Barbarian is ... The meaning of the word "barbarian" and the first mention. What are Barbarians? The meaning and interpretation of the word varvary, the definition of the term Who in ancient Greece was called barbarians

The ancient Greeks called all foreigners barbarians - "mumbling", meaning that they spoke Hellenic incorrectly or very poorly and, therefore, did not know and could not appreciate Greek customs, sciences and arts. The Hellenes were sure that everything they created was the best, and did not tire themselves with doubts. The Egyptians, Phoenicians and other peoples, to whom the Greeks owed a lot, turned out to be barbarians, from their point of view.

The Romans considered the tribes that lived on the northern and eastern borders of the Roman Empire to be barbarians. When in the 1st century BC e .. the Germanic tribes tried to cross the Rhine and occupy the lands of Gaul that belonged to the empire, the legions of Julius Caesar drove them back and built a defensive rampart - "Limes Romanus", which became the boundary not only between the Romans and the Germans, but essentially between two civilizations - Roman and barbarian .

The Romans called barbarians not only the Germans, but also the Celts, Slavs, who lived in vast territories, were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. They grew barley, wheat, rye, vegetables (turnips, onions, peas), as well as flax and hemp. They bred draft bulls, horses, sheep, goats, hunted fur-bearing animals, mined ore and smelted metals from it. All this was delivered to the border cities of the Roman Empire and exchanged for slaves, weapons, luxury goods and wine. The elders, who headed the clans and communities, called the names of the leaders at public meetings who would lead military squads against their neighbors. The strong subjugated the weak, creating large tribal alliances: Alemannic, Saka, Frankish, Western and Eastern Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Burgundians. War became a craft for many of them. The Romans valued the courage and ability of the barbarians to wield weapons: young male prisoners joined the ranks of gladiators, ending their lives in the arenas of Roman circuses; Freemen were recruited for military service. Over time, there were more and more barbarians in the Roman army, both among the soldiers and among the commanders. They preferred their clothes and weapons to everything Roman, they used their own tactics and strategy in battle. Their formations contributed to many of the victories won by Rome.

Barbarians, both prisoners and free, the Romans settled in the lands devastated by the war, using them as labor. Well-educated, wealthy barbarians also appeared in Roman society, which allowed them to occupy important positions in the imperial court, which was no stranger to the widespread fashion for barbarian costumes, hairstyles, demeanor and conversation. Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus went down in history under the name of Caracalla because of his passion for barbarian clothing: the Germans called a long cloak "caracalla". It happened that non-Romans were on the throne of the Roman Empire: the emperors Diocletian and Maximian were Illyrians.

The barbarians, who occupied a privileged position in the Roman Empire, who were the highest dignitaries, became the actual rulers of the state, which was going through a severe crisis at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries. n. e .. This was evidenced by numerous cases of the appearance of usurpers who claimed imperial power, worried the people, seized the cities and estates of the rich. Entire regions declared their independence from the central government. The army refused to protect the interests of the empire, and desertion became rampant. Human life has lost value.

It was then that the revival began on the borders of the empire.

Mass movements of tribes, their invasion from the periphery into the territory of the Roman Empire, which led to the loss of its western part, historians called the "Great Migration of Peoples". It began in the 4th-7th centuries, when the nomads of Central Asia - the Huns, having covered vast distances in several centuries, reached the fertile plains between the Volga and the Don. Here the descendants of the Huns, who forgot the language and history of their ancestors, changed even outwardly, but did not lose their militancy and cruelty in battles with enemies, created a tribal union. They began to be called the Huns, the conquerors of the Alans living in the Don basin and numerous Eastern Goths (Ostrogoths) of the Black Sea region. The massacre of the victors over the vanquished was so terrible that their neighbors - the Western Goths (Visigoths) did not wait for their death hour and fled under the protection of the Roman border fortifications across the Danube to the lands belonging to the Romans. They were settled in Moesia, given the status of confederates - allies of the empire, hoping that the fugitives would protect and protect the possessions of the empire from the encroachments of the formidable Huns.

However, everything turned out differently: the lands of Moesia were poor and could not feed such a large number of refugees; local officials, taking advantage of the plight of the Goths, engaged in extortion, plundering food and money sent by the central government to support the unfortunate. The last straw that overflowed the cup of patience was the treachery of the Romans. The governor of the region invited the ready leaders to his reception. While they were feasting, the guards of the governor, having provoked the combatants-ready for an armed clash, interrupted them. The indignation seized the whole people of the Goths. Having elected Fritigern as leader, a brave and battle-hardened man, the rebels captured one Roman city after another. The invasion, like a stormy river, spilled over the lands of the empire. It turned out that the government did not have the power to stop him. For two years, Emperor Valens unsuccessfully tried to gather troops to fight the Goths. The detachments that were sent to meet them went over to the side of the rebels. It was a formidable warning, evidence of the demoralization of society, when the homeland - the Roman state - turned into a giant machine of violence and oppression, and "strangers" became closer to "their own."

The emperor of the western part of the empire, Gratian, hastily began to look for a commander who could organize a rebuff to the rebels and save the empire. It turned out to be Theodosius, a native of Spain, who faithfully served Rome all his life and did not expect to become August. Being a smart man, he, realizing that he could not count on his compatriots, turned to the Gothic leaders for help. An agreement was concluded under which they were granted the right to live in the lands of Asia Minor; in addition, the government undertook to additionally supply them with grain, livestock, and exempt them from taxes and duties. The Goths also promised to put up 40 thousand soldiers annually.

