“Hot spot” of France: the history of the conquest of Algeria. History of France

French conquest of Vadai - armed conflict, unleashed by the French government against Kingdom of Wadai, located in Africa in a mountainous region with same name in the eastern part Chad- central part Sudan, in 1909 and ending in 1911. As a result of military actions, the territory of Vadai was annexed and became part of the French colonial empire.

Background

Located on the edge of the desert Sahara and dense forests Equatorial Africa, the Vadai region is thus a meeting place Islamic And African cultures. Islam began to play a predominant role in the region, although power here has long been in the hands of representatives of the Negroid race. The existence of the Wadai Sultanate in Europe was known from the works of Arab geographers, but only after visiting the country Gustav Nachtigal V 1873 a detailed description was received.

At the beginning of the 17th century. The territory of the Wadai highlands was under the rule of the Sultans of Darfur. The main population here was the people maba. According to local legends, in the XV-XVI centuries. Vadai was ruled by kings from the dynasty Tundjur who had their capital in Kadame. They were not Muslims, although some of them had Arabic names.

Islam spread among the Maba thanks to the Muslim lawmaker Abd al-Karim, who traced his family to the caliphs Abbasids. He arrived in Vadai from the kingdom Bagirmi, where he founded a small Muslim community in Bidderi. When the number of his followers increased, Abd al-Karim called upon them to begin holy war against the Tundjur clan. Victory in this war remained with the Muslims, who captured the last Kadamian king, who bore the name David, and killed him. After this, Abd al-Karim proclaimed himself kolak (sultan) and around 1635 founded the city of Wara, which became the capital of the mab for more than three centuries.

States of Central Africa on a map of the late 19th century.

The Wadai Sultanate extended to Sudanese region Darfur which became English proficiency only after the British expedition in 1916. Geographically it is rocky semi-desert area, replete with hills, with partly forested valleys. In the Dar Thar region, altitudes reach 1200 meters.

The population of the sultanate, consisting of different tribes, in whose life the slave trade, was three social class: top class ( hourin), peasant class ( mesakin), and slaves ( abyd). The head of state was the Sultan ( kolak) with a personal retinue of 1,400 people. The sultans ruled the Wadai Empire for almost 400 years, relying on chiefs (agad) and village elders (mandjak). The state was divided into provinces, whose rulers kept part of the taxes for their benefit. In the 19th century, in Maba settlement areas, feudal-dependent peasants paid a fixed rent; slave labor was used. On the outskirts inhabited by non-Muslims, the Wadai nobility collected unlimited tribute.

Due to the political stability that reigned in Wadai and the associated safety of movement, the most profitable route ran through the territory of the sultanate. trans-Saharan route from the Mediterranean Sea to Black Africa. From Abeche, which was the largest city on the territory of modern Chad, the path was divided into two, passing through Dar Fur to the village El Fasher: northern trade route through the lands of Dar Tham, and southern pilgrimage route through tribal lands masalits. Going to the north, this route connected Abéche with Benghazi and the oases Kufra.

In the last decade of the 19th century, the influence of France, moving from the Congo and from Niger, began to be increasingly felt in Vadai - the Anglo-French agreement on March 21, 1899 included Vadai in the French sphere of influence. Meanwhile, civil war broke out in Vadai itself. In 1900, Sultan Ibrahim died from a wound received in battle and was succeeded by Ahmed Abu Al-Ghazali ibn Ali. He was warned Sheikh Senussi(Senussi el Mandi) about the danger posed by the arrival of Christians (that is, the French) in the region, but neglected this danger due to the confrontation with the princes Dudmurroy(brother of Ibrahim) and Asil. Gazil and Dudmurra, although they were members royal family, on the mother’s side did not belong to the nationality maba; only Asil, the grandson of the Sultan Muhammad Sharif, was of pure Maba origin.

In December 1901, Abu Ghazali was expelled from the capital by Prince Asilom, but Dudmurra took advantage of this coup. He captured Abu Ghazali and blinded him. Asil fled to Kelkele, west of the lake Fitri, and entered into negotiations with the French. In the spring of 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation of members of the order Senusia, Vadai attacked French post posts in the region Shari and they carried away many slaves. At Tomba (May 13, 1904) they suffered a crushing defeat, but soon resumed their raids, as evidenced by constant skirmishes on the western and southwestern borders of Wadai in 1905-1907. The fighting led to the strengthening of the position of the French and their ally Asil.

Campaign

First stage

In 1908 Dudmurra, again probably with the assistance of the Senusites, proclaimed jihad. In October 1908, the government assigned the French troops the task of “pacifying” Vadai. French Captain Jean Joseph Figenchoux, commander of the subdistrict Fitri, received intelligence in April 1909 about the planning of an attack by the Wada'i Sultan Muhammad Salih, known as Dudmurra(Terrible Lion), for settlement Birket Fatima. Figenshu, at the head of a detachment of 180 Senegalese riflemen with 2 cannons and 300 allies from among the supporters of the overthrown Dudmurra Asila, heading towards the capital of the sultanate, the city of Abéche. In the battle of Wadi Shauk (aka the battle of Johame) on June 1, 1909, a French detachment defeated the troops of Dudmurra, destroying 360 Wadayans with their own losses of 2 people. Figenshu himself was seriously wounded in the neck in this battle.

The French detachment occupied the capital on June 2, after a short bombardment, but the Sultan managed to flee north to his ally, Sultan Taj ad-Din from the Dar Massalit region on the border with Darfur. Asil was installed as the new sultan by the French celebrating their victory. In addition, considering themselves from now on to be full-fledged masters of Vadai, the colonial authorities issued an order to surrender all small arms. By October, their control had extended to many provinces (dars) of the sultanate - Dar Tama, Dar Sila, Dar Runga and Dar Qimr. Dar el-Masalit, the land of the Masalit tribes, where Muhammad Salih hid in search of allies, remained unconquered.

French forces were not enough to fully defend the 900-kilometer border with Masalit lands, in close proximity to the habitat of various warlike tribes. The first raid occurred towards the end of 1909, when the Sultan of Dar el-Masalit, Taj ad-Din, attacked the area around Abeche. Figenshu, having recovered from his wound, set out with a detachment of Senegalese riflemen (3 officers, 109 privates) on December 31 to pursue him. On January 4, 1910, a French column was ambushed at Wadi Qadya, near the modern El Geneina in Sudan, and was almost completely exterminated - only eight Europeans and three African allies managed to escape. The Sultan's soldiers received 180 rifles and 20,000 rounds of ammunition as trophies.

After receiving news of the disaster at Wadi Kadia, Lieutenant Colonel Henri Moll, appointed military governor of Chad, began preparing a punitive expedition. Five weeks after the death of Figenshu’s detachment, French reinforcements arrived in troubled Abéché under the command of Julien. By this time, the deposed Dudmurra had resumed attacks in an attempt to regain his power by capturing the capital, but was defeated on April 17 near Biltina one of Asil's brothers named Segeiram, and was once again forced to retreat to the Masalits. At the same time, about 1,500 national warriors For under the command of Adam Rijal (Adoum Roudjial), commander of the Darfur Sultan Ali Dinar, strengthened in Gered, plundered the Dar-Tama area.

At the end of March, Captain Chauvelot, on the orders of Commander Julien, with 120 Senegalese riflemen and some auxiliary troops, attacked Rijal's fortified camp at Gereda. In a half-hour close battle, the French detachment, having spent 11,000 rounds of ammunition, suffered losses - 2 killed and 17 wounded, but put the Darfurians to flight, who lost 200 people killed in this battle.

Second phase

In mid-1910, French authorities concentrated Central Africa 4,200 soldiers, divided into twelve separate detachments, four each in the provinces of Oubangi-Shari, Chad and Wadai. At the beginning of October, preparations for the punitive expedition were completed, and on October 26, Moll with a detachment of up to 600 people advanced to the Masalits.

The French troops were divided into two columns: the first column, consisting of a little more than 300 riflemen (supported by 200 auxiliary troops), under the command of Colonel Moll, headed towards the Masalit capital Darjil (Drijele), towards the Masalit army; the second column (130 riflemen), led by Captain Arno, was supposed to block the path of Dudmurre during an attempt to invade Wadai.

The first column crossed the border of the Masalit lands on November 5 and reached Dorote on November 8, stopping there to replenish the water supply. The actions of the French troops were observed by Taj ed-Din and Dudmurra, whose army numbered from 4 to 5 thousand horsemen. The two sultans launched an attack on the morning of November 9. The surprised French were unable to quickly rally to repel the attackers, who proceeded to destroy the camp. A fierce hand-to-hand fight ensued in the camp. Lieutenant Colonel Moll was mortally wounded in the neck by a spear. Sultan Taj ed-Din was also killed in the clash, which destroyed the cohesion of the Masalites, who immediately began to plunder the camp.

Captain Shovelo, returning to the beginning of the Masalit attack from the patrol, gathered the surviving fighters on the hill - a total of about 100 riflemen. Shovelo's group hit the attackers who began to plunder the camp in the back, brought the guns back under control and forced the Masalits to flee the battlefield. They left 600 dead on the field, including Taj ed-Din and 40 members of his family. Dudmurra, having lost his main ally in the person of the deceased Sultan, also fled. Of the Europeans, five were able to continue the fight, eight officers were killed, five were wounded. 28 of the 310 Senegalese riflemen were dead, 69 wounded and 14 missing. The ammunition was almost exhausted, almost all the pack and mounts were stolen or killed, and there was no longer any contact with Captain Arno's column. A new Masalit attack was to be expected at any time.

The commander of the second detachment, Captain Arno, having received unclear reports of a defeat near the village Bir Tawil, marched to the battlefield. On November 17, the columns united, and then 20 reached Abéche, where news of a new disaster plunged the population into panic. The fight also caused a stir in France. Lieutenant Colonel Largo was sent to replace the deceased Molla, who received new powers to fight the Masalits.

Third stage

After a brief lull caused by the regrouping and consolidation of combat units, at the beginning of 1911, French troops subordinated the Sultan of the Dar al-Kuti region to the will of the colonial authorities. After this operation, the French intensified their activities in the east, defeating the Faures, who at that time raided the undefended province of Dar Tama, taking many slaves from there. One of the units, under the command of Chauvelot, managed to expel Faure from their base in the village of Kapka on April 11, and this area came under French jurisdiction.

