we don’t even know what ruins can be associated with its famous name».

2. Modern Mongols do not know about the existence of the Mongol Empire in the 13th–15th centuries and learned about Genghis Khan only from Russian sources.

3. In Mongolia there are no traces of the former capital of the empire of the mythical city of Karakorum, and if there was one, reports in chronicles about the trips of some Russian princes to Karakorum for labels twice a year are fantastic due to their significant duration due to the great distance ( about 5000 km one way).

4. There are no traces of the colossal treasures allegedly looted by the Tatar-Mongols in different countries Oh.

5. Russian culture, writing and the welfare of the Russian principalities flourished during the Tatar yoke. This is evidenced by the abundance of coin treasures found on the territory of Russia. Only in medieval Rus' in those days, golden gates were cast in Vladimir and Kyiv. Only in Rus' were the domes and roofs of churches covered with gold, not only in the capital, but also in provincial cities. The abundance of gold in Rus' until the 17th century, according to N. Karamzin, “confirms the amazing wealth of the Russian princes during the Tatar-Mongol yoke.”

6. Most of the monasteries were built in Russia during the yoke, and for some reason the Orthodox Church did not call on the people to fight the invaders. During the Tatar yoke, no appeals were made by the Orthodox Church to the forced Russian people. Moreover, from the first days of the enslavement of Rus', the church provided all possible support to the pagan Mongols.

And historians tell us that temples and churches were robbed, desecrated and destroyed.

N.M. Karamzin wrote about this in “History of the Russian State”, that “ one of the consequences of Tatar rule was the rise of our clergy, the proliferation of monks and church estates. Church estates, free from Horde and princely taxes, prospered. Very few of the current monasteries were founded before or after the Tatars. All others serve as a monument to this time.”

Official history claims that the Tatar-Mongol yoke, in addition to plundering the country, destroying its historical and religious monuments and plunging the enslaved people into ignorance and illiteracy, stopped the development of culture in Rus' for 300 years. But N. Karamzin believed that “ During this period from the 13th to the 15th centuries, the Russian language acquired more purity and correctness. Instead of the Russian uneducated dialect, the writers carefully adhered to the grammar of church books or ancient Serbian not only in grammar, but also in pronunciation.”

No matter how paradoxical it sounds, we have to admit that the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke was the era of the heyday of Russian culture.

7. In ancient engravings, the Tatars cannot be distinguished from Russian warriors.

They have the same armor and weapons, the same faces and the same banners with Orthodox crosses and saints.

The exposition of the art museum of the city of Yaroslavl displays a large wooden Orthodox icon of the 17th century with the life of St. Sergius of Radonezh. The lower part of the icon depicts the legendary Kulikovo battle of the Russian prince Dmitry Donskoy with Khan Mamai. But Russians and Tatars cannot be distinguished on this icon either. Both of them are wearing the same gilded armor and helmets. Moreover, both Tatars and Russians fight under the same military banners depicting the face of the Savior Not Made by Hands. It is impossible to imagine that the Tatar horde of Khan Mamai went into battle with the Russian squad under banners depicting the face of Jesus Christ. But this is not nonsense. And it is unlikely that the Orthodox Church could afford such a gross oversight on a famous, revered icon.

In all Russian medieval miniatures depicting Tatar-Mongol raids, for some reason the Mongol khans are depicted wearing royal crowns and the chroniclers call them not khans, but kings. (“The godless king Batu took the city of Suzdal with a sword”) And in the 14th century miniature “Batu’s Invasion to Russian cities" Batu Khan is fair-haired with Slavic facial features and has a princely crown on his head. His two bodyguards are typical Zaporozhye Cossacks with forelocks on their shaved heads, and the rest of his warriors are no different from the Russian squad.

And here is what medieval historians wrote about Mamai - the authors of the handwritten chronicles “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamai”:

« And King Mamai came with 10 hordes and 70 princes. Apparently the Russian princes treated you well; there are neither princes nor governors with you. And immediately the filthy Mamai ran, crying, bitterly saying: We, brothers, will no longer be in our land and will no longer see our squad, neither the princes nor the boyars. Why are you, filthy Mamai, coveting Russian soil? After all, the Zalessk horde has now beaten you. The Mamaevs and the princes, the esauls and the boyars beat Tokhtamysha with their foreheads.”

It turns out that Mamai’s horde was called a squad in which princes, boyars and governors fought, and the army of Dmitry Donskoy was called the Zalesskaya horde, and he himself was called Tokhtamysh.