Roman society was in decline. Those in power were occupied only with their own interests, not wanting to notice that the empire was being pressed more and more by enemies, and most of the people saw them as liberators. People who were seriously concerned about the fate of the empire were shunned in society, considered useless. Once it was decided to clear Rome of strangers and rogues, as it became more and more difficult to feed the huge population of the city. The results of this campaign were unexpected: only learned people were ruthlessly expelled from the city. But numerous singers and dancers continued to thrive, surrounded a large number servants.

Enmity and confusion tormented the empire. They did not stop, but intensified after the death of Theodosius I, who left his possessions as an inheritance to two sons: 18-year-old Arcadius and 11-year-old Honorius, whose guardians he appointed Rufin the Gall and Flavius ​​Stilicho the Vandal. While the palace parties were sorting things out, the Goths rebelled. They chose as their leader Alaric - the most famous warrior who came from an old noble family of the Balts. The rebels moved to Constantinople, but, having received a ransom, went to Macedonia and further to Greece, where only Athens survived, who managed to pay off.

At this time, at the court of the heirs of Theodosius, the supporters of Stilicho won. The troops gathered by him began to push Alaric, who with difficulty managed to avoid complete defeat. However, a year later he invaded Italy. The Visigoths represented such a serious force that Stilicho persuaded the emperor Honorius and the Senate to give Alaric a ransom - four thousand pounds of gold - and get a respite for the reform of the army and state structure but the Emperor hesitated. One of the senators reproached Stilicho that the treaty he proposed was not about peace, but about slavery. Soon, Stilicho was killed as a result of a conspiracy, the victims of which were many of Stilicho's friends and supporters, as well as barbarians and their families, who until then had faithfully served the empire. Outraged by such treachery, the survivors (more than 30 thousand in number) went over to the side of Alaric and demanded that they be led to Rome. Alaric took advantage of the situation immediately. Accusing the Romans of betrayal and breach of obligations, he called to arms his fellow Goths and the Huns who had joined them, and in 409 led them to Rome. Along the way, his troops were replenished with both free Roman citizens and slaves.

Very soon Alaric approached Rome, which since the time of Hannibal had not seen enemies near its walls. The leader is ready and his soldiers saw before them a huge and rich city. Its gilded roofs blinded the eyes. It had wonderful palaces, temples, circuses and theaters built of marble and decorated with statues, frescoes and mosaics. Alaric ordered to begin the siege of the "eternal city" and captured the harbor of Ostia, where all the main stocks of grain were located. Famine broke out in Rome and an epidemic of plague spread. The besieged did not have to count on help: there was no Stilicho, whose wisdom and energy saved the empire more than once; Emperor Honorius locked himself in the walls of the fortress city of Ravenna and prayed there for a miracle - salvation from the barbarians.

The Romans began negotiations with Alaric. The Senate sent an embassy to him. However, Alaric named such an exorbitant amount of the ransom that the bewildered townspeople asked what would remain with them after paying it. "Life," Alaric answered curtly. Then the townspeople tried to scare him, saying that there were many inhabitants in the city who, as one, would come out to defend Rome. "Well," said Alaric, "the thicker the grass, the easier it is to mow." The Romans agreed to pay the ransom. Alaric lifted the siege and withdrew.

The government of Honorius was in no hurry to fulfill the terms of the peace, and Alaric was tired of waiting. In the same year he laid siege to Rome again, and famine began there again. Alaric forced the Roman Senate to declare the emperor Honorius deposed, and to elect the Roman Attalus, a chatterer and drunkard, in his place. But soon, convinced of his complete unsuitability, Alaric sent him to his musical team, and sent the signs of imperial power to Honorius.

At this time, Honorius received reinforcements: Constantinople sent him 4 thousand soldiers, and ships loaded with food came from Africa. The emperor considered that it was pointless to care more about peace with the barbarians, and announced the termination of negotiations. In response to this, Alaric laid siege to Rome for the third time. The huge city had no strength to defend itself, only a handful of mercenary guards tried to resist. While the siege lasted, hunger and disease mowed down people. A contemporary of those events wrote: "The madness of the starving reached the limit, they tore each other to pieces, the mother did not spare her nursing baby, and her womb accepted what she gave birth." To top it off, the Germanic slaves raised an uprising in the city, staged a pogrom, opened the Salt Gate and, 40 thousand in number, joined the besiegers. August 14, 410 Alaric took the "eternal city". Three days and three nights the robbery and beating of the inhabitants lasted. Then the Goths left, carrying off huge booty, taking away prisoners, among whom was the sister of the emperor Honorius. The Romans, among other things, paid tribute: 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 3,000 precious, purple-dyed clothes, 4,000 silk, 3,000 pounds of pepper, and much more.

Alaric led his soldiers to the rich, rich regions of the Roman Empire - Campania, Sicily, intending to conquer the province of Africa - the main granary of the empire, which fed the Romans. However, this plan was not realized due to the death of Alaric, who died 34 years old in the city of Consentia. He was buried in a deep grave dug in the bed of the Buzent River, whose waters were diverted into a new channel. Together with Alaric, numerous priceless treasures were buried, and then, having dug up the grave, the waters of the river were returned to their former course. Companions of Alaric killed all the slaves who participated in these works, so that no one would know the secret of the burial of their leader.