Abeche 10 years after the events described began. Buildings built under the last Sultan of Wadaya, 1918

In the northern regions of the mountain range Ennedi group meharists(camel cavalry) of 120 horsemen and 200 allies under the command of Major Hillaire, defeated detachments of the Khoan tribes at Sidi Saleh in May. Gang attacks Tuaregs on the Hoan survivors at Kassoan, and on May 20 near Kafra, forcing them to flee to Darfur.

Captain Shovelo on June 29, while reconnaissance of the area, met with the forces of Dudmurra, numbering up to 2000 people. Meanwhile, in June - August 1911, an uprising broke out in the province of Dar Tama, later called the Kodoi-Rebellion - tribes who resisted the collection of taxes by the new masters of the continent. The rebel detachment was quickly scattered, but Dudmurra again managed to escape to the lands of the Masalits. He offered to give up the fight in the near future and lay down his arms if in return he would be given ownership of a small domain in the border region. On 14 October, Dudmurra officially abdicated, handing over power over Wadai to the French delegation, and then headed to Abéché, riding into the city on the white horse of the fallen Lieutenant Colonel Molla on 27 October. After this he was placed under house arrest in Fort Lamy (current N'Djamena), but at the same time received a pension of 40 per month.

Consequences

Taj al-Din was succeeded as Sultan of Dar el-Masalit in 1910 by Bahr al-Din Abu Bakr Ismail, which ruled under French control until 1951. After the start Italian conquest Tripolitania And Cyrenaica caravans with slaves stopped traveling to Benghazi. Local rulers were thus deprived of the main source of income with which they financed their private armies. Asil, who was a puppet in the hands of the French, ruled under the French protectorate for only a few months and was deposed in June 1912, and all power was concentrated directly in the hands of the French administration. Wadai became a French colony.

Armament

The French colonial army was represented in this war Senegalese riflemen (tirailleurs), who traditionally wore dark blue tunics, red fezzes with a blue tassel falling over the shoulder, breeches and sandals with windings. They were armed with a reliable Lebel system repeating rifle of the 1886 model Mle1886 M93, which, with minor modifications, was in service with the French army until 1960. The Lebel rifle (fusil Lebel) model 1886 is a weapon with manual reloading using a longitudinally sliding rotary bolt, and its rate of fire reaches 10 rounds per minute. It should also be noted that the sighting range was huge for those times - up to 2400 meters. Machine guns were not used by the French colonial army in these campaigns. A machete (panga) was often used as a weapon. The officers wore standard tropical uniforms.

The Masalits were known throughout the region as a warlike tribe. They usually wore white robes, and the upper class additionally wore white turbans and baldrics. In battle they used throwing knives (60-90 cm) and axes, and if they had firearms, then these were mainly the company’s repeating rifles Remington Arms Traditionally, Masalits fought in groups with a vanguard of hundreds of horsemen, followed by a main column of infantry. The cavalry also brought up the rear of the detachment's march.

Links

• France Wadai War 1909-1911 (Armed actions carried out by France against Wadai in 1909-1911)(English) (unavailable link). onwar.com. Retrieved October 19, 2013. Archived November 3, 2006.

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International relationships in the second half of XVII- XVIII centuries

Second half of the 17th century. became a period of strengthening of France in Europe. This was facilitated by the situation in other countries. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were in crisis after the devastating Thirty Years' War. After the restoration, England was ruled by cousins ​​of the French king. Louis XIV, dependent on it. Since 1672, Louis XIV waged wars to expand his possessions. The first two wars with Spain were successful, although it was not possible to annex the completely Spanish Netherlands to France, as its king dreamed of. A number of border regions went to France. In 1681, taking advantage of the attack on Vienna by the Turks, whom he supported and set against Christian countries, Louis XIV captured Strasbourg. But that was where his success ended.

France's war of 1688-1697 with all European countries ended without result. The French economy was undermined by continuous wars. Meanwhile, England was strengthening. During the three Anglo-Dutch wars, in which England was supported by France, she managed to squeeze out her main competitor everywhere at sea and in the colonies. England's colonial possessions grew rapidly. After the “glorious revolution” of 1689, the ruler of Holland, William of Orange, came to power in England. The situation in Europe has changed dramatically.

Wars of the 18th century

The last Spanish king from the Habsburg dynasty was childless. According to his will, he transferred his possessions to his closest relative - the grandson of Louis XIV. The prospect of unification of France and Spain arose. All France's neighbors opposed this. The war broke out in 1701. Everywhere French and Spanish troops suffered defeats. The French economy was further undermined. Only disagreements between enemies prevented the onset of complete disaster for her. In 1713-1714. Treaties were concluded under which Louis's grandson remained king of Spain, but the unification of the two countries was forever prohibited. France lost some of its colonies in America. The Netherlands and Spanish possessions in Italy passed to the Austrian Habsburgs.

In 1700 - 1721 The Northern War was going on, which undermined the power of Sweden. Russia won the Northern War and became one of the great powers.

In 1740, the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. King Frederick 11 of Prussia captured Silesia from Austria. Austria was supported by England, Russia and other countries. The rest of Austria's possessions were defended.

Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763 was the result of an acute tangle of contradictions. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in America and Asia, which is why the Seven Years' War is called the prototype of the World War. In Europe, France, Austria, Russia and a number of German states fought with Prussia, led by Frederick N. and its allies from among other German states. England helped Prussia, but did not fight directly in Europe. She, in alliance with Spain, captured all French possessions in America (Canada and Louisiana) and India. Prussia was defeated by Russia, France also captured all the possessions of the English king in Europe. However, these victories were devalued after Peter III came to power and Russia left the war. The borders in Europe, unlike other continents, remained unchanged.

§ 68. International relations in the 19th century.

The beginning of the French conquests.

During the Great French Revolution and wars with counter-revolutionaries and monarchical states, a powerful revolutionary army was created in France. This predetermined the international situation in Europe for a long time. It became the basis for French successes in a long series of wars that began in 1792.

After the victories of 1793 - 1794. Belgium and the German lands along the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, Holland was turned into a dependent republic. The annexed regions were treated like conquered territories. Various taxes were imposed on them, and the best works of art were taken away. During the years of the Directory (1795 -1799), France sought to ensure its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and a convenient path to conquest in the future of colonies in the East. In 1796-- 1798 general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy. In 1798 he began a campaign in Egypt, which belonged to Ottoman Empire. France's capture of Egypt threatened England's colonies in India. The fighting in Egypt went well for the French, but the English rear admiral G. Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir. The French army was trapped and eventually destroyed. Bonaparte himself, abandoning her, fled to France, where he seized power, becoming Emperor Napoleon in 1804.

The establishment of Napoleon's power was facilitated by the defeat of France in Italy from coalition forces consisting of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 -1799. The Allied forces in Italy were led by A.V. Suvorov. However, due to the short-sighted policies of Austria and England, Emperor Paul 1 of Russia left the coalition. After this, Bonaparte easily defeated Austria.

Napoleonic Wars.

Soon after the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor, they resumed wars of conquest in order to solve internal problems by robbing neighbors.

At Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, which fought with France as part of the third, fourth and fifth coalition. True, in the war at sea the French suffered defeats from England (especially at Trafalgar in 1805), which thwarted Napoleon's plans to land in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany west of the Rhine, part of Northern and Central Italy, and Illyria were annexed to France. Most other European countries became dependent on it.

Since 1806, a Continental blockade was established against England. Napoleonic rule contributed to the destruction of the feudal order, but national humiliation and extortion from the population led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. A guerrilla war is unfolding in Spain. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong “grand army.” In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria went over to their side. Napoleon was defeated. In 1814, the Allies entered French territory and occupied Paris.

After Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba and the restoration of royal power in France in the person of Louis XVIII The heads of state - allies in the anti-French coalition gathered in Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war world. The meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 (“Hundred Days”). On June 18, 1815, Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of A. Wellington and G. L. Blue-her At the Battle of Waterloo they defeated the troops of the French emperor.

The section consists of separate essays:

History of France

Ancient France (1,800,000 - 2090 BC)

The first inhabitants of France appeared a little over a million years ago. A number of Neolithic settlements have been found on the territory of France. Here was one of the centers of formation of the Cro-Magnons. Remarkable monuments of primitive culture have been preserved - the Lascaux Cave, the Cro-Magnon Grotto, etc.

Gaul and Roman conquest (1200 BC – 379 AD)

In the middle 1 thousand BC e. The expanses of France, as well as neighboring countries, were inhabited by Celtic tribes, who are better known to us by their Roman name - Gauls. Ancient Gaul, located between the Rhine, the Mediterranean Sea, the Alps, the Pyrenees and Atlantic Ocean, by the time of its conquest by the Romans, it was distinguished by a certain unity: the Celtic conquerors, having merged with the local population, passed on to them their language and way of life. At the same time, the population of Gaul was divided into many independent tribes, there was no unity necessary to resist the Roman conquerors. The Celts founded the cities of Lutetia (Paris), Burdigala (Bordeaux).
Conquest of Gaul by the Romans, which was preceded by the Greek colonization of the southern territories of France (near Marseille), occurred in two stages: the first - the foundation in the 1st century. BC. the province of Narbonnese, the second - the conquests of Julius Caesar (between 58 and 50 BC). Over the next century and a half, the entire territory of what is now France gradually passed to the Romans. The last area conquered by the Romans in 57 BC was Brittany. During this same period, the Latin language and the Roman way of life spread throughout all social classes. Only art and religion have preserved the remnants of the ancient Celtic civilization.
IN late 1st-2nd centuries grow here big cities: Narbo-Marcius (Narbonne), Lugdunum (Lyon), Nemauzus (Nîmes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), agriculture, metallurgy, ceramic and textile production, foreign and domestic trade reach a high level.
When under Diocletian and Constantine great empire was divided into four prefectures, with divisions into dioceses and provinces, Gaul formed itself into one of the three dioceses of the Gallic prefecture and was divided into 17 provinces. This structure was preserved until the Great Migration of Peoples.
IN 5th century settled on the territory of Gaul: on the left bank of the Rhine - the Franks and Alemanni, of whom the first quickly conquered all of northern Gaul and subjugated the Alemanni (496); according to the Rhone and Seine - the Burgundians, whose state in the mid-6th century. was also conquered by the Franks; in the southwestern part of Gaul - the Visigoths, ousted from there by the Franks at the beginning of the 6th century. Thus, in the 5th-6th centuries. Gaul became part of the vast Frankish monarchy, from which in the mid-9th century. medieval France stood out.