8. Historical documents give serious grounds to believe that the Mongol khans Batu and Mamai are doubles of the Russian princes, since the actions of the Tatar khans surprisingly coincide with the intentions and plans of Yaroslav the Wise, Alexander Nevsky and Dmitry Donskoy to establish central power in Rus'.

There is a Chinese engraving that depicts Batu Khan with the easy-to-read inscription "Yaroslav". Then there is a chronicle miniature, which again depicts bearded man with gray hair wearing a crown (probably a grand ducal crown) on a white horse (like a winner). The caption reads “Khan Batu enters Suzdal.” But Suzdal is the hometown of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. It turns out that he enters his own city, for example, after the suppression of a rebellion. In the image we read not “Batu”, but “Father”, as A. Fomenko assumed was the name of the head of the army, then the word “Svyatoslav”, and on the crown the word “Maskvich” is read, with an “A”. The fact is that on some ancient maps of Moscow it was written “Maskova”. (From the word “mask”, this is what icons were called before the adoption of Christianity, and the word “icon” is Greek. “Maskova” is a cult river and a city where there are images of gods). Thus, he is a Muscovite, and this is in the order of things, because it was a single Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which included Moscow. But the most interesting thing is that “Emir of Rus'” is written on his belt.

9. The tribute that the Russian cities paid to the Golden Horde was the usual tax (tithe) that existed in Rus' at that time for the maintenance of the army - the horde, as well as the recruitment of young people into the army, from where the Cossack warriors, as a rule, did not return home, having dedicated themselves military service. This military recruitment was called "tagma", a tribute in blood that the Russians allegedly paid to the Tatars. For refusal to pay tribute or evasion of recruiting, the military administration of the Horde certainly punished the population punitive expeditions in the offending areas. Naturally, such pacification operations were accompanied by bloody excesses, violence and executions. In addition, internecine disputes constantly occurred between individual appanage princes, with armed clashes between princely squads and the capture of cities of warring parties. These actions are now presented by historians as supposedly Tatar raids on Russian territories.

This is how Russian history was falsified.

Russian scientist Lev Gumilev(1912–1992) gives his arguments that the Tatar-Mongol yoke is a myth. He believes that at that time there was a unification of the Russian principalities with the Horde under the primacy of the Horde (according to the principle “a bad world is better”), and Rus' was, as it were, considered a separate ulus that joined the Horde by agreement. They were a single state with their own internal strife and struggle for centralized power. L. Gumilyov believed that the theory of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus' was created only in the 18th century by German historians Gottlieb Bayer, August Schlozer, Gerhard Miller under the influence of the idea of ​​​​the allegedly slave origin of the Russian people, according to a certain social order of the ruling house of the Romanovs, who wanted look like Russia's saviors from the yoke.

An additional argument in favor of the fact that the “invasion” is completely fictitious is that the imaginary “invasion” did not introduce anything new into Russian life.

Everything that happened under the “Tatars” existed before in one form or another.

There is not the slightest trace of the presence of a foreign ethnic group, other customs, other rules, laws, regulations. And examples of particularly disgusting “Tatar atrocities”, upon closer examination, turn out to be fictitious.

A foreign invasion of a particular country (if it was not just a predatory raid) was always characterized by the establishment of new orders, new laws in the conquered country, a change of ruling dynasties, a change in the structure of the administration, provincial boundaries, a fight against old customs, the inculcation of a new faith and even a change country names. None of this happened in Rus' under the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

In the Laurentian Chronicle, which Karamzin considered the most ancient and complete, three pages that told about Batu's invasion were cut out and replaced by some literary cliches about the events of the 11th–12th centuries. L. Gumilev wrote about this with reference to G. Prokhorov. What was so terrible that they resorted to forgery? Probably something that could give food for thought about the strangeness of the Mongol invasion.

In the West, for more than 200 years, they were convinced of the existence in the East of a huge kingdom of a certain Christian ruler "Presbyter John" whose descendants the khans of the “Mongol Empire” were considered in Europe. Many European chroniclers “for some reason” identified Presbyter John with Genghis Khan, who was also called “King David.” Someone Philip, Dominican priest wrote that “Christianity dominates everywhere in the Mongolian east.” This " Mongolian east"And there was Christian Rus'. The conviction about the existence of the kingdom of Prester John lasted for a long time and began to be widely displayed on geographical maps that time. According to European authors, Prester John maintained warm and trusting relations with Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, the only European monarch who did not feel fear at the news of the “Tatar” invasion of Europe and corresponded with the “Tatars.” He knew who they really were.