While the governments of the eastern and western parts of the empire were trying to mobilize all their forces to protect their possessions, to stop unrest and unrest in the state, a new danger was approaching. The leader of the Huns, Attila, the ruler of vast territories and numerous peoples, began a campaign, conquering the tribes that lived on the right bank of the Danube, dreaming of taking possession of the lands as far as Constantinople. The Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire Theodosius II paid off by paying Attila 6 thousand pounds of gold, recognizing himself and his people as eternal tributaries of the leader of the Huns and promising to pay him 700 pounds of gold annually.

Attila led his troops into the possessions of the Western Roman Empire. At that time, the mother of the young emperor Valentinian III, Galla Placidia, ruled there. Upon learning of the approach of the enemy, she instructed the commander of the court guard Flavius ​​Aetius to lead the defense. He spent several years in captivity with Alaric and knew well the manners and character traits of the barbarians. Using persuasion, threats, bribery, he attracted vandals, Franks and Burgundians to his side, and most importantly, he established an uninterrupted delivery of food to Rome.

In 451, on the Catalaunian fields, near the city of Troyes, a "battle of the peoples" took place, in which the victory went to the Romans and their allies. Attila fled. A year later, he again launched an offensive and was again defeated, and soon died. His huge state after this ceased to exist, disintegrating into small possessions that became victims of their more powerful neighbors.

Almost simultaneously with Attila, Aetius also died, falling victim to another conspiracy, and a year later, his pupil, Emperor Valentinian III. The emperor's widow, Eudoxia, having no other opportunity to take revenge on the murderers, turned to the help of the Vandal king Gaiseric, begging him to protect the imperial dynasty and restore its power.

Geiseric put his army on ships, entered the mouth of the Tiber, and after a short siege on July 2, 455 captured the "eternal city". For two weeks, his soldiers not only plundered, but completely senselessly destroyed the city. Contemporaries could not remember such devastation and defeat. One of them wrote: "Everything is destroyed and plundered. Fields, cities - everything has changed its appearance. Sword, fire, hunger - all scourges destroy the human race at once. Peace has disappeared on earth: a common end has come." Nevertheless, Rome has survived to this day, remaining the capital of Italy, and the vandals have long disappeared from the arena of history, leaving to posterity only their name as a symbol of senseless destruction and desecration - vandalism.

The Western Roman Empire was inevitably approaching an inglorious end, never having been able to recover from such a terrible invasion. From 455 to 476, about a dozen emperors were replaced, who did not have real power and became toys in the hands of rogues.

The population of cities has decreased. Some of the inhabitants were driven into slavery, others fled.

Rome, full of life, with beautiful buildings, admired by contemporaries, was dying: many ancient families disappeared, others eked out a disastrous existence, large palaces were empty and everything in them was dead ... In 476, one of the most influential German mercenaries, the commander Odoacer deposed last emperor Romulus, contemptuously nicknamed by the people Augustulus - Auguston. Odoacer spared his life, placed him in a villa donated to him in Campania and assigned a generous allowance. Odoacer himself was recognized by the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire Zeno as co-ruler. August 23, 476 is considered the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the end of the ancient world. A new period of history began - the Middle Ages, and new states were created on the ruins of a part of the Roman Empire: Visigoths, Burgundians, Franks, Alemanni, Ostrogoths and Vandals. Each of them had its own history.

What happened next to the inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire when it ceased to exist? The majority of the common people had new rulers, and the Roman nobility began to serve faithfully to those whom it had recently despised and called barbarians. Those, in turn, valued the knowledge of their new subjects, willingly giving them high positions, endowing them with lands and slaves. The children and grandchildren of the former barbarians, who were so afraid and hated ancient cities, calling them "birdcages" or "gilded tombs", began to build their capital cities, fortresses, residence castles, adopting all the features of a new way of life for them. Barbarians are no longer barbarians.

Barbarians is a word that is often used today to refer to uncivilized or cruel individuals who, through their actions, destroy or destroy cultural values ​​and other human creations that are useful to society. This term arose in ancient Greece, where strangers were called barbarians. The ancient Romans also began to use the word "barbarians", but somewhat expanded its concept. Let's look into history and find out what the etymology of its origin is and how its meaning has changed over time.

Who are the barbarians?

That is how in ancient Greece and Rome they called those who were much less developed in terms of culture and did not have advanced knowledge at that time. Representatives of different nations could be called barbarians, for example, Germans, Goths, Slavs, Celts. In addition, this label was hung on groups that were primitive in social organization (for example, on nomads) or lower social classes, also leading a primitive way of life and not possessing elementary scientific knowledge(for example, on the poor). This applied to citizens both inside and outside their own country. Alternatively, the term was sometimes used with the opposite connotation: barbarians were admired and their images romanticized. They were presented to society as heroes, free in their choice, strong, courageous, able to stand up for their people. A vivid example of such a positive barbarian is Conan the warrior from the stories of Robert Howard. This image became incredibly popular after the successful adaptation of the writer's works.

In idiomatic or figurative usage, the word "barbarian" can also be a personal reference to an insensitive and ruthless person. AT modern world this designation is usually used as a generalization based on an established stereotype.

Germanic barbarians

But back to historical facts and try to figure out why and whom the Romans called barbarians. In fairness, you need to start with the ancient Greeks. We all know that it was they who "rocked" the cradle of our civilization. In ancient Greece, long before the birth of Christ, back in the 5th century BC, there was already water supply and sewerage, beautiful temples were built, which the world admires to this day, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, and art were extraordinarily developed. The ancient Romans borrowed a lot from the Greeks, such as the alphabet. Gradually, their culture also flourished and strengthened.