Frankish Kingdom (486-987)

Franks- a group of West Germanic tribes united in a tribal union, first mentioned in the mid-3rd century. The formation of the Frankish state began with the conquest of 486 in the battle of Soissons by the Salic Franks (a group of Frankish tribes living along the Baltic Sea coast) led by Clovis 1(c. 466-27 November 511) the last part of the Gallo-Roman possessions (between the Seine and Loire rivers). From the name Clovis, meaning “famous in battle,” the name Louis was subsequently formed. According to legend, Clovis was the grandson of the semi-mythical king Merovei, after whom the dynasty was named Merovingian.
OK. 498 Clovis under the influence of his wife and St. Genevieve accepts Catholicism in the Cathedral of Reims along with 3 thousand Frankish soldiers. From this moment on, Clovis gains the support of the clergy and power over the Gallo-Roman population. Near 508 Clovis chooses Paris as his residence. Near 507-511 a set of laws is created - "Salic truth".
During many years of wars, the Franks, led by Clovis, also conquered most of the possessions of the Alemanni on the Rhine (496), the lands of the Visigoths in Aquitaine (507) and the Franks living along the middle reaches of the Rhine. Under the sons of Clovis, the Burgundian king Godomar was defeated (534), and his kingdom was included in the Frankish state. In 536, the Ostrogothic king Witigis abandoned Provence in favor of the Franks. In the 530s, the Alpine possessions of the Alemanni and the lands of the Thuringians between the Weser and the Elbe were also conquered, and in the 550s, the lands of the Bavarians on the Danube.
The Merovingian power was not united. Immediately after the death of Clovis, his 4 sons divided the Frankish state among themselves and only occasionally united for joint campaigns of conquest.
The main parts of the Frankish state were Austrasia, Neutrius and Burgundy. IN 6-7 centuries they waged an incessant struggle among themselves, which was accompanied by the destruction of many members of the warring clans. In the 7th century. The influence of the nobility increased. Her power becomes more significant than the power of kings, who were called lazy kings for their unwillingness and inability to govern. The decision of state affairs passes into the hands of the mayors, appointed by the king in each kingdom from representatives of the most noble families. The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric 3(reigned from 743 to 751, died in 754).
IN 612 becomes majordomo in Austrasia Pepin 1(the Pipinid dynasty is founded). He seeks recognition of himself as majordomo also in Neustria and Burgundy. His son Charles Martell(mayor in 715-741), retaining the rights of mayor in these kingdoms, again subjugated Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria, which had fallen away during the weakening of the Merovingian power, and restored power over Aquitaine and Provence. His victory over the Arabs Poitiers in 732 stopped Arab expansion into Western Europe.
Son of Charles Martel Pepin the Short with the support of Pope Zacharias, he proclaimed himself king of the Frankish state in 751 Under Pepin, Septimania was conquered from the Arabs (759), and power over Bavaria, Alemannia and Aquitaine was strengthened.
The Frankish state reached its greatest strength under Pepin's son Charlemagne(reigned 768-814), after whom the dynasty was named dynasty Carolingian. Having defeated the Lombards, Charlemagne annexed their possessions in Italy to the Frankish state (774), conquered the lands of the Saxons (772-804), and conquered the region between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River from the Arabs (785-811). Continuing the policy of alliance with the papacy, Charles obtained a coronation from Pope Leo III Emperor (800) of the Western Roman Empire. Charles's capital was Aachen.
His eldest son became his heir, Louis I(814-840) nicknamed Pious. Thus, the tradition according to which the kingdom was divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and from now on only the eldest son succeeded his father.
A war of succession broke out between Louis's sons Charles the Bald, Louis and Lothair 1; this war greatly weakened the empire, and ultimately led to its disintegration into three parts. Treaty of Verdun in 843 The imperial title was assigned to the western part (future France).
Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was constantly attacked by the Vikings, who fortified themselves in Normandy
The last king of this dynasty was Louis 5. After his death in 987 a new king is elected by the nobility - Hugo nicknamed Capet (after the priest's robe he wore), and this nickname gave the name to the entire dynasty Capetian.

Medieval France

Capetians (987-1328)

During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne, there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) the County of Flanders, 2) the Duchy of Normandy, 3) the Duchy of France, 4) the Duchy of Burgundy, 5) the Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne) ), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From these possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.
The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-118) it only doubled. At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.
IN 1066 Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England united with each other.
A century after this ( 1154) became kings of England and dukes of Normandy Counts of Anjou (Plantagenets), and the first king from this dynasty, Henry II, thanks to his marriage with the heiress of Aquitaine, Eleanor, acquired the entire southwest of France.
Under the Capetians, for the first time in history, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. First Crusade started in 1095 The bravest and strongest nobles from all over Europe headed to Jerusalem to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims after ordinary townspeople were defeated by the Turks. Jerusalem was captured on July 15, 1099.
The unification of disparate lands was started by Philip 2 Augustus (1180-1223), who acquired part of Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne and other lands.
Grandson of Philip 2, Louis 9th Saint(1226-1270), became king at the age of 12. Until he grew up, his mother Blanca of Castile ruled the country. Louis 9th made important acquisitions in the south of France; The counts of Toulouse had to recognize the authority of the king of France over themselves and cede to him a significant part of their possessions, and the cessation of the Toulouse house in 1272 entailed, under Philip 3, the annexation of the rest of these possessions to the royal lands. Under Louis 9, two crusades- 7th and 8th, both of which turned out to be unsuccessful for the French king. During the 8th campaign he died.
Philip 4 Handsome(1285-1314) acquired Lyon and its region in 1312, and with his marriage to Joanna of Navarre created the basis for future claims of the royal house to her heritage (Champagne, etc.), which later (1361), under John the Good, was finally attached. Under Philip 4, the Templar Order was defeated, and the papal throne was moved to Avignon.
Until 1328, France was ruled by the direct heirs of Hugo Capet. The last direct descendant of Hugo, Charles IV, succeeds Philip 6 belonging to a branch Valois, which also belonged to the Capetian dynasty. The Valois dynasty would rule France until 1589, when Henry 4 of the Capetian dynasty of the Bourbon branch ascended the throne.

Valois dynasty. Hundred Years' War (1328-1453)

The successes of royal power in France over the century and a half from the accession of Philip to the throne on August 2 (1180) to the end of the Capetian dynasty (1328) were very significant: the royal domains expanded greatly (with many lands falling into the hands of other members of the royal family), while the possessions feudal lords and the English king were reduced. But under the first king of the new dynasty, the Hundred Years' War with the British began (1328-1453). At the same time, the population suffered greatly from the plague and several civil wars.
The Hundred Years' War was started by the English king Edward 3, who was on the maternal side the grandson of the French king Philip 4 the Fair from the Capetian dynasty. After death in 1328 Charles 4, the last representative of the direct branch of the Capetians, and the coronation of Philip 6 (Valois) according to Salic law, Edward declared his rights to the French throne. In the fall of 1337, the British launched an offensive in Picardy. They were supported by the Flanders cities and feudal lords and the cities of southwestern France.
The first stage of the war was successful for England. Edward won a number of convincing victories, including Battle of Crecy(1346). In 1347 the British conquered the port of Calais. In 1356, the English army under the command of the son of Edward 3, the Black Prince, inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at the Battle of Poitiers, capturing King John 2 the Good. Military failures and economic difficulties led to popular uprisings - the Parisian Revolt (1357-1358) and the Jacquerie (peasant revolt of 1358). The French were forced to conclude a humiliating peace for France at Bretigny (1360).
Taking advantage of the respite, King Charles 5 of the French reorganized the army, strengthening it with artillery, and carried out economic reforms. This allowed the French to achieve significant military successes in the second stage of the war, in the 1370s. Due to the extreme exhaustion of both sides, in 1396 they concluded a truce.
However, under the next French king, Charles 6 the Madman, the British again began to win victories, in particular they defeated the French in Battle of Agincourt(1415). King Henry 5, who occupied the English throne at that time, subjugated approximately half of the territory of France in five years and achieved the conclusion of the Treaty of Troyes (1420), providing for the unification of the two countries under the authority of the English crown, after the conclusion of the Treaty of Troyes and until 1801 the kings England bore the title of kings of France.
The turning point came in the 1420s, at the fourth stage of the war, after the French army was led by Joan of Arc. Under her leadership, the French liberated Orleans from the English (1429). Even the execution of Joan of Arc in 1431 did not prevent the French from successfully end hostilities.In 1435, the Duke of Burgundy concluded an alliance treaty with the king of France Karl 7. In 1436 Paris came under French control. In 1450, the French army won a landslide victory in the battle of the Norman city of Caen. In 1453, the surrender of the English garrison in Bordeaux brought an end to the Hundred Years' War.
Under Charles 7, the unification of French lands, interrupted by the war, continued. When he succeeded Louis 11(1461-1483) in 1477 the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed. In addition, this king acquired by right of inheritance from the last Count of Anjou Provence (1481), conquered Boulogne (1477) and subjugated Picardy. Louis 11 is known for his cruelty and intrigue, which allowed him to make royal power absolute. At the same time, Louis patronized the sciences and arts, especially medicine and surgery, reorganized the medical faculty at the University of Paris, founded a printing house at the Sorbonne, and restored the post office.
Under Charles 8 (1483-1498), the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased (1488); the heir to his rights was the wife of Charles 8, after his death she married Louis 12 (1498-1515), which prepared the annexation of Brittany. Thus in new story France enters almost united, and it remains to expand mainly to the east. Charles 8 and Louis 12 fought wars in Italy.

Renaissance

Louis 12 succeeded Francis 1(1515-1547), his cousin and son-in-law (his wife is Claude of France, daughter of Louis 12). He began his reign with a swift and successful campaign in Italy. Under Francis, the absolute monarchy is strengthening, the opinion of parliament is not taken into account. The economy is developing, at the same time taxes are increasing and the costs of maintaining the yard are increasing. Francis became interested in culture Italian Renaissance. Its castles are decorated by the best craftsmen from Italy, last years Leonardo da Vinci spends his life in Amboise. Beginning with the reign of Francis 1, followers of the Reformation appeared in France.
Henry 2(1547-1559) succeeded his father on the throne in 1547. Having undertaken several lightning-fast, well-planned operations, Henry 2 recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul and Verdun, which previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. His life ended unexpectedly: in 1559, while fighting at a tournament with one of the nobles, he fell, pierced by a spear, in front of his wife and mistress.
Henry's wife was Catherine de' Medici, a representative of a family of famous Italian bankers. After the untimely death of the king, Catherine played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century, although her three sons, Francis 2, Charles 9 and Henry 3, officially ruled. Francis II, was influenced by the powerful Duke of Guise and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were uncles to Queen Mary Stuart (of Scotland), to whom Francis 2 was engaged as a child. A year after taking the throne, Francis died and his ten-year-old brother took the throne. Karl 9(1560-1574), entirely under the influence of his mother.