A logical conclusion can be drawn.

There has never been any Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'. There was a specific period of the internal process of unification of Russian lands and strengthening of the Tsar's power in the country. The entire population of Rus' was divided into civilians, ruled by princes, and a permanent regular army, called a horde, under the command of governors, who could be Russians, Tatars, Turks or other nationalities. At the head of the horde army was a khan or king, who held supreme power in the country.

At the same time, A. Bushkov in conclusion admits that an external enemy in the person of the Tatars, Polovtsy and other steppe tribes living in the Volga region (but, of course, not the Mongols from the borders of China) was invading Rus' at that time and these raids were used by the Russian princes in their struggle for power.

After the collapse of the Golden Horde, on its former territory in different time there were several states, the most significant of which are: the Kazan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate, the Siberian Khanate, the Nogai Horde, the Astrakhan Khanate, the Uzbek Khanate, the Kazakh Khanate.

Concerning Battle of Kulikovo 1380, then many chroniclers wrote (and rewrote) about it, both in Rus' and in Western Europe. There are up to 40 duplicate descriptions of this very large event, different from each other, since they were created by multilingual chroniclers from different countries. Some Western chronicles described the same battle as a battle on European territory, and later historians puzzled over where this happened. Comparison of different chronicles leads to the idea that this is a description of the same event.

Near Tula, on the Kulikovo Field near the Nepryadva River, no evidence of a great battle has yet been found, despite repeated attempts. There are no mass graves or significant weapons finds.

Now we already know that in Rus' the words “Tatars” and “Cossacks”, “army” and “horde” meant the same thing. Therefore, Mamai brought to the Kulikovo field not a foreign Mongol-Tatar horde, but Russian Cossack regiments, and the Battle of Kulikovo itself, in all likelihood, was an episode of internecine war.

According to Fomenko the so-called Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 was not a battle between the Tatars and Russians, but a major episode civil war between Russians, possibly on a religious basis. Indirect confirmation of this is the reflection of this event in numerous church sources.

Hypothetical options for “Muscovy Pospolita” or “Russian Caliphate”

Bushkov examines in detail the possibility of adopting Catholicism in the Russian principalities, unification with Catholic Poland and Lithuania (then former single state“Rzeczpospolita”), the creation on this basis of a powerful Slavic “Muscovy Pospolita” and its influence on European and world processes. There were reasons for this. In 1572, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Sigmund II Augustus, died. The gentry insisted on electing a new king and one of the candidates was the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible. He was Rurikovich and a descendant of the Glinsky princes, that is, a close relative of the Jagiellons (whose ancestor was Jagiello, also three-quarters Rurikovich). In this case, Rus' would most likely become Catholic, uniting with Poland and Lithuania into a single powerful Slavic state in eastern Europe, whose history could have gone differently.

A. Bushkov also tries to imagine what could change in world development if Russia accepted Islam and became Muslim. There were reasons for this too. Islam in its fundamental basis does not carry negative character. Here, for example, was the order of Caliph Omar ( Umar ibn al-Khattab(581–644, second caliph of the Islamic Caliphate) to his warriors: “You must not be treacherous, dishonest or intemperate, you must not maim prisoners, kill children and old people, cut down or burn palms or fruit trees, kill cows, sheep or camels. Do not touch those who devote themselves to prayer in their cell.”

Instead of the baptism of Rus', Prince Vladimir He could very well have circumcised her. And later there was a possibility of becoming an Islamic state even by someone else’s will. If the Golden Horde had existed a little longer, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates could have strengthened and conquered the Russian principalities that were fragmented at that time, just as they themselves were later conquered by united Russia. And then the Russians could be converted to Islam voluntarily or by force, and now we would all worship Allah and diligently study the Koran in school.

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Ivan III had a secretive and at the same time strong character (later these character traits manifested themselves in his grandson).

Under Prince Ivan, the issue of coins began with the image of him and his son Ivan the Young and the signature “Gospodar” All Rus'" As a stern and demanding prince, Ivan III received the nickname Ivan groznyj, but a little later this phrase began to be understood as a different ruler Rus' .

