EntrancePerception is the process and result of constructing an image of an object. Psychology
Last update: 07/06/2015
Perception allows us to sense the world around us. Think about everything you take in every day. At any moment, you can see familiar objects around you, feel a touch on your skin, smell the aroma of your favorite dish, or hear your upstairs neighbor turn on music. All of this constitutes our conscious experience and allows us to interact with the world and people around us.
What is perception?
Perception is sensory knowledge of the world around us, it includes both the perception of stimuli environment, and actions in response to them. Through the process of perception, we obtain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival.
Perception not only creates our picture of the world; it allows us to act within the confines of our environment.
Perception includes touch, vision, taste, smell, proprioception (the body's ability to detect changes in body position), as well as cognitive processes necessary for processing information (recognition of faces, familiar smells).
The process of perception and its elements
The process of perception is a sequence of steps that begins with an event in the environment, followed by our perception of a stimulus and our actions in response to it. This process happens constantly; we don't spend much time or effort analyzing the process of perception itself because we perceive too many stimuli at any given moment.
The process of converting light that hits the retina into real light visual image happens unconsciously and automatically.
To fully understand how the perception process works, let's break it down into its elements:
- environmental stimuli;
- stimulus that attracted attention;
- transfer of images to the retina;
- image transduction (transformation);
- neural signal processing;
- perception;
- recognition;
- action.
Let's take a closer look at them.
Environmental stimulus
The world is full of stimuli that can attract our attention using our senses. An environmental stimulus can be anything that can be perceived - anything that can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled or heard. In addition, we must not forget about proprioception - our ability to sense the movements of our arms and legs, as well as changes in the position of our body in relation to objects in the environment.
For example, imagine you are on your morning jog at your local park. While you are exercising, a variety of stimuli can attract your attention: a light breeze; a man playing with his dog; a car passing by with loud music coming from its slightly open windows; a duck splashing in a pond nearby. These are all environmental stimuli that act as a starting point for the process of perception.
Stimulus that attracts attention
This stimulus is a specific object in the environment on which our attention is focused.
Most of the time, we focus on stimuli that are familiar to us - for example, a friend's face in a crowd of strangers. Sometimes, on the contrary, on stimuli that are somewhat new to us.
Let's go back to the previous park example. Let's imagine that during training you concentrated on ducks swimming in a nearby pond. A flock of ducks is precisely the stimulus that has attracted your attention. At the next stage of perception, the visual process will predominate.
Transferring an image to the retina
The stimulus is then converted into an image on the retina. First, light penetrates through the cornea and pupil, hitting the lens. The cornea helps focus light, and the iris controls the size of the pupils to determine how much light is needed.
As you may already know, the image on the retina is actually upside down. At this stage of perception, this is not so important, since this image is not yet perceived by us, and later this visual information will be changed.
Transduction (transformation) of an image
The image on the retina is then converted into electrical signals, allowing visual messages to be sent to the brain so that they can be interpreted.
The retina contains many photoreceptors - rods and cones. Rods are primarily responsible for twilight vision (perceiving objects in low light conditions), while cones are associated with the perception of color and shape in normal light levels.
Rods and cones contain a protein (retinal) that is responsible for converting light into visual signals, which are then transmitted to the brain via nerve impulses.
Neural signal processing
At the next stage, the electrical signals undergo neural processing. The path of a particular signal depends on its modality (i.e., is it an auditory or visual signal).
Neurons located throughout the body carry electrical signals from receptors to the brain. In our previous example, an image of ducks swimming in a pond is received by the retina, converted into an electrical signal, and then processed by neurons.
The fact that you actually perceive the stimulus and are aware of its presence in the environment can only be said at the next stage.
Perception
It is at this stage that we become aware of the presence of the stimulus. But it is one thing to simply be aware of its existence, and quite another to be fully aware of it.
Recognition
Perception involves more than just awareness of stimuli. Our brain needs to categorize and interpret what it perceives. Our ability to interpret the information received in the process of perception and give meaning, meaning to an object is the next element.
So, being in the park and watching the ducks, at this stage you understand that they are ducks and that they are swimming in the water.
The recognition stage is an integral part of perception as it allows us to understand the world around us. By categorizing objects, we can understand and respond to the world around us.
Action
The last stage of the perception process involves some kind of action in response to an environmental stimulus - we can turn our head in order to more conveniently look at the ducks, or, conversely, turn away from them to look at something else. This can be either a small action (for example, blinking in response to dust brought by the wind) or a whole series (for example, several actions aimed at helping a person in trouble).
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, B. Russell and others). The interpretation of sensations as elementary “building blocks” of the psyche has become particularly widespread in associative psychology. Philosophical criticism of the thesis about the possibility of constructing perception from sensations or sensory data was carried out, in particular, by G. Ryle and M. Merleau-Ponty. In the psychology of the 20th century, there was a rejection of the interpretation of perception as a combination of atomic sensory contents (sensations); perception began to be understood as holistic and structural. According to modern psychologist J. Gibson, perception is an active process of extracting information about the world around us, including actual actions of examining what is perceived. Perception understood in this way presents to the subject those properties outside world, which correlate with the needs of the subject and express the possibilities of his activities in a given real situation. According to W. Neisser, information is extracted based on the subject’s existing schemas of various objects and the world as a whole. Most of these schemas are acquired through experience, but there are also initial schemas that are innate. Similar ideas were also expressed by representatives of cognitive psychology, who believe that perception is the process of categorizing what is perceived, that is, assigning perceived objects to a particular class (category) of objects, starting with categories such as a table or a tree, and ending with such as subject, causality and so on. Some of these categories are a product of experience, others are innate.
Some psychologists continue to consider perception as a synthesis of sensations, while sensations are interpreted as subjective experiences of strength, quality, localization and other characteristics of the impact of stimuli on the senses arising as a result of direct sensory cognition.
Levels of perception[ | ]
There are four operations or four levels of perception: detection, discrimination, identification And identification. The first two relate to perceptual, the latter to identification actions.
Detection- the initial phase of development of any sensory process. At this stage, the subject can only answer the simple question of whether there is a stimulus. The next perception operation is discrimination, or perception itself. Its final result is the formation of a perceptual image of the standard. In this case, the development of perception proceeds along the line of identifying specific sensory content in accordance with the characteristics of the presented material and the task facing the subject.
When the perceptual image is formed, an identification action can be carried out. Comparison and identification are required for identification.
Identification is the identification of a directly perceived object with an image stored in memory, or the identification of two simultaneously perceived objects. Identification also includes categorization (assigning an object to a certain class of objects previously perceived) and retrieving the corresponding standard from memory.
Properties of perception[ | ]
- Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.
- Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.
- Apperception - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.
- distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.
- Selectivity is the preferential selection of some objects over others.
- Meaningfulness - an object is consciously perceived, mentally named (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class.
- Selection - selection from the flow of information of an object of perception
- An organization - an object is identified by a set of characteristics
- Categorization and assignment to an object of properties of objects of this class
Constancy of perception[ | ]
Constancy - constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes, the ability to recognize the same object based on differing sensory information (sensations). An object perceived in different circumstances and conditions is considered as one and the same. Thus, the brightness of an object, as a quantity characterizing reflected light, changes if you move it from a dimly lit room to a room with good lighting. Nevertheless, when the proximal stimulus information changes, the object is considered to be the same in both cases. We can highlight the constancy of such object properties as size, shape, brightness, color. The constancy of shape perception is studied using a setup, the main elements of which are a standard square (with a side of 10 cm) and a measuring rectangle (10 cm wide). The standard square in the experiment is always inclined towards the observer, and the plane of the measuring rectangle should be perpendicular to the axis of vision of the subject. The height of the measuring rectangle can be changed by the subject using a special button. The subject is asked to select the height of the measuring rectangle so that it has the same visible shape as the tilted standard square. In the experiment, the inclination of the standard square is varied (25°, 30°, 35° and 40°). For each standard inclination value, the subject adjusts the height of the meter four times. This provides data for calculating the coefficient of constancy.