In this time period (I-II centuries BC), many other peoples still led a tribal way of life. Not only did they not have absolutely no progressive technologies at that time, they even had no idea about many obvious things, they lived according to patriarchal laws, worshiped priests and druids. Therefore, it is not at all difficult to understand why the Romans called the ancient Germans or people like them barbarians. However, there are other explanations for this phenomenon.

Etymology of the word

It is believed that the ancient Romans and Greeks called all strangers barbarians. Many historians write about this, referring to the fact that the speech of other peoples was incomprehensible to the wise Greeks. This theory seems to be correct if you pay attention to how German speech sounds, for example. To some, it seems too harsh, rough and abrupt, compared to the melodic Italian or the soft and rhythmic Greek. Those who do not know German do not hear individual words, but only "var-bar-bar-var". This is another explanation why the Romans called the Germans barbarians.

However, it cannot answer why, for example, they did not call the ancient Egyptians or Byzantines with such a word, although those peoples also spoke in an incomprehensible language. So who and why did the Romans call barbarians? The answer may be this: this word arose by chance, on the basis of the incomprehensible muttering of strangers. It must be said that the Greeks still retain such a feature - to give bright and capacious epithets in meaning, which subsequently become generally accepted expressions. Also in their language there are many words made up of repeated syllables. For example, "I-I" (grandmother), "ve-ve" (of course), "na-na", "po-po", "yes-yes" and others. It is quite possible that they ironically parodied the conversations of foreigners.

The new word that appeared was fixed. Further, it must be assumed that those foreigners were not highly educated Egyptians, but semi-savage Celts, whom the Greeks had a chance to meet on the tangled roads of history. Then everything falls into place. Those who were called barbarians by the Romans and Greeks mumbled something inarticulate, plus, did not have elementary scientific knowledge. Once having arisen, the ironic nickname was fixed, and after that it began its own independent life.

term in the modern world

Today, the meaning of this word is far from the original Roman-Greek roots. A prime example is the 2012 speech delivered by President Barack Obama in New York. In it, he publicly called the crimes committed against children, slavery and military violence barbaric.

When Obama used the term "barbarian" he didn't mean people who don't speak Latin or Greek.

More about Ancient Greece and Rome

Earliest mention of the word "barbarian" in literature ancient world contained in the descriptions of Homer, who calls these people "barbarophoni". What does "bar-bar" mean, we have already explained. "Phoni" in Greek is "voice", and in an inaccurate translation "speech". There is no doubt that one of the main reasons for the appearance of the word was linguistic. A curious fact is that there was no agreement among the ancient Greeks as to who and how speaks Greek, since there were more than a hundred dialects in the country. Many of them have survived to this day, so the inhabitants of Crete are hardly understood, for example, in Macedonia. Previously, the differences in dialects were much more significant. Therefore, a number of scientists believe whom the Romans and Greeks called barbarians, they themselves did not really know. Perhaps such a nickname was addressed to the citizens of their own country, speaking in an incomprehensible dialect.

Therefore, the original meaning of the word "barbarian" did not refer to acts of evil, but rather to those who did not own the most common and used dialects.

Who were the Romans called barbarians?

The meaning of this term changed dramatically in the decline of the Roman Empire, when some peoples began to encroach on the lands of the Romans. These "barbarians" almost never united. Some plundered the Roman Empire, while others became its allies.

Rome actively developed various kinds of relations with the Goths, Vandals, Herules, Sueves, Saxons, Gepids, as well as Sarmatians, Alans, Huns, Avars, Picts, Carpi and Isaurians.

For example, Attila, who is perhaps the most famous "barbarian" of the period, ruled a vast empire that controlled other outlander groups. Early in his reign, he allied himself with the Romans against the Burgundians, and later rebelled against the Romans and marched against them in France.

positive connotation

It is worth noting that the word "barbarian" did not have a negative connotation for everyone in the Roman Empire. Around 440, the Christian priest Salvius wrote that almost all barbarians who belong to the same race or to relatives love each other, and the Romans persecute each other.

He noted that many poor Romans turned to strangers for help. They are looking for human interaction among the barbarians, because from the Romans they get only this barbaric inhumanity. Therefore, there is no single answer to the question of whom the Romans called barbarians. As, however, and on many other questions from the history of mankind.

Philosophical interpretation of the term

Among modern scholars and among the general public, the definition of whom the Romans called barbarians and why is a matter of much debate.

If there is in the history of mankind general characteristics, which unites all civilizations that have ever existed, it is the ideological need to defend not only against their own enemies, but also against the enemies-civilizations.

Based on this, the term "barbarian" can be extended even to Ancient China, as well as to all peoples living outside a certain country. Indeed, the word "barbarian" can be extended to any culture that can be considered as an enemy civilization, the social structure of which is significantly different from the structure of the state that applies the term "barbarian" to foreigners.

Output

While the ancient Greeks were ironic about those who did not speak Greek, that is, they were barbarians, the meaning of this term changed. The transformation of the meaning of this word has reached such an extent that the ancient Greeks probably would not have recognized it in a modern context.

That is why now the answer to the question of whom the ancient Romans called barbarians is still waiting for additional research.