Ivan continued the policy of his ancestors - collecting Russian lands and centralizing power. In the 1460s, Moscow's relations with Veliky Novgorod became strained, whose residents and princes continued to look west, towards Poland and Lithuania. After the world failed to establish relations with the Novgorodians twice, the conflict reached a new level. Novgorod has secured support Polish king and Prince Casimir of Lithuania, and Ivan stopped sending embassies. On July 14, 1471, Ivan III, at the head of an army of 15-20 thousand, defeated the almost 40 thousand army of Novgorod; Casimir did not come to the rescue.

Novgorod lost most of its autonomy and submitted to Moscow. A little later, in 1477, the Novgorodians organized a new rebellion, which was also suppressed, and on January 13, 1478, Novgorod completely lost its autonomy and became part of Moscow State.

Ivan settled all the unfavorable princes and boyars of the Novgorod principality throughout Rus', and populated the city itself with Muscovites. In this way he protected himself from further possible revolts.

“Carrot and stick” methods Ivan Vasilievich gathered under his rule the Yaroslavl, Tver, Ryazan, Rostov principalities, as well as the Vyatka lands.

The end of the Mongol yoke.

While Akhmat was waiting for Casimir's help, Ivan Vasilyevich sent a sabotage detachment under the command of the Zvenigorod prince Vasily Nozdrovaty, who went down the Oka River, then along the Volga and began to destroy Akhmat's possessions in the rear. Ivan III himself moved away from the river, trying to lure the enemy into a trap, as in his time Dmitry Donskoy lured the Mongols into the Battle of the Vozha River. Akhmat did not fall for the trick (either he remembered Donskoy’s success, or he was distracted by sabotage behind him, in the unprotected rear) and retreated from Russian lands. On January 6, 1481, immediately upon returning to the headquarters of the Great Horde, Akhmat was killed by the Tyumen Khan. Civil strife began among his sons ( Akhmatova's children), the result was the collapse of the Great Horde, as well as the Golden Horde (which formally still existed before that). The remaining khanates became completely sovereign. Thus, standing on the Ugra became the official end Tatar-Mongolian yoke, and the Golden Horde, unlike Rus', could not survive the stage of fragmentation - several states, not connected with each other, later emerged from it. Here comes the power Russian state started to grow.

Meanwhile, the peace of Moscow was also threatened by Poland and Lithuania. Even before standing on the Ugra, Ivan III entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Gerey, the enemy of Akhmat. The same alliance helped Ivan in containing pressure from Lithuania and Poland.

In the 80s of the 15th century, the Crimean Khan defeated the Polish-Lithuanian troops and destroyed their possessions in the territory of what is now central, southern and western Ukraine. Ivan III entered the battle for the western and northwestern lands controlled by Lithuania.

In 1492, Casimir died, and Ivan Vasilyevich took the strategically important fortress of Vyazma, as well as many settlements in the territory of what is now Smolensk, Oryol and Kaluga regions.

In 1501, Ivan Vasilyevich obliged the Livonian Order to pay tribute for Yuryev - from that moment Russian-Livonian War temporarily stopped. The continuation was already Ivan IV Grozny.

Until the end of his life, Ivan maintained friendly relations with the Kazan and Crimean khanates, but later relations began to deteriorate. Historically, this is associated with the disappearance of the main enemy - the Great Horde.

In 1497, the Grand Duke developed his collection of civil laws called Code of Law, and also organized Boyar Duma.

The Code of Law almost officially established such a concept as “ serfdom ", although the peasants still retained some rights, for example, the right to transfer from one owner to another in St. George's Day. Nevertheless, the Code of Law became a prerequisite for the transition to an absolute monarchy.

On October 27, 1505, Ivan III Vasilyevich died, judging by the description of the chronicles, from several strokes.

Under the Grand Duke, the Assumption Cathedral was built in Moscow, literature (in the form of chronicles) and architecture flourished. But the most important achievement of that era was liberation of Rus' from Mongol yoke.

The question of the date of the beginning and end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Russian historiography as a whole did not cause controversy. In this short post I will try to dot all the i’s in this matter, at least for those who are preparing for the Unified State Exam in history, that is, as part of the school curriculum.

The concept of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”

However, first it is worth getting rid of the very concept of this yoke, which represents an important historical phenomenon in the history of Russia. If we turn to ancient Russian sources (“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, etc.), then the invasion of the Tatars is perceived as a God-given reality. The very concept of “Russian land” disappears from the sources and other concepts arise: “Zalesskaya Horde” (“Zadonshchina”), for example.

The “yoke” itself was not called that word. The words “captivity” are more common. Thus, within the framework of medieval providential consciousness, the Mongol invasion was perceived as an inevitable punishment of the Lord.