The constancy of perception is measured by the constancy coefficient according to the Brunswick-Thouless formula:
K = V − P R − P (\displaystyle K=(\frac (V-P)(R-P)))Where V (\displaystyle V)- the height of the rectangular meter, which was installed by the subject in an effort to equalize the visible shapes of the meter and the standard, R (\displaystyle R)- height of the standard square, P = R ⋅ cos α (\displaystyle P=R\cdot \cos \alpha ), Where α (\displaystyle \alpha )- angle of inclination of the standard square.
The constancy of shape perception in experiments with visual field inversion using an invertoscope drops to zero, and during the adaptation process it is restored, reaching the pre-experimental level. Experiments with inversion of the human visual field are carried out to study the mechanisms of constancy of visual perception.
One explanation for the constancy of perception is based on the distinction between perception and sensitivity (sensation). Perception of the actual properties of objects is a subjective mental process that connects sensations (sensory experience) of the properties of an object with other stimulus information.
Thus, the property of the size of an object is associated with the distance to the object, the brightness of the object is associated with illumination. A subjective mental process of perception that allows a person to recognize an object as the same even if it is located at different distances from it (the object in this case has a different angular size - if it is at a large distance - a small angular size, if at a small distance - a large angular size size) in some cases is accompanied by “regression to actual objects.” An example of regression to real objects as a consequence of constancy of perception is optical illusions. Thus, the Ponzo illusion shows how the regression carried out by perception to real objects that are located in the three-dimensional world, in the case of a two-dimensional object - a drawing - makes a person perceive a horizontal segment at the converging ends of vertical lines as longer than a segment located at the divergent ends of the same vertical lines, as if the latter is located “closer” to the observer.
Perception factors[ | ]
External [ | ]
- size
- intensity (physical or emotional)
- contrast (contradiction with the surroundings)
- movement
- repeatability
- novelty and recognition
Domestic [ | ]
- stereotypy of perception, set of perception: expectation to see what should be seen based on past experience
- needs and motivation: a person sees what he needs or what he considers important
- experience: a person perceives that aspect of a stimulus that has been taught by past experience
- self-concept: the perception of the world is grouped around the perception of oneself
- Personal characteristics: optimists see the world and events in a positive light, pessimists, on the contrary, in an unfavorable one
- resonance principle - what corresponds to the needs and values of the individual is perceived faster than what does not correspond
- principle of protection - something that opposes a person’s expectations is perceived worse
- principle of alertness - what threatens a person’s psyche is recognized faster than others
Forms and principles of perception[ | ]
- Figure - background - perception distinguishes the figure from the background.
- Constancy - objects long time are perceived equally.
- Grouping - similar stimuli are grouped into structures.
- Proximity - things located nearby are perceived together.
- Similarity - similar in some respects is perceived together.
- Closedness - a person tends to fill in the gaps in the figure.
- Integrity - a person tends to see continuous forms rather than complex combinations.
- Contiguity - what is close in time and space is perceived as one.
- Common zone - stimuli identified in one zone are perceived as a group.
Result of perception[ | ]
The result of the perception process is a constructed image.
Image - subjective vision of the real world, perceived through the senses.
Having received the image, a person (or another subject) produces definition of the situation, that is, evaluates it, and then makes a decision about his behavior.
Perception in animal psychology[ | ]
Perception is inherent mainly in higher living beings; in weak forms, allowing us to speak only about the rudiments of perception, something similar can be found in creatures of the middle stages of evolution.
The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.
The maximum number of people with whom a person is able to comfortably interact and perceive on a regular basis is called Dunbar's number. This number ranges from 100 to 230, most often considered to be 150. According to R. Dunbar, this number is linearly related to the size of the neocortex.
Effects of perception[ | ]
Social perception is characterized by certain special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracy, called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.
- Effects of stereotyping:
- Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown traits.
- Sequence Effects:
- The primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the subsequent one.
- The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given more importance than all the information received about him earlier.
- Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personal characteristic.
- The effect of presence - what better person owns something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
- Advance effect - the absence of previously attributed non-existent advantages leads to disappointment.
- The effect of leniency - the leader exaggerates the positive traits of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a permissive and, to some extent, democratic style).
- The effect of hyper-demandingness - the manager hypertrophies negative traits subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for a leader of an authoritarian style).
- The effect of physiognomic reduction - a conclusion about the presence psychological characteristics done on the basis of physical appearance.
- Beauty effect - a more attractive person is assigned more positive traits.
- The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
- In-group favoritism - “insiders” seem better.
- The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - over time there is a tendency towards the opposite of in-group favoritism.
- Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the “other” treats him the way he treats the “other”.
- The phenomenon of assumption of similarity - a person believes that “his own people” treat other people the same way as he does.
- Projection effect - a person assumes that others have the same qualities as him.
- The phenomenon of ignoring the information value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.
Attribution [ | ]
Attribution - attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.
Impression [ | ]
Impression- an opinion, an assessment formed after meeting or coming into contact with someone or something.
Forming an impression[ | ]
Forming an impression - the process of creating one's impressions of others.
The impressions are:
- Behavior patterns
- Abstractions
Impression management[ | ]
Impression management - behavior aimed at forming and controlling other people's impressions of oneself.
Impression management tactics:
- Strengthening your own position
- Strengthening the interlocutor's position
- Presenting your interlocutor in the best light
- Agree with the opinion of the interlocutor.
- Self-presentation
- Combination 1-3
- Provision of services
Physiology of perception[ | ]
A person’s perception of the world is carried out through his sensory systems, while a flow of information is processed, the speed of which is about 11 million bits per second.
Perceptions arise as a result of processing sensory information from which semantic, pragmatic and other information is extracted (formed). If the formed perceptions (semantic contents) are not strong enough to reach consciousness (the so-called subliminal (subliminal) perceptions), they can be stored in the personal unconscious, from which they can later be extracted into the area of consciousness, for example, using hypnosis
Visual perception of the world[ | ]
Visual perception of the world is carried out through the visual system, and although the visual picture of the world seems integral, it is assembled from the results nervous activity several dozen interacting brain regions specialized to implement specific aspects of vision. By 2000, more than 30 areas of the cerebral cortex were identified that are connected to the eyes through visual area V1 and perform specific functions for processing visual information. When forming a visual picture of the world, the human visual system processes an information flow of 10 million bits per second.
Perception of visual and spatial information[ | ]
Visual and spatial information is isolated from visual information located in sensory iconic memory (see memory), recognition systems - “what” (along the ventral path) and localization - “where” (along the dorsal path) semantic information is revealed: visual about the properties of objects (about the shape, color and distribution of objects) and spatial (about the location and movement of objects).
Face perception [ | ]
From birth, babies are interested in human faces, but have a very rough model of the face and therefore look at almost any round object that has two “eyes” and a “mouth” and is located at a distance of approximately 20 cm. By four or five months, children begin to confidently distinguish faces from other objects. This is likely related to the development of the fusiform (fusiform) gyrus, a region on the border between the occipital and temporal lobes, the ventral surface of which is specialized for face recognition. Apparently, activation of the fusiform gyrus occurs already in two-month-old infants. When this area is damaged, prosopagnosia occurs, a disorder of facial perception in which the ability to recognize faces is lost.
Processing and perception of visual information about a face is carried out by a distributed system consisting of several areas of the brain. The core of this system consists of: an area in the inferior occipital gyrus (OFA), providing initial analysis individual parts of the face; an area in the fusiform gyrus (FFA) that analyzes invariant facial characteristics and provides recognition of a person by face; an area in the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) that is activated during the analysis of variable aspects - facial expression, lip movements during speech and gaze direction. In the extended system, further analysis of the direction of gaze (interparietal sulcus - IPS), semantics (inferior frontal gyrus - IFG, anterior temporal cortex - ATC), emotional component (amygdala - Amy, insular cortex - Ins), biographical (precuneus - PreCun, posterior cingulate gyrus - pCiG) and other information. Associated with object perception, the lateral occipital cortex (LOC) may be involved in early analysis of facial image structure. At the same time, the identification of various aspects of visual information about a face is carried out not by the autonomous work of individual areas of the brain that implement specific functions, but by their interconnected coordinated work.