Religious wars

While Catherine succeeded in guiding the child king, the power of the French monarchy suddenly began to falter. The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis I and intensified under Charles, ceased to justify itself. Calvinism spread widely throughout France. Huguenots (as the French Calvinists were called) were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often rich and influential.
The decline in the king's authority and the disruption of public order were only a partial consequence of the religious schism. Deprived of the opportunity to wage wars abroad and not constrained by the prohibitions of a strong monarch, the nobles sought to disobey the weakening monarchy and encroached on the rights of the king. With the ensuing unrest, it was already difficult to resolve religious disputes, and the country split into two opposing camps. The Guise family took the position of defenders of the Catholic faith. Their rivals were moderate Catholics, like Montmorency, and Huguenots, like Condé and Coligny. In 1562, open confrontation between the parties began, interspersed with periods of truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were given a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.
During the formal preparations for the third agreement, which included the marriage of the king's sister Margaret to Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots, Charles 9 organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew on the night of 23 to 24 August 1572. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his associates were killed.
Charles 9 died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry 3(1575-1589). Henry returned to France at the height of the religious wars. On February 11, 1575, he was crowned at Reims Cathedral. And two days later he married Louise of Vaudemont-Lorraine. Lacking the means to end the war, Henry made concessions to the Huguenots. The latter received freedom of religion and participation in local parliaments. Thus, some cities inhabited entirely by Huguenots became completely independent of royal power. The king's actions provoked strong protest from the Catholic League, led by Henry of Guise and his brother Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine. The brothers firmly decided to get rid of Henry 3 and continue the war with the Huguenots. In 1577, a new, sixth, civil religious war broke out, which lasted three years. The Protestants were led by Henry of Navarre, who survived the Night of St. Bartholomew by hastily converting to Catholicism.
Since the king had no children, his closest blood relative had to succeed him. Ironically, this relative (in the 21st generation) was the same Henry of Navarre- Bourbon. Married, among other things, to the king's sister Margaret.
Henry of Navarre won landslide victories. supported him British Queen Elizabeth and the German Protestants. King Henry 3 tried with all his might to end the war. On May 12, 1588, Paris rebelled against the king, who was forced to hastily leave the capital and move his residence to Blois. Heinrich Guise solemnly entered Paris.
In this situation, Henry 3 could only be saved by the most drastic measures. The king convened the States General, to which his enemy also arrived. On December 23, 1588, Heinrich Guise went to the meeting of the States. Unexpectedly, the king’s guards appeared on his way, who first killed Giza with several dagger blows, and then destroyed all the duke’s guards. The next day, by order of the king, Henry of Guise's brother, Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine, was also captured and then killed.
The murder of the Guise brothers stirred up many Catholic minds. Among them was 22-year-old Dominican monk Jacques Clement. Jacques was an ardent fanatic and enemy of the Huguenots. After Pope Sixtus 5 cursed Henry 3, Jacques Clement decided to kill him. His decision was supported by high-ranking opponents of the king. Henry 3 was killed by Clément during an audience.
Before his death, Henry declared Henry of Navarre as his successor.
Although Henry of Navarre now had military superiority and had the support of a group of moderate Catholics, he returned to Paris only after renouncing the Protestant faith and was crowned at Chartres in 1594. The end of the religious wars was completed by the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority entitled for labor and self-defense in some areas and cities.
During the reign Henry 4(with which the Bourbon dynasty, a branch of the Capetian dynasty, began) and his famous minister Duke Sully, order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. In 1610, the country was plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by the madman François Ravaillac while preparing for a military campaign in the Rhineland.

Bourbons. Absolute monarchy. Age of Enlightenment

After the death of Henry IV, the nine-year-old became heir Louis 13(1601-1643). The central political figure at this time was his mother Queen Marie de' Medici, who then enlisted the support of the Bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (aka Duke, Cardinal Richelieu), who in 1624 became the king's mentor and representative and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642. Under Richelieu, the Protestants were finally defeated after the siege and capture of La Rochelle. Richelieu based his policy on the implementation of the program of Henry IV: strengthening the state, its centralization, ensuring the primacy of secular power over the church and the center over the provinces, eliminating the aristocratic opposition, and countering Spanish-Austrian hegemony in Europe. Louis 13 in politics limited himself to supporting Richelieu in his conflicts with the nobility.
After the death of Richelieu, during the childhood of Louis 14, Anna of Austria was regent, who ruled the country with the help of Richelieu's successor, Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Treaties of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaties of the Pyrenees (1659), but was unable to do anything more significant for France than preserve the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility known as the Fronde (1648-1653).
Louis 14(1638-1715) differed from his father by his active participation in political life. Immediately after the death of Mazarin (1661), Louis began to govern the state independently.
Louis firmly pursued his policy, successfully choosing ministers and military leaders. The reign of Louis - a time of significant strengthening of the unity of France, its military power, political weight and intellectual prestige, the flowering of culture, went down in history as the Great Age. At the same time, the constant wars waged by Louis and requiring high taxes ruined the country. In the struggle for power, Louis was helped by outstanding personalities: Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance (1665-1683), Marquis de Louvois, Minister of War (1666-1691), Sebastian de Vauban, minister of defense fortifications, and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.
At the end of his life, Louis was accused of “loving war too much.” His last desperate struggle with all of Europe (the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714) ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat.
Since all contenders for the throne died before Louis 14, his young great-grandson became his successor Louis 15(1710-1774). While he was small, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the Duke of Orleans. The reign of Louis 15 was in many respects a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor. The royal administration continued to sell the rights to collect taxes, but this mechanism lost its effectiveness as the entire tax collection system became corrupt. The army nurtured by Louvois and Vauban became demoralized under the leadership of aristocratic officers who sought appointment to military posts only for the sake of a court career. Nevertheless, Louis 15 paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). In addition to economic adversity, unfavorable climatic conditions and epidemics.
At the same time, the 18th century is the era of Enlightenment, the time of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, and other French encyclopedists.
Louis 16 succeeded his grandfather Louis 15 in 1774. Under him, after the convening of the Estates General in 1789, the Great French Revolution began. Louis first accepted the constitution of 1791, abandoned absolutism and became a constitutional monarch, but soon began to hesitantly oppose the radical measures of the revolutionaries and even tried to flee the country. On September 21, 1792, he was deposed, tried by the Convention and executed by guillotine. From that moment until the coup of 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, many executions took place in France, the country was ruined.
After the coup of the 18th Brumaire, the only power in France was represented by a provisional government consisting of three consuls (Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger-Ducos). The consuls—or, more precisely, Consul Bonaparte, since the other two were nothing more than his tools—acted with the decisiveness of autocratic power. A constitution was created that was completely monarchical, but retained the appearance of popular power. He was appointed first consul for 10 years. Bonaparte.
All power was now in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry that included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte (Minister of the Interior), Fouché (Minister of Police). Since 1804, France has been proclaimed an empire.
The first part of Napoleon's reign was filled with military victories. After this, military luck changed him. Napoleon ruled the country despotically, therefore, after the entry of the allied armies into Paris (March 31, 1814), the Senate appointed by him proclaimed his deposition from the throne on April 3, 1814, publishing in its “Act of Deposition” an entire indictment against him, in which he was accused of violations of the constitution committed with the constant and active support of the Senate.

19th century

April 6 1814 the Senate, acting at the inspiration of Talleyrand and at the request of the allies, proclaimed the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, represented by Louis 17, subject, however, to taking an oath of allegiance to the constitution drawn up by the Senate, much freer than Napoleonic ones. However, after the restoration of the monarchy, a reaction began. The return of Napoleon in 1815 was greeted joyfully by the people. However, his army was defeated by the British at Waterloo. Napoleon had to sign an abdication from the throne. Louis 17 returned to Paris again. His successor was Karl 10, who tried to restore the social order that existed before the revolution. This led to July Revolution 1830
The July Revolution meant the final overthrow of the Bourbons. Charles abdicated the throne, like his eldest son, and went into exile in Great Britain. Louis Philippe took the throne.
Although the constitutional regime of the first half of the 19th century. did not meet the conflicting demands of various political parties, this period went down in history as a period of economic modernization: manufacturing, the steam engine, the railway, the telegraph - all this contributed to the economic rise of France and the emergence of a new large capital with all its advantages and disadvantages - the reduction of agriculture and growth urban population, as well as the formation of the proletariat
On December 2, 1852, as a result of a plebiscite, a constitutional monarchy was established, headed by Napoleon 1's nephew Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the name Napoleon 3. Previously, Louis Napoleon was President of the Second Republic (1848-1852). This became the beginning of the Second Empire. At first (until 1860) Napoleon 3 was an almost autocratic monarch. The Senate, State Council, ministers, officials, even mayors of communes (the latter on the basis of the laws of 1852 and 1855, which restored the centralization of the first empire) were appointed by the emperor.
The government's main concern was economic development: encouraging the construction railways, the establishment of joint stock companies, the establishment of all kinds of large enterprises, etc. Paris was almost completely rebuilt by Baron Haussmann.
Since 1860, Napoleon 3 began to pursue a more liberal policy in order to restore his authority, which had been shaken due to the war with Austria.
After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September 1870) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him, and the Second Empire ceased to exist.
In 1871, the French were forced to make peace with Prussia. The country's form of government was changed - from 1870 to 1940 it was the Third Republic led by a president.
After the adoption of the constitution of 1875, the republican system was finally established in the country. The authorities are making great strides in education and in providing citizens with basic freedoms. A state is gradually emerging in which the main values ​​are secularism and democracy. At the same time, France conquered new territories in Africa and Asia. But the republican system remains weak due to the instability of political parties.