Historian Igor Danilevsky, for example, also believes that this perception is due to the fact that, due to their negligence, the Russian princes in the period from 1223 to 1237: 1) did not take any measures to protect their lands, and 2) continued to maintain a fragmented state and create civil strife. It was for this fragmentation that God punished the Russian land, in the view of his contemporaries.

The very concept of “Tatar-Mongol yoke” was introduced by N.M. Karamzin in his monumental work. From it, by the way, he deduced and substantiated the need for an autocratic form of government in Russia. The emergence of the concept of the yoke was necessary in order, firstly, to justify Russia’s lag behind European countries, and, secondly, to justify the need for this Europeanization.

If you look at different school textbooks, the dating of this historical phenomenon will be different. However, it often dates from 1237 to 1480: from the beginning of Batu’s first campaign against Rus' and ending with the Standing on the Ugra River, when Khan Akhmat left and thereby tacitly recognized the independence of the Moscow state. In principle, this is a logical dating: Batu, having captured and defeated North-Eastern Rus', had already subjugated part of the Russian lands to himself.

However, in my classes I always determine the date of the beginning of the Mongol yoke as 1240 - after Batu’s second campaign, already Southern Rus'. The meaning of this definition is that then the entire Russian land was already subordinated to Batu and he had already imposed duties on it, established Baskaks in the captured lands, etc.

If you think about it, the date of the beginning of the yoke can also be determined as 1242 - when Russian princes began to come to the Horde with gifts, thereby recognizing their dependence on the Golden Horde. Quite a bit of school encyclopedias they place the date of the beginning of the yoke precisely under this year.

The date of the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke is usually placed at 1480 after the Standing on the river. Eel. However, it is important to understand that for a long time the Muscovite kingdom was disturbed by the “splinters” of the Golden Horde: the Kazan Khanate, the Astrakhan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate... The Crimean Khanate was completely liquidated in 1783. Therefore, yes, we can talk about formal independence. But with reservations.

Best regards, Andrey Puchkov

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is the dependent position of the Russian principalities from the Mongol-Tatar states for two hundred years from the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in 1237 until 1480. It was expressed in the political and economic subordination of the Russian princes from the rulers of first the Mongol Empire, and after its collapse - the Golden Horde.

Mongol-Tatars are all nomadic peoples living in the Volga region and further to the East, with whom Rus' fought in the 13th-15th centuries. The name was given by the name of one of the tribes

“In 1224 an unknown people appeared; an unheard of army came, godless Tatars, about whom no one knows well who they are and where they came from, and what kind of language they have, and what tribe they are, and what kind of faith they have ... "

(I. Brekov “The World of History: Russian Lands in the 13th-15th Centuries”)

Mongol-Tatar invasion

• 1206 - Congress of the Mongolian nobility (kurultai), at which Temujin was elected leader of the Mongolian tribes, who received the name Genghis Khan (Great Khan)
• 1219 - Beginning of Genghis Khan's three-year conquest in Central Asia
• 1223, May 31 - The first battle of the Mongols and the united Russian-Polovtsian army at the borders of Kievan Rus, on the Kalka River, near the Sea of ​​Azov
• 1227 - Death of Genghis Khan. Power in Mongolian state passed to his grandson Batu (Batu Khan)
• 1237 - Beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Batu's army crossed the Volga in its middle course and invaded North-Eastern Rus'
• 1237, December 21 - Ryazan was taken by the Tatars
• 1238, January - Kolomna captured
• 1238, February 7 - Vladimir captured
• 1238, February 8 - Suzdal taken
• 1238, March 4 - Pal Torzhok
• 1238, March 5 - Battle of the squad of Moscow Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich with the Tatars near the Sit River. Death of Prince Yuri
• 1238, May - Capture of Kozelsk
• 1239-1240 - Batu’s army camped in the Don steppe
• 1240 - Devastation of Pereyaslavl and Chernigov by the Mongols
• 1240, December 6 - Kyiv destroyed
• 1240, end of December - Russian principalities of Volyn and Galicia destroyed
• 1241 - Batu's army returned to Mongolia
• 1243 - Formation of the Golden Horde, a state from the Danube to the Irtysh, with its capital Sarai in the lower Volga

The Russian principalities retained statehood, but were subject to tribute. In total, there were 14 types of tribute, including directly in favor of the khan - 1300 kg of silver per year. In addition, the khans of the Golden Horde reserved for themselves the right to appoint or overthrow the Moscow princes, who were to receive the label for the great reign in Sarai. The power of the Horde over Russia lasted for more than two centuries. It was a time of complex political games, when the Russian princes either united with each other for the sake of some momentary benefits, or were at enmity, while at the same time attracting Mongol troops as allies. A significant role in the politics of that time was played by the Polish-Lithuanian state that arose on the western borders of Rus', Sweden, and the German knightly orders in the Baltic states, the free republics of Novgorod and Pskov. Creating alliances with each other and against each other, with the Russian principalities, the Golden Horde, they waged endless wars

In the first decades of the 14th century, the rise of the Moscow principality began, which gradually became a political center and collector of Russian lands.