Not all information associated with the perception of faces can reach consciousness. Thus, studies conducted in 2004 and 2006 showed that in patients who were exposed to scared faces representatives of other races, there was an increase in activity of the amygdala, while information about the emotions of the faces in the shown pictures did not reach the level of consciousness.
Speech perception [ | ]
Mastering and understanding written and oral speech carried out by a part of the cerebral cortex called Wernicke's area. [ ] One of the most popular models of natural human text reading is average speed by whole words is the E-Z Reader, developed based on the principles of cognitive psychology. [ ]
Direct perception of mathematical properties and relationships[ | ]
The perception of people and higher animals includes the function of directly determining various mathematical properties and relationships, including quantitative ones.
Humans and animals have a direct perception of multiplicity, allowing them to almost instantly compare the sizes of different groups of objects, just as infants have the ability to determine the ratio of the sizes of groups without calculations when the number of objects in them is 1:2. Adults can define more complex 7:8 ratios. Another universal perceptual ability is subitization, the ability to instantly determine the number of objects in small groups (up to four).
fMRI studies show that quantitative values activate areas located in the frontal and posterior parietal lobes of the brain. One of the key places is the intraparietal sulcus, where the semantic meaning of numbers is represented. In people suffering from dyscalculia - the inability to learn arithmetic, this part of the brain is smaller than in healthy people, and not active enough.
There is an assumption that in the brain the image of a set of numbers is represented as a straight line, the points of which correspond to numbers in ascending order. Because of this, the response time of "which number is greater" for close numbers (such as 7 and 8) takes longer than for those whose difference is large (8 and 2).
There is information that some reindeer herders can instantly determine the loss of several heads in one and a half to two thousand reindeer herds. However, they did not have the skills to count large quantities.
The first systematic studies of the development of direct perception of mathematical characteristics, as part of the study of the development of general cognitive abilities of children, were carried out by the French psychologist Piaget.
see also [ | ]
Notes [ | ]
- Soltani, A. A., Huang, H., Wu, J., Kulkarni, T. D., & Tenenbaum, J. B. Synthesizing 3D Shapes via Modeling Multi-View Depth Maps and Silhouettes With Deep Generative Networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (pp. 1511–1519). (undefined) .
18. Perception, its types, properties of perception. Perception of space and movement. Perception as a process of constructing a perceptual image.
Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, events that arises under the influence of adequate physical. irritants to the senses. The active process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information.
Feeling- this is a psycho. reflection of isolated properties of objects of the objective world, arising from their direct impact on the senses. Innate, does not require learning.
The transition from sensation to perception requires lifelong learning.
For the development of perception, it is not enough just to have adequate stimulation; activity itself is necessary.
Scheme– a way of organizing new information in accordance with existing information. (building an image)
- Neisser: diagram as the basic principle of organizing the flow of information. – is an active organizer of experience that prepares the subject to accept information of a strictly defined type.
Neisser proposed the perceptual cycle model, which explains how we use schemas in perception. A model includes: a schema that guides exploration, which selects an object that modifies the schema. (closed triangle).
- Scheme- this is that part of the perceptual cycle that is internal to the perceiver, it is modified by experience and is specific to what is perceived. It is formed and developed as experience accumulates.
Perception is cyclical – we select incoming information based on the predictions of our existing schemas, and then change the schemas in accordance with the incoming information.
Property:
Constancy of perception – records the fact of the relative constancy of the perceived properties of objects in a wide range of changes in the conditions of perception.
Constancy of size, shape, color.
Helmholtz (explanation of constancy) - “the theory of unconscious inferences” - the perception system makes lightning-fast automatic calculations based on the constancy of the ratio of the size of the image on the retina and the distance to it.
Perception is a system of perceptual actions aimed at becoming familiar with objects and phenomena affecting the senses.
The process of constructing perceptual images is as follows:
structuring chaotic stimulation flows
Identification of the most characteristic features for it;
Object identification, i.e. assigning it to a certain category of things or phenomena, classification.
standard hypothesis – correlation with a standard, ideal. but this is extremely uneconomical.
trait hypothesis - each character is encoded using combinations of the simplest details - standards and key connections between them. More economical.
Categorical recognition is a type of perception when objects are recognized as belonging to different categories, and the possibility of their gradation within one category is excluded. (for example, we cannot evaluate some sound between “b” and “p”.)
prototype hypothesis - prototype = “main idea” of a particular object, does not have clearly fixed boundaries, assignment to a particular category depends on the context. Complements the trait hypothesis.
Perception of space:
Moving objects are of biological interest to humans.
A change in the location of a stimulus with similar characteristics on the retina is clearly interpreted by the brain as movement.
The phenomenon of apparent motion (Wertheimer) is a circle with 2 slits at a distance of 30 degrees. A beam of light was passed alternately through them. When the interval between illumination of slots 1 and 2 was about 60 ms, the test subject had the impression that the luminous strip was moving clockwise.
The phenomenon of binocular parallax is a physiological difference between the visual axes of the two eyes. Based on it, the brain directly estimates the distance to the object.
The phenomenon of monocular parallax: It is possible to make a judgment about the depth and size of an object based on data from only one eye - monocular distance cues: relative size, interposition, relative clarity, brightness, texture gradient, etc.
Interposition - if the image of one object partially overlaps another, we perceive it as being closer.
Relates. clarity and brightness - light reflected by a distant object is scattered more strongly, unclear objects seem to us to be located further away.
Texture Gradient: We evaluate the change from large, distinct objects to smaller, more closely spaced objects as a signal of increasing distance.
Relative motion (motor parallax) - we perceive not just the movement of isolated objects in space, but also a change in their relative position.
Recognition of integral objects using groups of stimuli - principles of organizing the phenomenal field:
proximity principle - elements that are close to each other in space or time appear to be grouped together.
principle of continuity - there is a tendency to follow in a direction that allows elements to be connected into a continuous sequence (for example, columns of dots or lines)
principle of similarity - similar elements are perceived together, forming closed rows
closure principle – the tendency to complete unfinished items and fill gaps.
the principle of simplicity is the organization of stimuli in such a way that the resulting figure is as symmetrical, simple, and stable as possible.
the principle of isolating a figure from the background - the tendency to divide the visual field into an object and a background. The object (figure) appears brighter.
Motion perception. This is a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects. The periphery of vision is capable of perceiving movement. Accurate estimation of the speed of movement of an object in the field of view is possible only with the participation of versional (tracking) eye movements. When the eyes are stationary, the perception of the movement of an object in the visual field is overestimated by 1.5 - 2 times (Aubert-Fleisch phenomenon).
Other types of perception:
Haptic is a channel for the perception of information formed by a combination of cutaneous and kinesthetic stimulation. (pressure, cold, pain, etc.)
Extrasensory perception is perception that occurs independently of known sensory processes. (telepathy, prediction)
Auditory perception - frequency, loudness,
Taste perception – 4 basic taste sensations – bitter, sweet, salty, sour.
Visual perception – brightness, color, contour, shape. This especially includes the hypotheses of the standard, traits, prototype and principles of organization of the phenomenal field.
Perception- direct sensory reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their identifying characteristics.
Cognizing the surrounding reality and interacting with it, we encounter the objective world. Objects are identified by us by the totality of their characteristic features. Images of perception are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to a simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, situations, with their attribution to a certain category, type, class. Only by including a phenomenon in a certain system of categories, covering it with the appropriate concept, can we evaluate and interpret its individual parts and elements. Even when considering ordinary points, monotonous elements, we strive for their compositional organization (Fig. 1, 2).
Being a sensory stage of cognition, perception is inextricably linked with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response.
Seeing means relating perceived visual signals to one of the hypotheses existing in the brain's stores. If two different hypotheses can “work”, then the brain chooses between them - and then we see either a duck or a rabbit (Fig. 3); an Eskimo standing with his back to us at the entrance to the cave, or an Indian turning in profile (Fig. 4).