France in the 20th century

Defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the desire for revenge led France to participate in the First World War. France emerged victorious from the First World War, but suffered huge losses. But these losses were overshadowed by the euphoria of triumph: the “crazy” 20s made one forget about the economic difficulties in the country and the political instability caused by the international crisis. The fear generated by the Bolshevik victory in Russia provokes a conservative reaction from the National Bloc, which, after its defeat, was replaced in 1924 by the Cartel of the Left. The republican system is shaken by scandals and demonstrations such as the one that occurred on February 6, 1934.
To counter the extremism of right-wing forces, left-wing parties decide to unite. The National Front, formed in the context of the emerging global crisis, wins the elections of 1936. The government, led by Leon Blum, carries out radical social reforms, but in 1938 the alliance of leftist forces falls apart, in particular due to disagreements over the war in Spain.
At the same time, the threat from powerful fascist states in Europe is growing. And although foreign policy France was aimed at peace at any cost, the Nazis' provocations were becoming more and more targeted. Second World War, which the Daladier government tried to avoid in Munich, breaks out on September 3, 1939.
In May 1940, as a result of the German invasion, French troops were defeated. The defeat of France, secured by the armistice, leads to the fall of the Third Republic. It is being replaced by a new regime - the French state ("Vichy government"). The government, headed by Marshal Pétain, governs the southern half of France not occupied by the Germans and pursues a policy of national reconstruction. After October 1940, the French state began active cooperation with the Nazi regime. But even this policy, accompanied by a dramatic “hunt for Jews” who were imprisoned in camps and handed over to SS forces for deportation, did not provide Pétain with the opportunity to lead the country on his own: on November 11, 1942, German forces occupied the southern half of France. General de Gaulle appeals from London to the French to continue the fight against the occupiers. A resistance movement is formed, which played a leading role in the liberation of the country.
At the end of the war, an atmosphere of national optimism was established in the country. With the adoption of the new constitution began Fourth Republic. Despite this, General de Gaulle, a prominent participant in the recent war, is concerned about the impossibility of governing the country within a regime that continues to give too much power to the legislature and whose composition of governments reflects too much of the changing fortunes of political majorities. Unheard by anyone, de Gaulle leaves politics. But government instability proves him right. One of the main problems that France faced during this period was the problem of colonies. The heroic role that the colonies played in World War II forced the mother country to change the status of French territories in Africa and on other continents. But the concessions made were not enough, and the French authorities are not always able to reach an agreement that ensures a peaceful future. As a result, France is waging dramatic wars in Indochina and Algeria.
As a result, a new constitution was adopted in 1958 - the Fifth Republic arose. The updated constitution restored a strong and durable presidential power, the legitimacy of which is emphasized by the fact that the president is elected by popular vote (since 1962). General de Gaulle was President of France from 1958 to 1969, leading the country with a stable right-wing majority. Mass unrest of youth and students (the May events in France 1968), caused by the aggravation of economic and social contradictions, as well as a general strike, led to an acute state crisis. Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign (1969).

Paris

11-10 millennium BC The first settlements appear.
around 250-225 BC. The Gallic tribe of Parisians settled on the territory of the island of Cite and founded their capital Lutetia here (Latin Lutetia - housing among the water).
beginning of the 2nd century BC. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall, bridges are being built. The city lives from river trade and tolls for travel on and under bridges.
54 BC Revolt of the Gauls against the Romans.
53 BC Julius Caesar strengthens the city's defenses and gives it religious functions.
52 BC The revolt of the united Gallic tribes against Julius Caesar fails. In Caesar's notes, the city of the Parisians is mentioned for the first time - Parisiorum.
end of 2nd century AD The Rise of Roman Lutetia. The population reached 6 thousand people. But the administrative and religious center until the 17th century. the city of Sens remains.
250 g. Martyrdom of St. Denis in Montmartre. According to legend, St. Denis walked with his severed head to present-day Saint-Denis, after which he was canonized.
IN late 3rd century Due to the raids of Germanic tribes, the townspeople move to the Isle of Cité. The name Parisiorum (city of the Parisians) is assigned to the city.
406 The Germans capture Gaul. Paris manages to escape the invasion.
422 Genevieve, the future saint and patroness of Paris, was born in Nanterre.
451 Genevieve persuades the Parisians to confront the Hun leader Attila, although they initially intend to flee. Before reaching Paris, the Huns turn to Orleans.
470 g The siege of the city begins, which lasted more than 10 years, by the Franks under the leadership of Childeric 1. Genevieve provides the city with bread, which is delivered by barges along the Seine.
486 Clovis, son of Childeric, defeats the last Roman governor. By agreement with Genevieve, Clovis gains power over the city peacefully.
496 Under the influence of his wife, Clovis converts to Christianity.
502 St. dies in Paris. Genevieve.
507 Clovis defeats the Germanic tribes, in honor of which he founded the Church of Peter and Paul on the hill of Sainte-Genevieve.
508 Paris is the capital Frankish state Merovingian.
511 After the death of Clovis 1, the Merovingian kingdom was divided between his 4 sons. The kingdoms of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine are formed.
mid 5th - 6th century The population of Paris reaches 20 thousand people.
567 Paris becomes the joint possession of all Merovingian kings.
585 After a fire that partially destroyed buildings on the Ile de la Cité, the city gradually falls into decay.
751 Pepin 3 the Short was proclaimed king of the Franks. The last king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, was tonsured a monk. After the son of Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, the dynasty received the name Carolingian.
814-840 Reign of Louis the Pious. After him, Charles II the Bald ascends to the throne. After the division of Charlemagne's empire, he becomes king of France. The Norman raids begin.
856 The Normans capture the left bank of the city.
861 The Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés was sacked.
885 The beginning of a two-year siege of the city by the Normans.
888 Death of Karl Tolstoy. The high nobility elects Count Ed as king. Charles 4 Simpleton refuses to recognize Ed as king.
893 Coronation of Charles 4. Real opportunity He gains control of the state after the death of Ed (898).
987 Hugo Capet ascends the throne.
1031-1060 Reign of Henry 1. Paris expands due to the development of the right bank.
1108-1137 The reign of Louis 6 Tolstoy. During his reign, the Chatelet fortress was built, near whose walls a market began to operate. The city is governed by the royal provost, an official with judicial, fiscal and military powers.
1141 Louis 7 sells the city port to the guild of Parisian river merchants. The guild's emblem with the image of a boat becomes the city's coat of arms.
1186 Philip 2 August issues a decree on improving city roads, the main task is to end unsanitary conditions.
1189-1209 Construction of a new city wall.
1190-1202 The Louvre Castle is being built.
1253 The building of the future Sorbonne was laid.
1381, 1413 Popular riots in Paris.
1420-1436 During the Hundred Years' War the city was occupied by the British.
1436 The troops of Charles 7 occupy the city.
1461 Coronation of Louis 11, who then transfers his government to Tours.
1469 The beginning of printing. The first text was published at the Sorbonne.
1515-1547 Reign of Francis 1. The Provost becomes an official with limited powers. The governor of Paris is responsible for public order. Francis reconstructs the Louvre and begins to assemble the royal art collection.
1528 Paris regains its status as the main city of the kingdom.
1559 The death of Henry II at a knight's tour in the courtyard of the Tournelle Palace (Place des Vosges).
24 August 1572 St. Bartholomew's Night (more than 5 thousand people died).
1588 Revolt of supporters of the Catholic League in Paris led by Heinrich Guise.
1590 Henry IV Bourbon besieges Paris.
1593 Henry 4 utters the famous phrase “Paris is worth a mass” and returns to Catholicism. The people of Paris allow him to enter the city. Under Henry IV, numerous urban planning projects were carried out.
1606 The New Bridge was built.
1610-1643 The reign of Louis 13. The Botanical Garden appears, the Marais district expands, the Luxembourg Palace is built, and the construction of a new city wall, begun under Francis 1, is completed.
1622 Paris becomes an archbishopric.
1629 The Palais Royal was built by order of Richelieu.
1631 The first French newspaper was founded.
1635 Richelieu founded the French Academy.
1648, 1650 Fronde, the royal court is forced to leave Paris.
1665 The first French scientific journal is published.
1666 The French Academy of Sciences was founded.
1669 Construction of Versailles begins.
1670 Grand boulevards are being built, the city is expanding with suburbs.
1671 The king moves to Versailles.
1686 The first Parisian cafe "Prokop" was opened
1702 The Royal Ordinance establishes the division of the city into 20 districts.
1757 Start of construction of the Church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon)
1774-1792 Construction of a closed sewer system.
July 14, 1789 Storming and destruction of the Bastille.
1804 Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame, for which the area in front of the cathedral is cleared by demolishing buildings. The first iron bridge is being built - the Pont des Arts. The numbering of houses is introduced, dividing into even and odd sides.
1808 Construction of canals and fountains. The Arc de Triomphe Carrousel is open.
1811 Creation of a fire battalion.
1814 The entry of Russian and Prussian troops led by the Russian Tsar and the Prussian King into Paris.
1833-1848 Rambuteau becomes Prefect of the Seine. He changed the appearance of the city to improve its air supply, improved the water supply, increased the amount of green space and took care of the cleanliness of the streets.
1836 Opening Arc de Triomphe. The reconstruction of the Place de la Concorde has been completed.
1840 Transfer of the ashes of Napoleon 1 to Paris.
1853 Baron Haussmann is appointed prefect of the department of the Seine.
1853-1868 Rebuilding Paris by Haussmann.
1855
1864 The restoration of Notre Dame Cathedral has been completed.
1865 Reconstruction of the Ile de la Cité.
1867 World Exhibition in Paris.
1871 The surrender of Paris after the siege by Prussian troops. Fire in the city during the Paris Commune. The defeat of the Paris Commune.
1875 Opening of the Paris Opera.
1887-1889 Construction of the Eiffel Tower.
1889 World Exhibition in Paris.
1890s-1914 Belle Epoque (Belle Epoque) style
1892 The appearance of the first electric tram.
1895 The first public film showing of the Lumiere brothers.
1896 Start of work on laying the metro.
1914 The Battle of Paris during the First World War. Mobilization of taxis to deliver troops and ammunition to the front. Masterpieces of the Louvre are transported to Toulouse.
1920s Parisian bohemians settle in the Montparnasse area. Art Deco style
1935 Beginning of television broadcasting.
1940-1944 German occupation.