In ancient times, the Greeks applied one single name to strangers - barbarians ("mumbling"). It was assumed that such peoples did not speak Hellenic correctly or at all unsatisfactorily, which means that they did not possess knowledge and were not able to appreciate Greek customs, science and art. The Greeks were convinced that everything they created was the best, and they did not even doubt it. The peoples of Egypt, Phoenicia, however, like other peoples who helped the Greeks, nevertheless, were all barbarians according to the then ancient Greek concepts.

For the Romans, the barbarians are the tribes that lived in the north and east of the borders of the Roman Empire. When in the 1st century B.C. e. The Germanic tribes made an attempt by crossing the Rhine to occupy the Gallic lands belonging to the empire, Julius Caesar drove them back and built a defensive structure - Limes Romanus. As a result, it became the border not only between Rome and the Germanic tribes, it was the division of two civilizations: Roman and barbarian.

The Romans considered barbarians not only the Germans, but also the Celts, as well as the Slavs living further from the Roman Empire, who were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. "Russian barbarians" were engaged in the cultivation of barley, wheat, rye, vegetables (such as turnips, onions and peas), as well as flax and hemp. In addition, they had draft bulls, horses, sheep, goats, fur-bearing animals, and ore was mined for smelting various metals from it. And all this was delivered to the border Roman cities, after which there was an exchange. Basically, they exchanged for slaves, various weapons, jewelry, and also wine.

Tribal unions of barbarians

The life of the barbarians consisted in the fact that those who were stronger subdued those who were weaker, while creating something like large tribal unions in the Barbarian Empire.

These unions included:

• Alemany;
• Saxons;
• Franks;
• Western and Eastern Goths;
• Lombards;
• Vandals;
• Burgundy.

Warfare became a profession for many barbarians.

The fascination of the Romans with everything barbaric

In Rome, the fearlessness of the barbarians and their mastery of weapons were valued. So, young male prisoners filled up gladiatorial schools, after which their life ended in Roman circuses. Whereas free young barbarians were recruited for military service.

Over time, the Roman army was increasingly replenished with barbarians, both soldiers and commanders. However, they denied everything Roman, including clothing and weapons. Moreover, they preferred to use their own tactics and strategy in battle. However, thanks to their military formations, The Roman Empire won many famous victories.

Barbarians, both prisoners and free, in Rome settled in the territory of the lands devastated by the war, here they were as a labor force. Roman society was often replenished with well-educated, wealthy barbarians. They occupied significant positions in the imperial hierarchy, as well as at court. The Roman emperors did not shy away from the spreading fashion for everything barbaric. They were interested in costumes, hairstyles, demeanor and conversation.

So, the emperor Marcus Aurelius Anthony managed to go down in history under the nickname Caracalla, because of his predilection for barbarian attire. Caracalla is the Germanic name for a long cloak. It happened that the throne of the Roman Empire was not occupied by the Romans. For example, the emperors Diocletian and Maximian were of Illyrian origin.

Crisis in the Roman Empire

The natives of the barbarians occupied privileged places in Rome. In particular, such high dignitaries actually ruled the state, which was going through a crisis situation at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries AD. e. Evidence of this was the many cases when there were usurpers claiming the imperial throne.

They excited people, seized the villages and estates of the rich. In some regions, a "parade of sovereignties" began, they did not want to obey the central government. The military refused to defend the interests of the authorities, and the number of deserters reached alarming proportions. No one would give even a broken penny for a human life. It was then that active movements began at the borders of Rome.

Revitalization at the borders of the empire

The massive movement of tribes and the invasion of the Roman Empire led to the loss of the western provinces, which has been called by historians the "Great Migration of Nations". It all started in the IV-VII centuries. Then the nomadic Central Asian tribes of the Huns, after overcoming huge distances over the centuries, reached the territories from the Volga to the Don. There the Huns, forgetting their language and their roots, changed outwardly. However, they did not lose their militancy and cruelty in battles, they began to create tribal alliances.

Now they bore the name of the Huns and conquered many peoples of that region: the Alans and numerous Eastern Goths (Ostrogoths). The invaders dealt with everyone so cruelly that their neighbors, the Western Goths (Visigoths), did not have to wait for their fate. They fled under the protection of Rome across the Danube. After settling in Moesia, the Visigoths began to bear the name of the confederates - allies. The empire expected that the fugitives would be engaged in the protection and defense of possessions from the same Huns.

However, their adventures are not over. The local land was so scarce that it could not feed such a large number of refugees. Officials, using the plight of the Goths, extorted and plundered food and money, which were directed by the central government, supporting the poor.

Goth uprising led by Fritigern

The governor of the region managed to lure the Gothic leaders to the reception. While there was a feast, the governor's guard provoked the Goth warriors and killed them. Outraged, the Goths elected a new leader. It was Fritigern, a brave and battle-hardened man. The rebels began to capture the Roman cities. It turned out that the government did not have the power to stop the rebels.

For more than two years, Emperor Valens failed to equip an army to pacify the Goths. The troops sent to suppress the rebellion joined the ranks of the rebels. And this was a formidable warning, testifying to the decay of society. Then the Roman state had to turn into a giant flywheel of violence and oppression, in which "strangers" were made closer than "friends".

Emperor western regions Gratian had to hastily look for a commander who could save the state. They found the Spaniard Theodosius, who faithfully served the empire. His plans did not include becoming an august person. Using his mind, he, realizing that he would not have to rely on the Romans, decided to contact the Gothic leaders.

As a result, an agreement was concluded in which they were given the right to reside in Asia Minor. Moreover, the authorities undertook to provide Goths with grain and livestock. They abolished taxes and duties for the Goths. Those, in turn, pledged to provide forty thousand fighters every year.