Being associated with the process of identification, perception includes processes of comparison, correlating a given object with standard standards stored in memory. Well-known objects are perceived on a stereotypical basis, quickly and confidently. (How easily literate people recognize letters and how difficult it is to recognize them at the first stages of learning.) During the process of ontogenesis, perceptual learning occurs.
People selectively see what they are used to seeing. Familiar objects are perceived simultaneously (simultaneously), while little-familiar objects are perceived in a structurally unfolded, step-by-step manner (successively). In the latter case, a hypothesis is first put forward about the essence of the object, a decision is made on its categorization, nominalization, and then its characteristics are critically assessed.
The mental development of a person is associated with the development of a culture of perception - educated, aesthetically developed person able to enjoy the grace of form, color and sound harmony of objects and environmental phenomena.
Rice. 5. Recording eye movements ( oculogram) when perceiving an object. The most informative points of the contour are recorded, the visual route is structurally organized.
The process of perception is perceptual action. Its effectiveness depends on what features of the object will be identified by the subject as the initial supporting elements.
The most important component of each type of perception are motor processes: movement of the eye along the contour of an object, movement of the hand along the surface of the object, movement of the larynx, reproducing audible sound(Fig. 5).
Neurophysiological basis of perception.
The physiological mechanism of perception is the complex analytical-synthetic activity of analyzers - the formation of complex conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli.
In the human visual apparatus, two systems interact. One of them selects individual fragments in an object, the other composes a complete image from established sub-images (Fig. 6).
Possible incompleteness of the complete image is filled with textures stored in memory. Therefore, we see contours even where they are not drawn, but only possible.
To recognize a situation, the brain stores ready-made generalized schemes ( frames- “skeletons”). Initially grasping the situation, we then strive to fill the cells of the emerging frame - and our eyes look for the corresponding detail.
Perception is an active process of forming an image of an object. This activity is already manifested at the receptor level. Three pairs of extrinsic muscles of each eye carry out continuous eye movement. Some of them transfer the peripheral image of an object to the center of the retina, where visual acuity is highest, others provide tracking of moving objects. The perception of an object is carried out by “palpating” eye movements: fast and large-amplitude ( saccadic) movements, smaller translational and reciprocating movements ( tremor) with a frequency from 20 to 150 Hz and an amplitude of 5-15′ arc. min, and drift— slow movements at a speed of 6′ arc. min/sec and amplitude up to 30′ arc. min, preventing the development of local adaptation. Eye movements scan the shape and those key elements of the object of perception that are essential in constructing a visual image.
In the formation of a perceptual image, the left and right hemispheres of the brain perform different functions. The sensory side of perception is served by the right, and the categorical side by the left hemisphere of the brain.
Classification of perception phenomena.
Depending on the participation of the will, the purposefulness of perception is divided into two forms: involuntary (unintentional, not associated with volitional tension and a pre-set goal) and voluntary, intentional (purposeful).
Depending on the modality of the receptors they differ visual, auditory and tactile perception.
They also differ complex species perception: perception of space And time perception.
Depending on the complexity, development, and perceptual activity, perception differs between simultaneous (one-act) and successive (stage-by-stage, sequential).
There are also three levels of perception:
1) sensory- sensory embrace of an object, its entry into the field of consciousness;
2) perceptual— comprehension of an object, assigning it to a certain category, class of objects;
3) operational— activity scope of the object.
Perceptions can also be classified depending on the specifics of the object of reflection (perception works of art, speeches, etc.). Perception is usually included in some activity, but can also act as an independent activity.
Rice. 7. The tendency of consciousness to make an object meaningful is so great that we even “see” non-existent boundaries between the triangle and the background. The incompleteness of the complete image is filled with textures stored in memory.
Systematic, specially organized perception to resolve any issue is called observation.
General patterns of perception.
Different types of perception have specific patterns. But in addition to intraspecific ones, there are general patterns of perception: 1) meaningfulness and generality; 2) objectivity; 3) integrity; 4) structure; 5) selective focus; 6) apperception; 7) constancy.
1. Meaningfulness and generality of perception. By perceiving objects and phenomena, we realize and understand what is perceived.
Perception is related to attribution of this subject to a certain category, concept, with its designation in a word. (It is no coincidence that children, when encountering unfamiliar objects, always ask for their name.) The categorical correlation of perceived objects organizes the entire process of perception, its adequacy and direction. Only by determining the category of the perceived object will you recognize all its characteristics.
Perception largely depends on the purpose and objectives of the activity. In an object, those aspects of it that correspond to the given task come to the fore.
Rice. 10. The perception of a fragment of an object is facilitated by its inclusion in the context of the situation. In the upper rectangle, the letters are not recognizable by their fragments. In the lower rectangle, the letters are easy to read due to the situational context.
Rice. 9. These scattered spots are combined into a single visual image, if you turn the image 180º, you will understand its meaning.
Thanks to the meaningfulness and generality of perception, we conjecture and complete the image of an object from its individual fragments (Fig. 7 and 8).
The simplest form of understanding objects and phenomena is recognition. Here perception is closely related to memory. To recognize an object means to perceive it in relation to a previously formed image.
Recognition may be generalized when the subject relates to any general category(for example, “this is a table”, “this is a tree”, etc.), and differentiated(specific), when the perceived object is identified with a previously perceived single object. This is a higher level of recognition. For this kind of recognition, it is necessary to identify features specific to a given object, its signs.
Recognition is characterized by certainty, accuracy and speed. When recognizing, a person does not identify all the features of an object, but uses its characteristic identifying features. (So, we recognize a steamer from a distance by the presence of a pipe and do not confuse it with a boat.)
Recognition becomes difficult when there are insufficient identification features. The minimum of features necessary to identify an object is called threshold of perception.
Rice. 11. The integrity of perception is violated if the individual elements of the object are excessively scattered. Thus, when a newspaper photograph is enlarged tenfold, the raster dots of a typographic cliche do not merge into a complete image (when the image is removed by 1 m, the integrity of perception is restored).
2. Objectivity of perception. A person recognizes mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, taking the images outside, objectifying them. Objectivity- the attribution of brain information about objects to real objects. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality, “objectivity” of the image.
3. Integrity of perception. In objects and phenomena of reality, their individual signs and properties are in a constant, stable relationship. In perception, as in the mental image of an object, these stable connections between the components of an object or phenomenon, which is expressed in the integrity of perception.
Even in cases where we do not perceive some features of a familiar object, we mentally supplement them. We strive to combine the individual parts of the object into a single holistic formation familiar to us (Fig. 9, 10, 11).
Thus, the integrity of perception is a reflection of an object as a stable systemic integrity (even if its individual parts are not observed under given conditions). The integrity of perception is violated if the object cannot be comprehended (Fig. 12).
4. Structurality of perception. We recognize various objects thanks to the stable structure of their features. In the process of perception, the relationships between the parts and sides of an object are identified. Awareness of perception is inextricably linked with the reflection of stable relationships between the elements of the perceived object (Fig. 12 and 13).
In cases where identifying the structure of an object is difficult, the perception of the object as a whole becomes difficult.
5. Selective focus of perception. From the countless number of objects and phenomena surrounding us, we single out this moment just a few of them. It depends on what a person’s activity is aimed at, on his needs and interests.
Selectivity of perception - preferential selection of an object from the background. In this case, the background serves as a reference system against which the spatial and color qualities of the figure are assessed.
Rice. 14. In the figure on the left, two vertical sectors are predominantly distinguished, and on the right, horizontal sectors.
The object stands out from the background along its contour. Contour is contrast. We perceive a contour due to a “jump” in brightness or color. The sharper and more contrasting the outline of an object, the easier it is to highlight it. Conversely, if the contours of the object are blurred, inscribed in the lines of the background, the object is difficult to distinguish. (This phenomenon underlies camouflage.)
Selectivity of perception is accompanied by centralization of perception - a subjective expansion of the zone of focus of attention and compression of the peripheral zone. When objects are equivalent, the central object and the larger object are predominantly highlighted (Fig. 15, 16).