Biography of Claude Monet

Claude Oscar Monet was born on November 14 1840 in Paris, in the family of a grocer. Early years The Oscars were held in Le Havre. Young Monet began his creative activity by drawing caricatures, which were exhibited in the window of a Le Havre framer, and received his first painting lessons from the landscape painter E. Boudin, wandering with him along the coast and learning the techniques of working in the plein air.
IN 1859 Having received the necessary funds from his father, Monet goes to Paris to study painting. In 1860, Monet visited the Suisse Academy, where he met Camille Pissarro. In 1861, Claude was drafted into the army, and he went to Algeria, but in 1862, due to illness, he returned to France. His father again sent him to Paris, where the artist entered the workshop of the then popular C. Gleyre, where he worked until 1864. But the formation of his creative method did not take place in the studio, but in the process of joint work in the open air with those close to him in spirit. Renoir, F. Basile and A. Sisley.
In 1865 and 1866 Monet exhibited at the Salon, and his paintings had modest success. The most significant of the artist's early works are "Breakfast on the Grass", "Terrace at Sainte-Adresse", "Women in the Garden". This time was very difficult for Monet, who was extremely strapped for money, constantly pursued by creditors and even tried to commit suicide. The artist has to constantly move from place to place, now to Le Havre, now to Sèvres, now to Sainte-Adresse, now to Paris, where he paints city landscapes.
In 1868, Monet, who exhibited five paintings at International exhibition marine painters in Le Havre, receives a silver medal, but the paintings are taken by creditors to pay off the debt. In 1869, Monet lives in the village of Saint-Michel, a few kilometers from Paris. O. Renoir often comes here, and the artists work together. A nearby picturesque restaurant with a bath served as the inspiration for a series of landscapes by Monet ( "Paddling pool"). Meanwhile, the Salon jury continues to stubbornly reject Monet's works: in the period 1867-70. Only one painting by the artist was accepted.
IN 1870 Monet married Camille Doncier; the dowry received for the bride freed him from financial problems for some time. The young couple spent their honeymoon in Trouville, where Monet painted several landscapes. Tragic events of 1870-71 forcing the artist to emigrate to London. In London he meets Daubigny and Pissarro, with whom he works on views of the Thames and the fogs of Hyde Park. Daubigny introduces Monet to the French art dealer Durand-Ruel, who had a gallery on Bond Street. Subsequently, Durand-Ruel provided invaluable assistance to the Impressionists in organizing exhibitions and selling paintings. In 1871, Monet learned of his father's death and a few months later left for France. On the way, he visits Holland, where, amazed by the splendor of the landscapes, he stops for a while and paints several paintings.
Upon returning to Paris, Monet settled in Argenteuil. The artist finds himself a house with a garden where he can practice floriculture; over time, this activity turned into a real passion for him. In 1872-75. Monet creates some of his best paintings ( "Lady with an Umbrella" ("Madame Monet with her Son"), "Boulevard of the Capuchins", "Impression. Rising Sun"). Monet paints the Seine with passion. Having equipped a studio boat, he sails along the Seine, capturing river landscapes in sketches ( "Regatta in Argenteuil").
IN 1874 The "Anonymous Society of Painters, Artists and Engravers", organized by Monet and his Impressionist friends, is holding an exhibition at which, in particular, Monet's painting was presented "Impression. Rising Sun". Actually, based on the name of this painting, the organizing artists received the name “Impressionists” (from the French impression - impression). The exhibition was criticized in the press, and the public reacted negatively to it. The second exhibition of the group, organized in the Durand-Ruel workshop in 1876, also did not meet with critical understanding. After the failure of the exhibition, it became extremely difficult to sell paintings, prices fell, and a period of financial difficulties began again for Monet. Monet had several wealthy patrons who saved him from creditors, bought and commissioned paintings from him. The most significant of them was the financier Ernest Hoschedé, whom Monet met in 1876. Soon after meeting, Hoschedé commissioned Monet to create a series of decorative paintings for his mansion in Montgeron. In the late autumn of 1876, Monet arrived in Paris with the desire to depict views of the winter city through a veil of fog; he decides to make the Saint-Lazare train station his object. With the permission of the director of railways, he is located at the station and works all day long, resulting in a dozen canvases depicting the largest railway junction in France ( "Gare Saint-Lazare. Train arrival"). Seven of them were exhibited at the third Impressionist exhibition that same year. Already during these years, the artist showed interest in depicting the same motif from different angles. In 1877 the third exhibition of the Impressionists took place, and in 1879 the fourth. The public remains hostile to this direction, and Monet's financial situation, again besieged by creditors, seems hopeless. As a result, he moves his family from Argenteuil to Vetheuil, where he lives with the Hoschedes and paints several magnificent landscapes with views of the surrounding area ( "The Artist's Garden at Vetheuil"). In 1879, after a long illness, Camilla dies. Monet is left alone with two children.
IN 1880 In the hall of the magazine "Vi Modern", owned by the publisher and collector Georges Charpentier, an exhibition of eighteen paintings by Monet opens. It brings the artist long-awaited success. The sale of paintings from this exhibition allows Monet to improve his financial situation. In the 1880s. Monet often travels to Normandy, where he is attracted by nature, the sea and the special atmosphere of this land. There he works, living sometimes in Dieppe, sometimes in Pourville, sometimes in Etretat, sometimes in Belle-Isle, and creates a number of magnificent landscapes ( "Mannport Gate to Etretat"). In 1883, together with the Hoschede family, Monet moved to Giverny (a place 80 km north of Paris). Next year the artist travels to Italy, to Bordighera ( "Bordighera. Italy"). In 1888 Monet works in Antibes.
IN 1889 Monet finally achieves real and lasting success: in the gallery of the art dealer Georges Petit, simultaneously with an exhibition of works by the sculptor O. Rodin, a retrospective exhibition of Monet is being organized, at which one hundred and forty-five of his works are exhibited, from 1864 to 1889.
Monet becomes a famous and respected painter. Monet lived in Giverny for 43 years until his death. The artist rented a house from a certain Norman landowner, bought a neighboring plot of land with a pond and laid out two gardens: one in the traditional French style, the other exotic, the so-called “Garden on the Water”. The garden became Monet's favorite brainchild; motifs of the "garden at Giverny" occupy great place in the artist's work ( "Iris garden in Giverny", "Path in the garden of Giverny", "Pond with water lilies", "Japanese bridge"). In 1892, Monet married Alice Hoschede, with whom he had been in love for many years. In 1888, Monet began the cycle "Haystacks" ( "Haystack. Sunset") - the first large series of paintings where the artist tries to capture the nuances of lighting, changing depending on the time of day and weather. He works on several canvases simultaneously, moving from one to another as the lighting effects change. This series was a great success. Monet returns to the experience of "Haystacks" in a new series - "Topolya" ("Poplar on Epte"). This series, exhibited at the Durand-Ruel gallery in 1892, was also a great success, but the larger series was received even more enthusiastically "Rouen Cathedral" ("Rouen Cathedral. Symphony in gray and red"), which Monet worked on in 1892 and 1893. Consistently depicting the change in lighting from dawn to evening twilight, the artist painted fifty views of the majestic Gothic facade.
In 1902, in Giverny, Monet began the cycle "Water lilies" ("Water lilies. Clouds"), which he will work on until his death. The beginning of the new century finds Monet in London; the artist paints the London Houses of Parliament again ( "Parliament Building. Sunset") and a whole series of paintings united by one motif - fog. From 1899 to 1901 Monet traveled to Great Britain three times and in 1904 exhibited thirty-seven views of London at the Durand-Ruel Gallery ( "Waterloo Bridge. Sunset"). In the summer he returns to "Water Lilies" and in February next year participates in a large exhibition of impressionists organized by Durand-Ruel in London, exhibiting 55 of his works. In 1908, Monet set off on his penultimate journey: he and his wife traveled to Venice. The artist spent two months in Venice. Upon returning to France, he continued to work on Venetian landscapes, which he would exhibit only in 1912. At the end of his life, Monet suffered heavy losses: his wife Alice died in 1911, and his eldest son Jean died three years later.
Beginning in 1908, Monet experienced serious vision problems. However, he continued to write until last days. 5th of December 1926 Monet died.
to the Giverny page

Chenonceau

Story

The possessions of Chenonceau on the banks of the Cher River belonged to to the Mark family. In 1512, the family was forced to sell the estate due to debts. It was bought by a tax collector from Normandy Boye. The old estate looked more like a castle and was not suitable for social life, so only a tower remained from it, and a square palace in the Renaissance style was built on the water. After the death of the Boyer couple, King Francis 1, who once visited the palace, decided to take it over. He accused Boyer, who towards the end of his life became the finance manager of the French king in Italy, of large financial expenses and took the estate from the heir as compensation.
The king came to the palace with the Dauphin Henry 2 and his retinue, which included the favorites of the king and his heir - the Duchess of Etampes and Diana de Poitiers, to hunt. After Francis' death, Henry donated the estate Diane de Poitiers. Under Diana, the estate was constantly developing - a garden was laid out, a bridge was built connecting the palace with the opposite bank.
Immediately after Henry's death at the tournament, Catherine de' Medici took the crown jewels and Chenonceau from Diana. Catherine celebrated her victory over her rival with a large tournament in honor of her son Francis II in Chenonceau. Catherine built her own opposite Diana’s garden and built a bridge, turning it into a covered one. Here, despite the ongoing civil war, she organized holidays.
After the death of Catherine, Chenonceau withdrew Queen Louise, wife of Henry 3, killed by the fanatic Jean Clément. The queen, grieving for her husband, retired to the palace, changing the interiors to black, and devoted the rest of her life to mourning her husband, prayers and helping the local poor. Queen Louise wore white clothes as a sign of mourning, for which she was called the White Lady.
In the 18th century the palace passed to the tax farmer Claude Dupin, whose wife loved to surround herself with outstanding minds of that time - Montesquieu, Condillac, Voltaire often visited the estate. Rousseau was Madame's secretary and gave lessons to her daughter.
The revolution, fortunately, did not affect the palace. Since the beginning of the 20th century. the estate belongs to the Meunier family.