Cleansing Rome from the "homeless": the intelligentsia suffered

Rome was rapidly moving towards its fall. The tops were engaged only in personal affairs. They did not notice that the empire was increasingly crowded by enemies whom the people saw as their liberators. People who were seriously concerned about the fate of the state were avoided by society, they were considered unnecessary.

Somehow they decided to rid Rome of strangers and all sorts of scammers. It was calculated that there were not enough funds to feed the huge urban population. As a result of this "special operation", as often happens, the intelligentsia suffered. Only learned people had to be ruthlessly driven out of the city limits. However, they left the most necessary people for the state: numerous singers and dancers who surrounded themselves with a large number of servants.

Hostility and unrest tore apart the state. And all this intensified after the death of Theodosius I. He left all his wealth to his sons. They were 18-year-old Arkady and 11-year-old Honorius, as well as their guardians - the Gaul Rufinus and the vandal Flavius ​​Stilicho. While at the court there was a showdown, there was an uprising ready.

Alaric - the new leader of the Visigoths

The Goths chose their new leader, who turned out to be Alaric - the most famous warrior. He represented the old noble family of the Balts. Under the leadership of a new leader, the rebels decided to get a ransom from Constantinople or destroy it. Having acquired everything they had in mind, Macedonia was chosen as the next target, and then Greece. But only the capital survived in it - Athens, which paid off.

Meanwhile, at the court in the battle between the heirs of Theodosius, Stilicho was able to win with his supporters. The troops gathered by him managed to push back Alaric, who barely escaped complete defeat. However, a year later he carried out an invasion of Italy.

The Visigothic warriors appeared to be such a serious force that Stilicho had to persuade Honorius, as well as the members of the senate, to give the ransom to Alaric. It was about four thousand pounds of gold. In addition, it was supposed to get a respite to reform the army and reorganize the state, but Honorius could not decide.

Another perfidy of the Romans

The senators reproached Stilicho that the treaty he proposed was not about peace, but about captivity. Soon the conspirators killed Stilicho. Many of his friends and supporters suffered, as well as the barbarians and their families who had served faithfully up to that time. Indignant at such treachery, the remaining barbarians, numbering more than thirty thousand people, joined the opposite side demanding the capture of Rome.

In this situation, Alaric had to act immediately. He accused the Romans of treason and disruption of agreements. Alaric called to arms his fellow Goths and the Huns who joined them. So, in 409, this whole army moved to storm Rome. In the process of promotion, not only free Roman citizens, but also slaves joined the army.

Alaric at the walls of the "eternal city"

Since the era of Hannibal, not so many of his enemies gathered near the walls of Rome. A huge and richest city appeared before the leader and all his warriors. The city possessed marvelous palaces, churches, temples, cathedrals, circuses and theaters built of marble and decorated with statues, frescoes and mosaics.

After Alaric gave the order to begin the siege of Rome, the harbor of Ostia was immediately captured, which possessed all the main grain reserves. Famine arose in the city, and the plague epidemic began to spread. The besieged did not even count on help. Honorius closed himself in the fortress city of Ravenna, he only had to pray.

The Roman senators decided to start with negotiations and sent ambassadors to Alaric. However, the latter announced such an unbearable price that the dumbfounded townspeople asked what they would have left after paying. "Life," Alaric replied very laconically.

The Romans decided to frighten him and reported that the city had a lot of citizens who would go out to defend it. “Thick grass is easier to mow,” the leader replied. The Romans had no choice but to agree to pay the ransom. The siege of the city was lifted and Alaric decided to withdraw with his troops.

Honorius' ministers were in no hurry to implement the peace treaty, and Alaric was tired of waiting. Then he again decided to carry out the siege of Rome, and famine arose in him again. Alaric managed to force the Roman senators to announce the deposition of Honorius, and replace him with Attala - a talker and drunkard. However, seeing his complete unsuitability, Alaric had to take him into his ensemble, and the imperial power to return Honorius back.

Fatal error of Honorius

Honorius at this time suddenly acquired reinforcements. A 4,000-strong army arrived from Constantinople, and provisions were sent by sea from the black mainland. Honorius decided that there was no point in talking about peace with the barbarians, and announced that negotiations had been terminated. This was followed by the third siege of Rome. The huge city had no forces for defense, only the mercenary guardsmen tried to resist.

During the siege, people died of hunger and disease. Contemporaries wrote that it even came to cannibalism. In addition, the German slaves managed to revolt with pogroms. They opened the Salt Gate, and a detachment of forty thousand joined the invaders. On August 14, 410, Alaric succeeded in taking Rome.

Robberies and beatings of townspeople continued for three days. Leaving the barbarians, they carried away unprecedented trophies, took away captives, including sister Honorius. The Romans, in addition to everything, had to pay a huge tribute: gold, silver, jewelry, purple-dyed clothes, silk, pepper and many others.

The collapse of Alaric's plans

Further, the army of Alaric advanced to the grain, rich regions of the Roman Empire. These were Campania and Sicily, but main goal was the province of Africa - the main granary that fed the entire empire. However, this plan was not destined to come true, Alaric died at the age of 34 in the town of Consentia.

He was buried in a deep pit, which was dug in the riverbed of the Buzent. Its waters were diverted to a new channel. Countless priceless treasures were buried with the leader. After the grave was dug up, the river was allowed to flow along its former course. Then all the slaves who were engaged in these works were killed, so that no one would know about the secret of the buried treasures and Alaric.