Objects located along the vertical and horizontal axes are subject to priority selection (Fig. 14).
Rice. Fig. 18. Distribution of visual fixation points on a square panel when perceiving homogeneous material.
If the object and the background are equivalent, then they can transform into each other (the background becomes the object, and the object becomes the background (Fig. 17).
However, even when perceiving homogeneous material, attention is distributed unevenly (Fig. 18).
6. Apperception(from lat. ad- to and perceptio- perception) - the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. Looking at a burning fire from afar, we do not feel its warmth, but this quality is included in the perception of the fire. In our experience, fire and warmth entered into a strong connection. By looking at a frozen window, we also add to our visual perception the temperature sensations gleaned from past experience. Depending on past experience, knowledge, and professional orientation, a person selectively perceives their various aspects (Fig. 19).
Apperception can be personal and situational (at night in the forest a stump can be perceived as the figure of a dangerous animal).
7. Constancy of perception. The same familiar objects are consistently perceived by us in changing conditions: under different illumination, with different points view, different distances. Constancy of perception(from Latin constantis - constant) - independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception - illumination, distance, angle of view.
The image of the size of an object on the retina of the eye when it is perceived from close and far distances will be different. However, we interpret this as the distance or proximity of the object, and not as a change in its size (Fig. 20, 21).
Rice. 20. Constancy of perception. Of two objects of equal size, the more distant one produces a smaller image on the retina. However, this does not affect the adequate assessment of their actual value. At the same time, the brain takes into account information about the accommodation of the lens (the closer the object, the more curved the surface of the lens), about the convergence of the visual axes (the convergence of the visual axes of the two eyes) and about the tension of the eye muscles.
When perceiving a rectangular object (a folder, a sheet of paper) from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, or even a straight line may appear on the retina of the eye. However, in all cases we retain the inherent form of this object. A white sheet of paper, regardless of its illumination, will be perceived as a white sheet, just as a piece of anthracite will be perceived with its inherent color quality, regardless of lighting conditions.
Constancy of perception is not a hereditary quality; it is formed through experience and the learning process. Pilots of supersonic aircraft at first interpret the very rapid approach of an object as its increase in size, and a temporary lack of constancy arises. Non-constancy can arise when perceiving relief in photographs and drawings (Fig. 22).
Non-constancy(from lat. illudere- to deceive) - an illusion of perception, distortion in the perception of objects. The most common visual illusions. They arise for a number of reasons. Illusion of irradiation, in which light objects appear larger than equal dark objects, is associated with the irradiation of excitation in the retina (Fig. 23).
The perceived size of figures depends on their objective environment. Yes, thanks illusions of contrast objects of the same size will appear different in size if one of them is surrounded by large objects, and the other is surrounded by smaller objects (Ebbinghaus illusion - Fig. 24, 25).
In the Müller-Lyer illusion, two identical lines ending in differently oriented angles appear to be unequal in length. Due to the large difference between two adjacent parts of identical objects, one of them appears large (Fig. 26).
Rice. 25. Identical figures on a smaller zero appear larger.
Rice. 24. Illusion of contrast. The inner circle on the left appears larger than the inner circle on the right. In reality they are equal (Ebbinghaus illusion).
Vertical lines are overestimated compared to horizontal ones (Figure 27). Parallel lines appear non-parallel under the influence of the lines intersecting them (Zellner illusion - Fig. 28). Segments of a straight line intersecting two vertical rectangles are perceived as segments located at different levels (Pogendorff illusion - Fig. 29). Due to the overestimation of the size of acute angles, a circle with a square inscribed in it seems to be bent at the corners of the square (Fig. 30.)
Both receptor mechanisms and the functioning of the central nervous system are involved in the emergence of illusions. nervous system. Some visual illusions are caused by the optical properties of the eye.
Not only visual illusions are subject to illusions, but also other types of perception So, if you hold in your hands two equal in weight and appearance, but different in volume of the object (for example, large and smaller balls, but not in weight), then the smaller object is perceived as heavier (Charpentier illusion). This is explained by our general experience - the larger the object, the greater its weight.
If, by crossing the index and thumb, we touch a ball or a pencil, placing these objects in the resulting crosshair, then we will feel a double touch (Aristotle’s illusion). This is explained by the fact that the receptive fields of opposite fingers usually touch different objects.
Contrast illusions are common not only in the field of visual perception, but also in the field of auditory, gustatory, tactile, temperature and kinesthetic sensations. Thus, the contrast illusion of kinesthetic sensitivity arises after repeated perception of objects that differ in weight and volume - the subsequent presentation of objects equal in the same respects is perceived illusory: the object located in the place of a previously presented smaller object seems larger and heavier (Uznadze’s installation experiments) .
In some cases, visual illusions may be the cause of inappropriate actions. For example, when entering the tunnel on Triumfalnaya Square (formerly Mayakovsky Square) in Moscow, cars often drove into oncoming traffic. Expert psychologists found that the advertising light, then located on the building of the Sofia restaurant, fell in such a way that it created the illusion of a displacement of the entrance to the tunnel. After the billboard was replaced, traffic violations stopped.
Illusions are recognized thanks to our psychological knowledge. They are not only “pests” of our perception, but also a factor ensuring the adequacy of conventional images. Thanks to illusions, we translate two-dimensional images of artistic paintings into three-dimensional spatial representations, and we interpret images of different sizes as the same, if the accompanying circumstances are taken into account.
Features of the perception of space and time.
Space and time are universal forms of existence of matter. The perception of space and time reflects objective spatiotemporal relationships between objects.
Perception of spatial qualities of an object consists of the perception of size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects and their movement. The size and shape of objects are perceived as a result of a combination of visual, tactile and kinesthetic (muscular-motor) sensations in human experience.
One of the factors of spatial perception is the binary nature of the senses and the symmetry of the human body. Perceiving the spatial features of objects, their location in space, a person proceeds from the normal position of his body, perpendicular to the plane earth, the data of the equilibrium apparatus are taken into account.
Shape perception- a complex perceptual process. In him great importance have rapid, jerky eye movements. In this case, optical data is processed by the brain in combination with data from the oculomotor muscles - the eye, as it were, feels the object.
Rice. 35. Constancy in the perception of relief images. Flip the pattern 180º - small protrusions will be perceived as indentations, and large indentations as protrusions. This depends on the subconscious interpretation of the direction of light, usually moving towards the observer.
The process of visual perception has a certain stage - microgenesis. At the first stage (30 - 50 ms), the spatial position, distance and size of the visual stimulus (object) are assessed. When perceiving a moving object, it takes from 50 to 140 ms to determine the parameters of its movement. Next, the specification of the shape of the perceived object is carried out.
The entire process of formation of a stable spatially localized visual image is completed 300 ms after the presentation of the stimulus.
The eye, in the words of I.M. Sechenov, functions as a measuring device. When perceiving a flat form, a clear distinction of the outlines of an object, its contour, is essential. When perceiving a three-dimensional form, the main role is played by depth vision. The closer the object is, the more intense the depth vision. Thus, the shape of a cube appears more elongated up close, and flattened at a distance. Tunnels, alleys and similar extended objects, when viewed from a distance, seem shorter than when perceived at close range.
When perceiving the shape of an object, its interaction with the background is essential.(from the French fon - bottom, base). In visual perception, the background serves as the basis for a frame of reference—the color and spatial characteristics of an object are evaluated in relation to the background. The background provides information about the situation of perception and ensures the constancy of perception.
Rice. 37. Vase of Ruby. In this figure, one perceives alternately the image of a vase on a black background, then two profiles on a white background. However, if one of the objects becomes the subject of active research, then it will also become a stable object of perception.
Rice. 36. And in this picture only the central figure is consistently perceived. Why?
In situations of equivalence between the object and the background, figure duality effect. In this case, periodic fluctuations in attention occur—its fluctuation occurs (Fig. 36, 37).
Clarity of perception is facilitated by the sharp delineation of the contour of the object. The process of its perception begins with the difference in the contour of an object. Only after this does its shape and structure differ.