On August 11, 1378, the Moscow army of Prince Dmitry defeated the Mongols in the Battle of the Vazha River. On September 8, 1380, the Moscow army of Prince Dmitry defeated the Mongols in the battle on the Kulikovo Field. And although in 1382 the Mongol Khan Tokhtamysh plundered and burned Moscow, the myth of the invincibility of the Tatars collapsed. Gradually, the Golden Horde state itself fell into decay. It split into the khanates of Siberian, Uzbek, Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Kazakh, Astrakhan (1459), Nogai Horde. Of all the tributaries of the Tatars, only Rus' remained, but it also periodically rebelled. In 1408, Moscow Prince Vasily I refused to pay tribute to the Golden Horde, after which Khan Edigei made a devastating campaign, robbing Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Dmitrov, Serpukhov, Nizhny Novgorod. In 1451, Moscow Prince Vasily the Dark again refused to pay. The Tatar raids were fruitless. Finally, in 1480, Prince Ivan III officially refused to submit to the Horde. The Mongol-Tatar yoke ended.

Lev Gumilev about the Tatar-Mongol yoke

- “After the income of Batu in 1237-1240, when the war ended, the pagan Mongols, among whom there were many Nestorian Christians, were friends with the Russians and helped them stop the German onslaught in the Baltic states. Muslim khans Uzbek and Janibek (1312-1356) used Moscow as a source of income, but at the same time protected it from Lithuania. During the Horde civil strife, the Horde was powerless, but the Russian princes paid tribute even at that time.”

- “Batu’s army, which opposed the Polovtsians, with whom the Mongols had been at war since 1216, passed through Rus' to the rear of the Polovtsians in 1237-1238, and forced them to flee to Hungary. At the same time, Ryazan and fourteen cities in the Vladimir Principality were destroyed. And in total there were about three hundred cities there at that time. The Mongols did not leave garrisons anywhere, did not impose tribute on anyone, being content with indemnities, horses and food, which was what any army did in those days when advancing.”

- (As a result) “Great Russia, then called Zalesskaya Ukraine, voluntarily united with the Horde, thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky, who became the adopted son of Batu. And the original Ancient Rus' - Belarus, Kiev region, Galicia and Volyn - submitted to Lithuania and Poland almost without resistance. And now, around Moscow there is a “golden belt” of ancient cities that remained intact during the “yoke,” but in Belarus and Galicia there are not even traces of Russian culture left. Novgorod was defended from the German knights by Tatar help in 1269. And where Tatar help was neglected, everything was lost. In the place of Yuryev - Dorpat, now Tartu, in the place of Kolyvan - Revol, now Tallinn; Riga closed the river route along the Dvina to Russian trade; Berdichev and Bratslav - Polish castles - blocked the roads to the "Wild Field", once the homeland of the Russian princes, thereby taking control of Ukraine. In 1340, Rus' disappeared from political map Europe. It was revived in 1480 in Moscow, on the eastern outskirts of former Rus'. And its core, ancient Kievan Rus, captured by Poland and oppressed, had to be saved in the 18th century."

- “I believe that Batu’s “invasion” was actually a large raid, a cavalry raid, and further events have only an indirect connection with this campaign. IN Ancient Rus' the word “yoke” meant something that is used to fasten something, a bridle or a collar. It also existed in the meaning of a burden, that is, something that is carried. The word “yoke” in the meaning of “domination”, “oppression” was first recorded only under Peter I. The alliance of Moscow and the Horde lasted as long as it was mutually beneficial.”

The term "Tatar yoke" originates in Russian historiography, as well as the provision about his overthrow by Ivan III, from Nikolai Karamzin, who applied it in the form of an artistic epithet in the original meaning of “a collar put on the neck” (“they bowed the neck under the yoke of the barbarians”), possibly borrowing this term from the Polish author XVI century Maciej Miechowski