A new threat to Rome - Attila

While the authorities in the eastern and western parts of the empire made attempts to mobilize all forces for their defense, as well as to stop the unrest and unrest, new trials were approaching. Danger was approaching from the leader of the Huns, Attila. He was the ruler of a "country" with vast territories and numerous peoples. By the way, there is a version that Attila was the Kyiv prince Bogdan Gatylo, and the Huns were the ancestors of the Slavs.

Attila began by conquering the tribes that lived on the right bank of the Danube. His plans included the mastery of many lands along with Constantinople itself. Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire Theodosius II managed to buy off Attila with six thousand pounds of gold. In addition, he recognized himself and his people as the eternal debtor of the leader Attila and promised to pay seven hundred pounds in gold every year.

Attila decided to take over the Western Roman Empire. At that time, Galla Placidia, who was the mother of the young emperor Valentinian III, ruled everything there. As soon as she learned of the impending danger, she appointed Flavius ​​Aetius, commander of the court guards, as head of defense.

The battle of nations and the death of Attila

Being captured by Alaric, the new chief of defense was well acquainted with the morals and characteristic features rude barbarians. After assessing the situation, he managed, with the help of persuasion, threats, bribery, to win over some barbarian tribes to his side. They turned out to be Vandals, Franks and Burgundians, but the main achievement of his work was to establish an uninterrupted delivery of provisions to Rome.

As a result, in 451, in the region of the Catalaunian fields near the city of Troyes, a “battle of peoples” took place. The victory in this battle was won by the Romans along with their allies, Attila managed to escape. A year later, he again went to Rome and again lost the battle, and soon died. Him huge state after that it was destined to cease to exist. It fell apart and was swallowed up by stronger neighbors.

Almost at the same time, in another conspiracy, Aetius was killed, and a year later, his pupil, Emperor Valentinian III. The imperial widow, Eudoxia, out of a desire for revenge, had to seek help from the Vandal King Gaiseric. She begged him to protect the imperial dynasty and restore its power.

The armies of Gaiseric, after a short siege on July 2, 455, managed to capture Rome. For more than two weeks, the vandals looted and destroyed the city. The "eternal city" did not have to deal with such devastation and destruction, but it has survived to our time. And the vandals, long gone into oblivion, left only their name in the history of the barbarians as the meaning of senseless destruction and desecration - vandalism.

The Western Roman Empire was destined to approach its decline. She was unable to get back on her feet after such a terrible disaster. Dozens of emperors changed from 455 to 476. Having no real power, they became puppets in the hands of swindlers. The population in the cities decreased. Some were driven into captivity, others fled.

August 23, 476 is the tragic date when the Western Roman Empire fell and the end of antiquity. A new history of the Middle Ages began. On the ruins of the former empire, new states were formed. These were barbarian states with their own history.

The Roman nobility had to serve those whom they despised not so long ago. The barbarians valued the knowledge possessed by their new subjects. The former nobility was given high positions, they were given lands and slaves. The descendants of the former barbarians, who hated the ancient cities, started building their capital cities, fortresses, castles-residences. For a while, the term "barbarians" ceased to exist.

1) Barbarians- - the name of all strangers among the ancient Greeks and Romans. In a figurative sense - rude, ill-mannered, cruel people.

2) Barbarians- the name adopted by the ancient Greeks and Romans for foreigners who do not speak Greek (Latin) and are not familiar with the Hellenic and Roman culture.

3) Barbarians- (in Greek and Latin foreigners) - the ancient Greeks and Romans had a common name for all foreigners who speak a language they do not understand. At the beginning of a.d. it was more often applied to the Germans. In modern times, the word barbarians began to denote a set of peoples who invaded the boundaries of the Roman Empire (barbarian conquests) and founded independent states (kingdoms) on its territory. The legal documents of these peoples are known as barbaric truths. Barbarians threatened the borders of the Roman Empire for several centuries. The Goths, Vandals, and other tribes, in search of new lands for robbery and settlement, penetrated the Roman Empire through its long eastern border. During the era of the Great Migration of Nations (4th-7th centuries), entire peoples moved across Europe, often overcoming thousands of kilometers. In 410, the army of the Visigoths, led by Alaric, captured and plundered Rome. The Huns, a nomadic people from Central Asia, at the end of the 4th c. invaded Europe. In the middle of the 5th c. under the leadership of Attila, they made devastating campaigns in the Eastern Roman Empire, Gaul, Northern Italy. Attila's contemporaries called him the scourge of God. In 455, Rome was sacked by the Vandals led by King Gaiseric, and in 476, the leader of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus. This event is considered the end of the Western Roman Empire. Until recently, it was believed that after this, a dark period of barbarism began in a divided Europe. Although some of the achievements of ancient culture were forgotten, in general, culture and education were preserved. In Europe, Christianity remained a unifying force, schools, monasteries, churches were founded, which became centers of learning and crafts.

Barbarians

The name of all foreigners among the ancient Greeks and Romans. In a figurative sense - rude, ill-mannered, cruel people.

the name adopted by the ancient Greeks and Romans for foreigners who do not speak Greek (Latin) and are not familiar with Hellenic and Roman culture.