Relief and volume of objects, depth of space are perceived due to the fact that their image falls on non-coinciding (disparate) points of the retina of two eyes - in this case, the image in the retinas of both eyes does not completely coincide and, as a result, stereoscopic effect
Remoteness of objects is also perceived due to binocular vision. The perception of the distance of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina, but also on the strength of the tension of the eye muscles and the curvature of the lens. When viewing distant objects, the lens becomes flat. This change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the objects in question is called accommodation. But accommodation provides information about the distance of objects only within a range of up to 6 m. If objects are located at a greater distance, then information about their distance comes to the brain from the relative position of the visual axes (Fig. 38).
Rice. 39. Stereoscopic visual perception. Relief, volume, depth are reflected thanks to binocular vision - vision with two eyes. At the top is the perception of an object with one left and one right eye. Below is an object visible with both eyes.
Rice. 38. Reflection of the depth of space, the distance of the object. To assess the distance of objects, information is used about the state of the lens of the eye (the phenomenon of accommodation), the magnitude of the angle of convergence of the visual axes, the tension of the eye muscles, the overlap of some objects by others, data on linear and aerial perspective.
For the perception of the distance of objects, not only the accommodation of the lens and the relative position of the visual axes are essential, but also linear and aerial perspective. The receding lines seem to converge at the horizon. Linear perspective is enhanced by the weakening of the difference between light and shadow, the loss of individual small details. Aerial perspective consists of a slight change in the color of objects under the influence of the bluish tint of the air. Spatial perspective is also determined by the density gradient of the texture of objects (Fig. 40).
Space depth detection is limited deep vision threshold
Essential for the perception of the distance of objects is the comparison of their size with the known size of other objects. It has special meaning in cases where objects are more than 450 m away (the maximum distance about which information is received as a result of the relative position of the visual axes). The distance from which objects are identified is called spatial discrimination threshold(see tables below).
Rice. 40. The depth of an object is determined by the density gradient of its texture.
Spatial thresholds of perception of individual
objects:
Rice. 41. The threshold of depth vision is the minimum difference in the distance of two objects perceived by the observer. The depth vision threshold is expressed quantitatively by the difference in the corresponding parallactic angles. For most people, the Depth Vision Threshold is 5* (five seconds of arc).
Spatial thresholds for distinguishing elements of human appearance:
The spatial movement of objects, their movement is perceived due to the movement of their image on the retina. The movement of the eye and head is also essential for the perception of movement. When estimating the speed of movement, an adjustment is made for the distance of the moving object. Motion Perception Threshold equals 5 ang. min/sec, which corresponds to the maximum speed of movement of the tracking eye. The direction of movement of an object is determined by a change in its position relative to other objects, as well as by the mechanism of paired eyes (Fig. 42).
Rice. 42. Paired work of the eyes is one of the mechanisms that ensures the perception of the direction of movement of objects.
The ability to correctly assess the spatial relationships of objects is called eye. There are static and dynamic eye meters:
Static eye meter - determination of the size of stationary objects, their distance and distances between them by a stationary observer;
Dynamic eye - the ability to determine the relationship between moving objects.
There are significant individual characteristics of the eye.
The ability to see the smallest objects is called visual acuity or resolving power of the eye. Visual acuity is equal to one (it is normal) if a person distinguishes objects with an angular size of 1 minute (people with normal vision distinguish objects 3 cm in size at a distance of 100 m). Visual acuity depends on preliminary familiarization with the object, on its expectation in the field of view, color, contrast between the object and the background, and the duration of the visual stimulus. Visual acuity decreases with increasing angular velocity of an object.
In its genesis, visual perception is associated with touch.
Touch- one of the main sources of our spatial ideas. (At one time it was even believed that the hand taught the eye to see. Subsequently, however, this was refuted by experimental data.) The palpating movements of the hands reproduce the contour of an object, as if taking a cast from it.
There is a distinction between passive and active touch:
Passive touch forms a tactile image of the contour of an object when it is moved on a resting hand;
Active touch is characterized by actively feeling an object.
Bimanual touch—feeling with both hands—optimizes perceptual strategy. In this case, the functions of the hands are separated; the left hand (for right-handed people) performs the function of support and reference.
Perception of time- reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of phenomena. Temporary relationships are reflected by:
chronometry- time countdown, measured using uniform motion objects (clock hands);
chronology— reflections of time in accordance with events common to all (seasons, historical events);
chronognosia— subjective time (subjective experience of the duration of events depending on their significance and emotional coloring).
When assessing time intervals and duration of events, the peculiarities of subjective perception of time should be taken into account. With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, it is overestimated. An understatement of time is always the result of the dominance of excitation over inhibition. The exaggeration of time is associated with the predominance of inhibition, which occurs as a result of exposure to monotonous, insignificant stimuli. Under the same activity conditions, time less than 1 minute is usually exaggerated, and time greater than 5 - 10 minutes is underestimated.
The entire complex of analyzers is involved in time reflection. However, time intervals in to the greatest extent differentiated by kinesthetic and auditory analyzers. Thus, if the intermittency of visual influences differs at intervals between them of up to 1/20 sec, then the intermittency of tactile influences differs at intervals of 1/40 sec, and of sound influences - at intervals of 1/100 sec.
The time period is estimated more accurately when performing movements and when perceiving auditory influences. In this case, an involuntary motor and sound accompaniment arises, activating the process of time perception.
In activities involving the establishment of time intervals, a person achieves a great development of the “sense” of time. The perception of time is disrupted in extreme conditions (stress, affect, frustration), with prolonged sensory deprivation, alcohol and drug intoxication.
Perception, person by person.
Rice. 43. Probability of differences in facial elements at low exposures.
Rice. 44. Probability of the supporting role of facial elements during identification.
As an object of perception, a person has a special social significance. When perceiving a person who is new to himself, the subject identifies in him those features of his appearance, which provide information about it mental and social qualities. Particular attention is paid to posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, voice, speech, behavioral habits, manners, and clothing. One of the first places is occupied by the professional characteristics of a person, his social status and basic moral and communicative qualities: angry, kind, cheerful, withdrawn, sociable, etc. Individual elements, features of the face and head are selectively identified and identified with varying accuracy (Fig. 43 , 44).
Personality characteristics based on her appearance are interpreted in various ways:
emotional — social qualities are attributed to an individual depending on the aesthetic attractiveness of his appearance (an outwardly beautiful person is interpreted as a good person);
analytical- each of the elements of appearance is associated with a specific mental property of a person (compressed lips, frowned eyebrows - an angry person, etc.);
perceptual-associative- a person is attributed the qualities of another person who is externally similar to him;
socially associative- a person is given qualities of a certain social type according to certain characteristic external signs (in glasses and a hat - an intellectual; in an overcoat - a military man).
A generalized image of a person based on external signs influences interaction with that person.
The perception of a person by a person is subject to certain socially formed stereotypes, standards, and standards. The general impression of a person, the idea of his social status are transferred to all particular manifestations of a given personality (““). Initially perceived information about a person may have a dominant meaning (“primacy effect”).
Significant differences in the social status of those communicating give rise to the “social distance effect.” The extreme manifestation of this effect is expressed in disdain and hatred towards representatives of other social groups.
People's assessments and feelings when they perceive each other are multifaceted. But basically they are divided into conjunctive- uniting and disjunctive- disconnecting. Disjunctive feelings are caused by what is condemned in a given environment.
A.A. Bodalev performed the following experiment. Two groups of people were shown the same photograph and asked to describe the person depicted in the photograph. One group was told that they would see a portrait of a hero, while the other group was warned that they would see a picture of a criminal.
It turned out that the subjects were under the influence of the stereotype and attitude in their assessments. Here verbal portrait, given by man, who believed that in front of him was the image of a hero: “A young man of about 25 - 30 years old. A strong-willed, courageous face, with regular facial features. The look is very expressive. His hair is disheveled, unshaven, and his shirt collar is unbuttoned. Apparently, this is the hero of some kind of battle, although he is not wearing a military uniform.”