Description

A long alley from the entrance leads to Markov Tower- the only thing that has survived from the small fortress built by the first owners. It was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. Now it houses a small souvenir shop.
After crossing the bridge, visitors enter the main part palace. It is not difficult to get around the cramped rooms of the palace in half an hour. On the ground floor there are (in a circle, clockwise): the guard's room (with an oak door and 16th-century tapestries), a chapel, the room of Diane of Poitiers (with 16th-century tapestries, the Madonna and Child by Murillo), a green office in which Catherine de' Medici worked (tapestry, Italian cabinets of the 16th century, paintings by Tintoreto, Jordan, Veronese, Poussin, Van Dyck, etc.), Catherine's library. A gallery (essentially a covered bridge) leads to the other side of the river. Going down the stairs, we find ourselves in the kitchen. Rising back up and continuing to walk around the rooms in a circle, we pass through the room of Francis 1 and the room of Louis 14.
Then you need to climb the stairs to the second floor. Here you can see the room of the five queens, in which two daughters and three daughters-in-law of Catherine de Medici lived at different times (the room also contains a 16th century tapestry and works by Rubens and Minyard), and Catherine’s bedroom.
On the third floor there is a bedroom in black tones, in which the widowed Queen Louise spent her time.
To the left of the palace, if you stand with your back to it, garden, broken by Catherine de Medici, on the right by Diane of Poitiers. In addition, it is interesting to see the 16th century farm, vegetable garden, wine cellars, and, if you have time, a labyrinth.
journey /

Amboise

Story

This site was originally a Gallo-Roman camp. In the 9th century Amboise was given to the Counts of Anjou, and they built a fortress on this site. After one of the owners of the castle unsuccessfully participated in a conspiracy against the advisor of King Charles 7, the castle became the property of the king. The first of the kings to truly live here was the son of Charles 7, Louis 11. His main occupation was hunting, so he did not pay much attention to the castle itself, unlike his son Charles 8.
Karl 8(late 15th century) loved to surround himself with courtiers, guards, artists and poets. There was not enough space in the castle for the entire retinue and its staff, so it was decided to expand the castle. From Italy, where he went to claim the throne of Naples, the king brought many works of Italian art, as well as architects, craftsmen and gardeners. Italian craftsmen introduced features of the Italian Renaissance into the appearance of the castle, although the castle itself remained essentially Gothic. Work to decorate and improve the castle continued until the king’s absurd death from being hit by a doorframe in 1498.
For the sake of inheritance Louis 12 divorced Jeanne of France and married Charles 8th's widow, Anna. Amboise, the creation of Charles 8, did not suit Louis - he preferred to move to. However, he continued work in the palace - on his orders, a large gallery and 2 towers were built. From the beginning of the 16th century. Louise of Savoy and her children, Margaret (the future Margaret of Navarre) and the heir to the throne, Francis of Angoulême, settled in the palace.
King Francis 1 he loved entertainment, luxury and art, and besides, he loved to start grandiose projects. Under him, work was completed in Amboise and Blois and construction of Chambord began. Under Francis, as under Charles 8, Amboise became the center of secular and political life. Since 1516, Leonardo da Vinci settled not far from the palace, on the Clos Luce estate, at the invitation of Francis. Francis admired da Vinci and often visited him, for which an underground passage was dug from the palace to da Vinci's estate. As a legacy to the king, the artist left Mona Lisa and two paintings depicting St. Anna and John the Baptist. After the death of Francis, the children of his successor, Henry 2 and Catherine de Medici, were raised here.
During civil war, which began after the death of Henry 2, Amboise became the place of reprisal against the conspiracy. After this, the castles of the Loire were abandoned by the court. Kings come to Amboise to hunt, and noble prisoners are also kept here.
During and after the Revolution, Amboise was greatly ruined, but then returned to the possession of the French kings.
travel / sights in brief

Blois

Story

In medieval Latin monuments, Blois bears the Latin name Blesum (also Blesis and Blesa), from the 15th century. it changed in Blaisois. When ancient count's family, to which the English king Stephen also belonged (1135-1154), died in the male tribe, the County of Blois passed by marriage contract to the house of Chatillon, whose last descendant sold his possessions to the son of Charles 5, Duke Louis of Orleans (1391). Louis d'Orléans and his wife, Valentina Visconti of Milan, laid the foundation for a collection of books and documents, which later formed the famous palace library, enriched with treasures looted in Milan and Naples. Under the grandson of Louis d'Orléans, King Louis XII, Blois was annexed to the crown in 1498.
Louis 12 was the first crowned owner of the palace and began the construction of a new wing in the Flamboyant Gothic style, through which visitors enter the courtyard, decorated with the figure of Louis 2. Louis often decided on the most important state affairs in the castle. On January 15, 1499, an alliance was concluded here between France and Venice, and on March 14, 1513, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded against the Pope and the Emperor.
After the death of Louis 2 Francis 1 often came to the castle and also began to expand it to accommodate a large retinue. Under him, a wing was built to the right of the entrance in the Renaissance style. The corner room connecting these two wings is the oldest part of the palace, medieval castle in the Gothic style (10th century), it preserves a Gothic hall from the 13th century. Under Francis, famous poets, artists and architects lived in the palace, including Benvenuto Cellini.
During the religious wars Catherine de' Medici, the widow of Henry 2, continues to lead the same lifestyle - she organizes numerous holidays in castles on the Loire. Intrigues and conspiracies are woven here. After St. Bartholomew's Night, the castles of the Loire were abandoned for three years. Henry 3 was forced to retire to Blois, leaving Paris to Duke Henri de Guise. A conspiracy arose to eliminate Henry 3, but he was warned. The Duke of Guise was invited to Blois, where he was killed. A few days later, Catherine died in the palace, and six months later Jacques Clement killed Henry 3.
The third wing, closing the courtyard, in the classicist style, was built by Gaston d'Orléans, who was in exile here.
From the 17th century the palace was abandoned and looted during the Revolution. In December 1870, Blois was occupied by the Prussians and remained in their hands until a preliminary peace treaty was concluded. In the 20th century the palace was restored.

Description

Hall of the States General(13th century). The hall was used for judicial decisions by the Counts of Blois. Under Henry III, the Estates General met here twice (1576 and 1588). The hall has retained its original structure. The painting was made based on the medieval one in the 19th century. From the 13th century castle. The tower du Foix has also been preserved, on a terrace overlooking the city.
Wing of Louis 2(late 15th - early 16th century). The first floor of the royal apartments was in the 19th century. converted into the Blois Art Museum. The collection represents works from the 16th to the 19th centuries, including French and Flemish tapestries.
Chapel of St. Gale was also built by Louis 12th.
Francis Wing 1(1515-1524). Wing Francis 1 was built on the basis of a 13th century fortress, and its two-meter thick walls are partially preserved inside.
First floor: apartments of Francis 1st and then Catherine de Medici, royal hall - a hall used for ceremonies, guard hall - weapons from the 15th-17th centuries are presented here, royal bedroom - the bedroom of Catherine de Medici, in which she died in 1589, study - this the room retains the decoration of the 1520s (the interior is made in the form of carved wooden panels).
Second floor - associated with the murder of the Duke of Guise. Paintings from the Hall of Guise (19th century) tell the story of the religious wars and the assassination of the Duke of Guise. According to legend, the murder took place in the next room, the so-called king's bedroom.
travel / sights in brief

Brittany

Some Breton words and roots

Bihan, vihan Biniou Beg Braz, bras, vraz, vras Castel, kastell Chistr Coat, hoat, c'hoatr, koad Coz, cos, kozh Creis, kreis, kreiz Douar Dour Du Enez, Enes Gwenn, Guen, ven Gwern Hir Huel, huella, Uhel Iliz Izel, izella Kenavo Ker, kkr, guer, quer Krampouezh Lan Lann Lost Manner Maez, mez, mez Men Menez, mene Meur,veur Milin, vilin, meilh, meil, veil Mor, vor Nevez, neve Pell Penn, pen plou (plo, plu, ple) Porzh, porz, porz Run, run, reun Stang, stang Ster Toull, toul Ti, ty tre

- small - bagpipes - point, vertex - big - lock - cider - forest - old - a lot of - Earth - water - night - island - white - swamp - long - tall, raised - church - short - Goodbye - village, house, dwelling - Crap - church, monastery - plain - end, tail - house, estate - large field, plain - stone - hill, mountain - big, important - mill - sea - new - far - end, edge, beginning, head - settlement - haven, shelter, bay, port - hill, elevation - bay, pond - shore - hole, opening - house - habitat

Story

In the prehistoric period, the peninsula looked different - the sea level was almost 100 meters lower than now, so many prehistoric monuments ended up on the shore or under water. The water level began to rise in the 10th millennium BC. Near 5000 BC people began to cultivate the land and lead a sedentary lifestyle. The most ancient ones belong to this period megaliths. Megalithic burial grounds were built, the oldest of which is the Barnenez pyramid (4600 BC, accessible by bus from Morlaix), and rows of menirs, presumably for astronomical and religious purposes.
Around 500 BC the peninsula was conquered Celts. The peninsula was named Armorica - a country near the sea.
IN 57 BC came Romans. For 400 years, Armorica was part of the Roman province. A network of roads was built and several cities were founded, among them Rennes, Nantes and Van. In 250-300 AD. The Roman Empire began to lose power, cities were ravaged by Frankish and Saxon pirates.
IN 5-6th century many representatives of other Celtic people, Britons, from Wales and Cornwall crossed the English Channel and settled in Armorica, which they called Brittany. This migration continued for 200 years. Among the settlers were monks who spread Christianity throughout the peninsula; some were canonized. Monastic monasteries and monasteries were built. Religious customs arose that continue to this day - penitential processions and pilgrimages. Many settlements received characteristic Breton names.
Seven saints are considered the most important: Samson, Malo, Brieux, Paul Aurelien, Patern, Corentin and Tugdual, in their honor from the 12th century. The pilgrimage route to the seven cities where the saints are buried - Tro Breiz - becomes popular. Previously, the pilgrimage lasted a month (600 km). Nowadays, week-long pilgrimages take place every year in one of seven stages.
Kingdom of Brittany. From 6th to 10th century. The Bretons resisted the attempts of the Frankish kings to subjugate the peninsula. The Carolingians were able to create an intermediate zone - Marchais, stretching from Mont-Saint-Michel to the mouth of the Loire. In 819, Nominoe, who came from a noble Breton family, was appointed Count of Vannes by King Louis the Pious, and then his emissary to Brittany. Until Louis's death, Nominoe was loyal to him. In 843, he entered into an alliance with Emperor Lothair (brother of Charles the Bald) and Pepin 2 of Aquitaine and together with them took Nantes. In 845, Nominoe defeated Charles the Bald at the Battle of Ballone and signed an agreement with Charles, in which he formally recognized himself as a vassal in exchange for the title of duke. Under Nominoe, wars with the Normans began. Nominoe's son Erispoe once again defeated Charles the Bald in 851 and received the title of king. Erispoe was killed in 857 by his cousin Salomon, under whom the kingdom reached its peak. At the end of his life, Salomon enjoyed unlimited power, which caused a conspiracy of feudal lords, as a result of which the king was killed in 874. After his death, a civil war began.
The Norman raids from Scandinavia on Brittany began at the end of the 8th century. and became increasingly frequent, especially during the period of civil strife after the death of Salomon. Some peace reigned under King Alain 1 the Great until his death in 907, but after his death Brittany was again divided into parts, and by 919 it was almost completely captured by the Normans. The Normans were defeated by Alain 1's grandson, Alain 2 Crookedbeard in 939 with the help of English troops. Alain II received the title of Duke of Brittany, and he made Nantes the capital of the duchy.
Duchy of Brittany. From the middle of the 10th to the middle of the 14th century. Brittany was a duchy with a weak government, often changing rulers. In the 12th century it came under the rule of the English king and Count of Anjou, Henry II Plantagenet, and then under the direct control of the French crown. As a result, in the 13th century. The Duke of Brittany, who took the oath to the French king, was at the same time, like the Earl of Richmond, a vassal of the English king, and within Brittany itself his power was limited to the feudal nobility - the barons of Vitre and Fougères, the Viscounts of Leon and others.
From 1341 to 1364, the War of the Breton Succession was fought between two families - Pentyvre and Montfort. The war became part of the Hundred Years' War: the first family supported the kings of France, the second - the kings of England. The war ended in favor of the counts of Montfort. For almost a hundred years after this, Brittany was independent from France. People's well-being has increased thanks to maritime trade and textile production in Vitre, Locronan and Leon. A university was founded in Nantes in 1460.
Independence ended in 1488, when Duke Francis 2 was defeated by the French King Louis 11 and died soon after. His daughter and heir, Anne of Brittany, was 11 years old at that moment. At the age of 13, she was forced to marry King Charles 8 of France. Brittany became part of the French kingdom, but retained some independence, and Anne ruled it independently as a duchess. Anne's marriage to Charles 8 remained childless, and in order to retain Brittany, Charles's heir, Louis 12, married Anne of Brittany. Their daughter Claude married the future king Francis 1 of Angoulême. Anne of Brittany died in 1514 at the age of 37. Of her 9 children, two survived. During her life she patronized artists and writers and was very popular among the Bretons. In 1505 she made a great pilgrimage to Brittany in the hope of producing a male heir.
In 1532 Francis I, using military force, obtained from the Breton parliament the publication of an act of indissolubility of the union between the French crown and the Duchy of Brittany. Brittany was thus effectively turned into a French province, but retained internal self-government. In Brittany, an estate-representative body continued to operate - the States of Brittany, which was also in charge of taxation issues.
To the "Brittany" page.