(in Greek and Latin, strangers) - among the ancient Greeks and Romans, the common name for all strangers who speak a language they do not understand. At the beginning of a.d. it was more often applied to the Germans. In modern times, the word barbarians began to denote a set of peoples who invaded the boundaries of the Roman Empire (barbarian conquests) and founded independent states (kingdoms) on its territory. The legal documents of these peoples are known as barbaric truths. Barbarians threatened the borders of the Roman Empire for several centuries. The Goths, Vandals, and other tribes, in search of new lands for robbery and settlement, penetrated the Roman Empire through its long eastern border. During the era of the Great Migration of Nations (4th-7th centuries), entire peoples moved across Europe, often overcoming thousands of kilometers. In 410, the army of the Visigoths, led by Alaric, captured and plundered Rome. The Huns, a nomadic people from Central Asia, at the end of the 4th c. invaded Europe. In the middle of the 5th c. under the leadership of Attila, they made devastating campaigns in the Eastern Roman Empire, Gaul, Northern Italy. Attila's contemporaries called him the scourge of God. In 455, Rome was sacked by the Vandals led by King Gaiseric, and in 476, the leader of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus. This event is considered the end of the Western Roman Empire. Until recently, it was believed that after this, a dark period of barbarism began in a divided Europe. Although some of the achievements of ancient culture were forgotten, in general, culture and education were preserved. In Europe, Christianity remained a unifying force, schools, monasteries, churches were founded, which became centers of learning and crafts.

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The word "barbarian" has been around for a very long time. It can be found in the Old Slavonic language, Old Russian and modern. The history of the origin of this term is extremely interesting. The article will consider the meaning of the word "barbarian" and how it has changed over time. Each era has made its own changes to this concept and interpreted it to its own advantage.

Where is the word "barbarian" found?

It is ubiquitous and used by many peoples. This is due to the fact that the word has an ancient origin and over time began to be used not only in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bits appearance, but throughout the world.

The birthplace of the word - Ancient Greece

It was this great country, the cradle of modern civilization, that gave the world a new word. The Greeks, thousands of years ago, called all outsiders that. For them, a barbarian is any foreigner who lived outside the Greek, and then the Roman state. The etymology of the word is still debatable. It is believed that this is an onomatopoeia of languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat are incomprehensible and alien to the Greeks - var-var. The word had a contemptuous connotation, since the Greeks considered other tribes to be less educated and cultured. However, many scientists do not agree with this version and believe that this term had a neutral meaning.

Moreover, initially everyone who spoke a different language was called this concept, and only then they began to use it specifically to refer to other peoples.

Later, the word passed to the Romans, but received a different meaning. For the inhabitants of the Roman state, a barbarian is a rude, uneducated person. So they began to call the northern peoples, who, in terms of cultural development, lagged far behind the population and Italy.

The Greek word for barbarian is barbaros. The Latin name is barbarus in the same meaning (foreigner, stranger). Interestingly, in modern French there is a word barbare. It means "cruel, barbaric" and is very similar to another word - barbe (beard). According to linguists, the similarity is not at all accidental. The ancient Greeks preferred to wear neat little beards that were curled and smeared with fragrant oils. The northern tribes who lived in the neighborhood did not care about the beauty of their hair and beards, so they looked untidy.

The first mention of the word and the change in attitude towards the barbarians

If you believe written sources those years, for the first time this concept was applied at the end of the VI century. BC e. Greek historian The Hellenes did not accept many of the habits and customs of their neighbors, for example, the noisy feasts of the Scythians and Thracians. The poet Anacreon wrote about it. The philosopher Heraclitus in his writings used such a metaphysical concept as the "barbarian soul". Thus, over time, the word began to take on an increasingly negative connotation. A barbarian is a foreigner who is characterized by a common low level development of culture and which lacks rules of conduct acceptable to the Greeks.

The turning point was the Greco-Persian wars, which were hard on the Hellenes. A negative image of a person of non-Greek origin began to form and a stereotype of a barbarian was created - cowardly, treacherous, cruel and hating Greece.

Then there was a period when there was an interest in foreign culture and even admiration for it.

In IV-V centuries. n. e., in the era, the word again acquired a negative assessment and was associated with cruel tribes of savage invaders who destroyed Roman civilization.

Who are the barbarians: tribes and occupations

What peoples were named so by the ancient Greeks? As mentioned above, these were northern Slavic, Scythian, as well as Celts and Thracians.

In the 1st century BC e. Germanic tribes tried to occupy the Roman province of Gaul. Julius Caesar gave them a rebuff. The invaders were driven back beyond the Rhine, along which the border between the Roman world and the barbarian lay.

All of the above tribes had a similar way of life. They were engaged in cattle breeding, agriculture and hunting. They knew weaving and pottery, they knew how to process metal.

Answering the question who the barbarians are, one must also touch on their cultural level. He did not reach such heights that the Greek civilization achieved, but these tribes were not ignorant and wild either. For example, products of Scythian and Celtic craftsmen are considered valuable works of art.

The history of the word in the Middle Ages

The ancient concept was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans by Western Europe and Byzantium. It has changed meaning. A barbarian is an atheist, as the Christian and Catholic clergy believed then.

Many values

The word "barbarian" boasts that its meaning has changed over the centuries. For the ancient Greeks, it denoted a stranger who lived outside the country, the Romans so called those tribes and peoples who invaded the territory of the empire and destroyed it. For Byzantium and Western Europe, this word has become synonymous with pagan.

Nowadays, this concept is used in a figurative sense. In the nominal sense, a barbarian is a cruel, ignorant person who destroys cultural monuments and values.

It is interesting that the word has not lost its relevance and, despite the prescription of its origin, is still used today.