The subject, who believed that in front of him was a portrait of a criminal, gave the following: verbal description: “This beast wants to understand something. Looks smart and without interruption. Standard chin, bags under the eyes, massive figure, aging, thrown forward..."
Depending on the importance people attach to various features of the external image of a person, they perceive each other differently.
Perception of oral speech.
From a physical point of view, speech is a combination of sounds that varies in frequency and intensity.
Maximum intelligibility of oral speech occurs at a speech intensity of 40 dB. At a speech intensity of 10 dB, speech sounds are not perceived as related words. For satisfactory transmission of speech messages in noise conditions, the sound intensity of speech must be 10 dB higher than the noise level. Speech is especially drowned out by low-frequency noise.
Speech intelligibility increases with visual control of the speakers, the vocabulary of speech that is familiar to listeners, significant intensity of speech, and repetition of complex phrases in their original form.
The optimal speech rate is 70 words per minute; the upper limit is 120 words per minute.
As a socially conditioned phenomenon of speech perception is gnostic process- the process of determining the meaning and meaning of perceived speech structures; this process is characterized by different levels of recognition and discrimination. In the perception of oral speech there are sensory, perceptual and semantic levels.
Depending on the maturity, the process of perceiving oral speech can be successive(expanded) and simultaneous(collapsed).
Perception of oral speech is accompanied by probabilistic prediction. Long words are understood and recognized better than short ones. The volume of the phrase should not exceed 7 ± 2 words. The most significant words should be placed in the first third of the phrase. Based on the beginning of standard phrases, the listener predicts the phrase as a whole. The level and depth of speech prediction depend on the speech culture of the listener.
The semantic perception of a speech message also depends on its situational involvement, logical semantic structure, length and depth of phrases, their communicative significance, the listener’s attitudinal orientation and the level of his mental development.
A person’s perception of the surrounding subject environment.
The environment surrounding a person is perceived by him in its entirety, and not as a set of isolated objects. This environment is considered by a person as a field of his life.
The place of permanent residence acts as a psychological center for a person, an arena of his activity, and a source of certain mental states. (Psychologist William Sheldon even identifies special psychological types of people depending on their mental interaction with the environment. Ectomorphic the type perceives the environment depending on its mood. Mesomorphic the type perceives the environment as an object of mastery - travelers, climbers, entrepreneurs. Endomorphic type perceives the environment as a lyrical object - poets, artists.)
The environment dictates a certain way of behavior for a person, activates and inhibits his motor reactions, and creates a certain mood. The environment around a person evokes an aesthetic reaction and intimate associations.
The aesthetic and organization of the human environment is a sign of culture, civilization, and psychological competence of a society.
Rice. 45. Proportionality of the human body.
Different peoples at different times develop their own aesthetic standards. However, there are also general psychological norms of beauty. What is beautiful is what is harmonious, and what is harmonious is what optimizes the process of perception. The human body itself is beautiful, harmonious and proportionate (Fig. 45).
Greek word harmonia means harmony, proportionality, balance of parts of the whole. The parts of a harmonious object are subdivided, subordinated, and ordered in such a way that they provide a certain focus of attention. An object is convenient for perception if it has a certain functional and structural organization.
In works of art, the proportional relationship of the so-called “ golden ratio“- the smaller part relates to the larger as the larger part relates to the whole (approximately 3:5, 5:8; more precisely - 100:161). The positive effect of incentives in such a ratio was empirically discovered in ancient times. The use of the “golden section” proportion in architecture, sculpture, painting, music (intervals in sound time, the ratio of sounds and heights) promotes the integrity of perception, gives the object harmony (an ordinary box looks beautiful if its dimensions have the ratio of the “golden section”).
A harmonious object is distinguished by the balance of its elements, the optimal distribution of optical masses, the symmetry and rhythm of the arrangement of its parts.
Rhythm is used to avoid monotony and maintain the activity of perception. For this purpose, rhythmic changes are used in the spatial extent of the elements of the object, in the distances between them, the alternation of their tonality, configuration (alternating thickening and thinning, convexity and concavity, etc.).
When perceiving an object, the weight of its parts is subconsciously interpreted. This interpretation depends on the location of the objects' elements in relation to its vertical and horizontal axes. In the center of the composition, the element weighs less (although it has greater significance), and at the edges it weighs more. It is no coincidence that in the paintings of outstanding masters of painting, the figures located in the center are weighted with various visual techniques (heavier color, larger size, etc.). Elements of an object located in its upper part look heavier than those in the lower part. Elements located on the right appear heavier than those located on the left. (Look closely at Raphael’s painting “The Sistine Madonna”. The figure of the monk on the left side of the picture is depicted larger than the figure of the woman on the right side of the picture - this achieves balance in the entire composition.)
The weight interpretation of the elements of an object depends not only on the size, but also on their color. The heaviest are red and other colors in the long-wavelength part of the spectrum.
In the visual system, vertical orientation predominates. The vertical line is the base to which the relative positions of the parts of the object are attached. When an object is positioned vertically, its symmetrical balance is assessed. Depending on the function of the object, it is given different symmetry:
absolute— repetition of elements on the left and right sides;
relative- repetition of only individual homogeneous elements.
Harmonious object- an object whose content is expressed simply. By simplicity of an object we do not mean its primitive simplification, but clear definiteness, conciseness, completeness and clear unity of its elements. This kind of simplicity is the main advantage of a true work of art.
Under simplicity of composition one should not understand the limited variety of its elements. An object with more parts may be simpler than an object with less. (Thus, a square with its four sides is a simpler figure than a triangle. The greater simplicity of a square lies in the equality of its angles and sides, in the equal distance of the sides from the center and their symmetry relative to the horizontal and vertical axes.) The simplicity of an object is determined not so much by its limitations parts, how many limited quantities structural features. The object is simple, concise, if its complex content is covered minimum quantity structural features.
The aesthetic impression of an object is enhanced if it emphasizes the natural color and texture of the materials used. Combining the same colors of different saturations enhances the impression of the plasticity of the object. The color division must correspond to the functional division. It is advisable to combine functionally homogeneous elements with one color. The dismemberment of the object and the contrast of its elements should not complicate the synthetic side of perception.
The harmonious organization of the subject environment means avoiding dullness, dullness, colorlessness and disorder - all that has recently come to be called an aggressive environment.
Human life should be carried out in an aesthetic, functionally organized, ergonomic environment.
Individual differences in perception.
Life experience, knowledge, interests, level of mental development determine the individual characteristics of perception - its completeness and accuracy. Representatives of the synthetic type of perception have greater integrity and emotionality of perception. Representatives of the analytical type show a greater tendency to highlight and explain individual aspects of an object. The most common is the average analytical-synthetic type of perception.
People with insufficient development of differentiation activity are characterized by incomplete and inaccurate perception. It is often supplemented by subjective additions, especially in situations of heightened emotionality. A person’s exposure to rigid stereotypes has a significant impact on perception. Incomplete experience and knowledge lead to fragmented perception, lack of meaningfulness and integrity of perception.
Perceiving objects and phenomena, a person evaluates them. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, analyticalness are expressed in his observation skills- the ability to perceive subtle significant features of phenomena (Fig. 46).
Rice. 46. The ability to observe productively is called observation. In this drawing, the mark on each hand is made by one specific object. Which one?
Perception is otherwise called perception (from the Latin percepcio - I perceive), and the processes of perception are called perceptual processes.
American neurophysiologist J. Pittigrew discovered cortical disparity neurons (from the Latin disparatis - separate). These neurons have two receptive zeros - they are excited only when the image hits both zeros at once. This explains the fact that when perceiving an object with one eye, a stereoscopic effect occurs.
The effect of object movement can also occur if different phases of the object are perceived at short intervals - a stroboscopic effect. Thus, when perceiving a film, when 24 frames with a still image change in one second, the effect of movement occurs.
Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. M., 1989.
This role of the vertical is due to the vertically directed force of gravity constantly acting on all living organisms.
Rice. 5. Main variables influencing individual behavior
Perception ( perception ) – the process of receiving and transforming information that provides a person with an understanding of reality and orientation in the situation. Perception – it is the process of becoming aware of the sensation of what is around us. With the help of perception, a person attaches meaning to the elements and phenomena of the environment. The perceived world is a sensory reflection of the real. This is a fragment of the real world.
A special role in perception is played by our desire to perceive a particular stimulus, the consciousness of the need to perceive it, and volitional efforts aimed at achieving better perception. Stimulus – any event, object, image, concept, something that excites the body or brings it into a state of readiness, i.e. affecting the organism in such a way that its behavior changes in some noticeable way.
The main properties of perception are:
· objectivity– the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world in the form of holistic images of specific objects. These images have a relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions of their perception change;
· structure lies in the fact that perception brings to our consciousness the simulated structure of an object or phenomenon that we encountered in the real world. We perceive not our instant sensations, but a certain generalized structure abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time;
· activity consists in focusing our attention at any moment on only one stimulus or a specific group of stimuli, other objects of the real world are not actively reflected in our consciousness;
· apperception means a clear and conscious perception of any impression, requiring effort of will. Therefore, in the process of perception, previous perceptual experience, the characteristics of a person’s personality, his knowledge, motives, attitudes, emotional condition;
· contextual perception – the influence of certain circumstances (events, physical and psychological processes) in which an action or event occurs and which influence human behavior. People's reactions to external stimuli depend on the context. The main challenge is to distinguish between significant and minor situational influences;
· meaningfulness perception is associated with human thinking and language. This is expressed in consciously identifying an object, mentally naming it, that is, assigning it to a certain group, class, associating it with a certain word, and carrying out a conscious search for the best interpretation of the available data.
Process of perception is a complex process consisting of the following stages:
1. Registration (observation). First, we “observe” information (sensory data) from the external environment with the help of our sensory organs: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste;
2. Selection (selection, selectivity). Our brain selects only those data that are subject to further processing;
3. Organization of perception. We organize selected data into meaningful images for interpretation and response;
Most of the perceptual differences between people have to do with the way they select and organize sensory data. The result of each stage is influenced by both external and internal factors. External factors are associated with the organs of perception, sensory data or the object of perception, and internal factors are associated with the perceiving personality. The characteristics of the object and ourselves are the key components that influence the fact that we perceive things differently than the people around us. Let us consider the factors influencing the selectivity of the perception process.
External factors, affecting selectivity perceptions are:
· size. The larger the size of the external factor, the greater the likelihood of people perceiving it;
· movement. A moving factor has a higher probability of perception;
· intensity. The greater the intensity of the external factor, the greater the likelihood that it will be perceived (bright light, loud sound, threatening intonation, etc.);
· repeatability. The repetitive factor is perceived much faster;
· contrast. The degree to which an object stands out from others. External factors that are in conflict with the environment or that diverge from people's expectations will be perceived more quickly;
· novelty and recognition. Attention is primarily drawn to either a familiar or a new factor in the environment.
Internal factors perceptions are perceptual expectations (attitudes), needs and motivation, goals and objectives, knowledge, personal characteristics, self-concept, emotional state, life and professional experience.
Perceptual expectations – it is an expectation based on past experiences with the same or similar stimuli. This is a perceptual attitude in which people see and hear what they want or expect to see and hear.
Needs and motivation play an important role in perception. People notice sense data that potentially satisfies their needs. The need to satisfy a certain need motivates the perception of certain stimuli. A hungry person is more sensitive to food than a non-hunger person. Motivation plays an important role in determining what a person will notice first. For example, during a period of crisis and possible staff reduction in organizations, employees will be more sensitive to hiring announcements than during the previous favorable period of the organization's functioning.
Personal characteristics, individuality affect the light in which people perceive other people. Optimists see things in a positive light, pessimists see things in a negative light. Between these two extremes are those who see things more or less objectively. People who perceive themselves realistically know their strengths and weaknesses well and can act effectively without paying much attention to excuses for their mistakes. Individual personality traits (Machiavellianism, locus of control, authoritarianism, dogmatism, etc. will be discussed in Chapter 3) force people to filter out or actively select sensory data based on their orientation.
Self-concept – This is the self-determination of each person, it is developed in the process of interaction with other people and determines how we process information about the world around us and about ourselves. The perceived world is grouped around the perception of oneself. The self-concept changes with age and under the influence of situational factors. These factors include:
· culture. Individualistic Western cultures foster an independent, separate sense of self. Collectivist Asian and Third World cultures foster an interdependent, “socially connected” sense of self;
· personal experience. Self-efficacy arises from the experience of mastery. Successfully solving a task that requires great effort generates a sense of personal competence;
· other people's judgments. We evaluate ourselves partly by taking into account what others think of us. Children who are described as talented, efficient, or helpful tend to incorporate such ideas into their self-concepts and behavior;
· the roles we play. When we first begin to take on a new role (university student, parent, salesperson, etc.), we may experience a feeling of awkwardness. Gradually, our sense of “I” absorbs what was previously perceived simply as playing a role in the theater of life. The game becomes reality;
· self-justification and self-perception. We sometimes feel uncomfortable if we have spoken or acted insincerely. Or if they came out in support of something that they really didn’t think much about. In such cases, we justify our actions by identifying with them. Moreover, by observing ourselves, we may discover that we now perceive ourselves as holding the views we expressed;
· social comparison. We always strive to realize how we differ from the people around us. As the only woman in a group of men, or as the only Canadian in a group of Europeans, we are aware of our uniqueness. Comparison with others also shapes our self-identification as rich or poor, witty or dull, tall or short, noble or mean.
We use our “I” as a basis for perception. For example, if we perceive ourselves as incompetent, weak, defenseless, then the world around us will be perceived as threatening. Therefore, we are unlikely to take risks and try to conquer our environment. If we perceive ourselves as knowledgeable, then we will question high goals and achieve them. Evaluating yourself is self-esteem or self-respect. High level self-esteem is preferable to low self-esteem.
Emotions. The emotional state of a person has a great influence on perception. A strong emotion, such as complete rejection of a company's course, can cause a person to have a negative perception of most of the company's decisions and rules. Because the powerful emotions often distort perceptions, managers need to realize what issues or actions are associated with strong emotions in subordinates.
Organization of perception is the third stage in the process of perception. The fundamental form of organization of perception is "figure - background" based on the principle of grouping stimuli into a recognizable structure. Not all stimuli are perceived with equal clarity. The focused (dominant) factor is called a figure. The factor that is perceived but not in focus is called background. Figure - background it is the tendency to perceive the sense data to which we are most attentive against the background of sense data to which we are less attentive. For example, in a work collective, a trade union leader or an informal leader is perceived by the manager more clearly than other workers.
The organizing nature of perception is also evident when similar stimuli are grouped together into a recognizable structure. Grouping is the basic principle of the organization of perception and is carried out according to the following principles:
· intimacy. Stimuli located nearby tend to be perceived together;
· similarity (similarity). Stimuli that are similar in size, color, shape, or outline tend to be perceived together;
· completion (closedness, completeness, integrity) expressed in the desire to complete a figure that has missing elements. This ability allows stimuli to be perceived as a whole object, although some parts of the object remain invisible;
· common area. Stimuli identified within one zone tend to be perceived as a group. According to this principle, we mentally unite people from the same country, province or geographic area.
The result of the perception process is the construction of an image of the situation, which is more significant for behavior than the object of perception itself. Image of the situation- this is a generalized picture of a fragment of the real world, perceived by a person with the help of five senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch - resulting from the processing of information about it. By using processes of categorization and interpretation the individual defines the situation in one way or another, that is, examines and evaluates it. The consequence of these processes is his behavior, which he builds in accordance with the situation. In this regard, we can specify the definition of human behavior given at the beginning of this chapter.
Human behavior is a set of reactions of adaptation to a changing understanding of situations. Thus, a person does not simply react to a particular situation, but creates an image of the situation and defines himself in this situation.