Strasbourg

The first historical evidence of human settlement in the vicinity of Strasbourg dates back to 6000 BC. Around 1300 BC e. The ancestors of the Celts settled in this place. By the end of the 3rd century. BC e. A Celtic settlement called Argentorat is formed, in which there was a market and a place for religious ceremonies. The first mention of Strasbourg dates back to 12 BC, when, under the name Argentorat, it became one of the border cities of the Roman Empire.
From 406, the Allemans finally settled Alsace. In 451 Argentorat was destroyed by Attila's Huns. In 496, after the first victory of the Germanic Franks over the Alamanni, Argentorat first fell into the sphere of influence of the kingdom of the Germanic Franks. Argentorat is renamed Strateburgum (city of roads).
In 842, the grandsons of Charlemagne, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, exchanged the famous Strasbourg Charters - the first written evidence of the existence of the Romance and Old High German languages, thus dividing the Carolingian kingdom among themselves. In 870, Louis the German receives Alsace, which is now part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation as the western part of the Duchy of Swabia (Allemania).
In 974, the city authorities, headed by the bishop who governed the city, received the right to mint their own coins.
In 1482, the Strasbourg Constitution was amended last changes, which remained unchanged until the Great French Revolution.
In 1621, the Protestant gymnasium, founded in 1538, received university status.
In 1681, the army of King Louis XIV of France besieged Strasbourg and thereby forced the city to recognize the authority of the king. Under the terms of the agreement, the townspeople took an oath of allegiance to Louis, but retained a number of their rights and privileges. From that time on, the city went to France.
In 1870, after the siege, Strasbourg capitulated to Prussia. In 1871, the city became the capital of the imperial state of Alsace-Lorraine. After the abdication of William II in 1918, French troops came to the city.
In 1940 German troops Strasbourg and Alsace annexed. Strasbourg was liberated in 1944.
In 1949, the city was elected as the seat of the Council of Europe. In 1979, the first session of the European Parliament took place in Strasbourg, as well as elections to the European Parliament. In 1992, a decision was made to locate the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, as a result of which construction began on a new building with a meeting room, completed in 1998.

During the Great French Revolution and wars with counter-revolutionaries and monarchical states, a powerful revolutionary army was created in France. This predetermined the international situation in Europe for a long time. It became the basis for French successes in a long series of wars that began in 1792.

After the victories of 1793 - 1794. Belgium and the German lands along the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, Holland was turned into a dependent republic. The annexed regions were treated as conquered territories. Various taxes were imposed on them, and the best works of art were taken away. During the years of the Directory (1795 -1799), France sought to ensure its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and a convenient path to conquest in the future of the colonies in the East. In 1796-1798 general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy. In 1798, he began a campaign in Egypt, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire. France's capture of Egypt threatened England's colonies in India. The fighting in Egypt went well for the French, but the English rear admiral G. Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir. The French army was trapped and eventually destroyed. Bonaparte himself, abandoning her, fled to France, where he seized power, becoming Emperor Napoleon in 1804.

The establishment of Napoleon's power was facilitated by the defeat of France in Italy from coalition forces consisting of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 -1799. The Allied forces in Italy were led by A.V. Suvorov. However, due to the short-sighted policies of Austria and England, Emperor Paul 1 of Russia left the coalition. After this, Bonaparte easily defeated Austria.

Napoleonic Wars.

Soon after Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, wars of conquest resumed in order to solve internal problems by plundering neighbors.

At Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which fought with France as part of the third, fourth and fifth coalitions. True, in the war at sea the French suffered defeats from England (especially at Trafalgar in 1805), which thwarted Napoleon's plans to land in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany west of the Rhine, part of Northern and Central Italy, and Illyria were annexed to France. Most other European countries became dependent on it.

Since 1806, a Continental blockade was established against England. Napoleonic rule contributed to the destruction of feudal orders, but national humiliation and extortion from the population led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. A guerrilla war is unfolding in Spain. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong “grand army.” In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria went over to their side. Napoleon was defeated. In 1814, the Allies entered French territory and occupied Paris.

After Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba and the restoration of royal power in France in the person of Louis XVIII The heads of state - allies in the anti-French coalition gathered in Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war world. The meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 (“Hundred Days”). June 18, 1815 Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of A. Wellington and G. L. Blucher The troops of the French emperor were defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.

Vienna system.

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Russia (part of Poland), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), and Prussia (part of Saxony, the Rhineland) received territorial increments. The southern Netherlands became part of Holland (until 1830, when Belgium was formed as a result of the revolution). England received the Dutch colonies - Ceylon, South Africa. 39 German states united into the German Confederation, maintaining their complete independence.

Peace and tranquility in Europe was intended to be maintained by all states, which was actually headed by the leading powers of the continent - Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and France. This is how the Vienna system came into being. Despite the contradictions between powers and revolutions in a number of countries, the Vienna system as a whole maintained stability in Europe until the early 50s. XIX century

Monarchs European countries, combined into the so-called Holy Alliance, gathered until 1822 for congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. Based on the decisions of these congresses, interventions took place in countries where revolutions began. The Austrian invasion extinguished the revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in the revolutionary events in Spain. An invasion of Latin America was also being prepared to suppress the national liberation struggle there. But England did not benefit from the appearance of the French in Latin America, and it turned to the United States for help. In 1823, US President Monroe spoke out in defense of the entire American continent from Europeans. At the same time, this was the first US bid for control over all of America.

The 1822 Congress of Verona and the invasion of Spain were the last common actions of the members of the Holy Alliance. The recognition by England in 1824 of the independence of the Latin American countries, former Spanish colonies, completely undermined the unity of the Holy Alliance. In 1825-1826 Russia changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkey, providing support to the Greeks, while Austria's position on this issue remained sharply negative. The ever-expanding liberal movement in the European powers, the development of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in all countries, shook the Holy Alliance to its foundations.

Late 18th century and the wars that followed, a powerful army was created in France. It became the basis for the country's great successes in a long series of wars.

After the victories of the Jacobins in 1793 -1794. Belgium and German lands along the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France; Holland became dependent on France. Various taxes were imposed on the annexed regions, and the best works of art were taken away from there. During the years of the Directory (1795 -1799), France began to establish its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Rich Italy was considered a source of food and money, as well as the most convenient path to future conquest of colonies in the East. During the military operations of 1796 -1798. Austrian possessions, Italian principalities and Switzerland became dependent on France.

However, in 1798 -1799. France was defeated in the Mediterranean and Italy. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in the country. In 1800, he defeated Austrian troops at Marengo. The second anti-French coalition, in which Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Turkey played the main roles, actually collapsed. Only Great Britain continued the war, but in 1802 it also concluded peace with France in Amiens.

Napoleonic Wars.

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of France. He soon resumed wars of conquest to solve internal problems by plundering his neighbors.

In 1805, the Third Anti-French Coalition arose (Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden), and after its defeat - the Fourth Anti-French Coalition (Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden; 1806). In 1809, Great Britain and Austria, as part of the Fifth Anti-French Coalition, again unsuccessfully tried to resist Napoleon. In the battles of Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon crushes the enemy armies. True, in the war at sea the French were defeated by England (Trafalgar, 1805), which thwarted Napoleon’s plans to land in Britain. During the wars, Belgium, Holland, German lands west of the Rhine, part of Italy, and Dalmatia were annexed to the territory of France. Most other European countries became dependent on France. Napoleon liquidated the Holy Roman Empire. In Spain, Italy, and Germany, the reins of power passed to relatives or associates of Napoleon. France concluded treaties of alliance with Russia, Austria and Prussia, although contradictions, especially Russian-French ones, remained.

dominance everywhere in Europe contributed to the destruction of feudal orders. However, national humiliation, extortions in favor of France, and the violence of the invaders led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. In Spain, active guerrilla warfare has been unfolding since 1808. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong " Great Army" In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and then Austria came over to their side. Together with Great Britain and Sweden, they formed the Sixth Anti-French Coalition. The coalition won a decisive victory over Napoleon in 1813 near Leipzig (“Battle of the Nations”). In 1814, the Allies entered French territory and occupied Paris.

Napoleon abdicated the throne and was sent into exile on the island of Elba off the coast of Italy. In France, royal power was restored in the person of Louis XVIII (brother of the executed Louis XVI). In accordance with the Treaty of Paris, concluded on May 8, 1814, France renounced all its conquests, accepting the borders that existed on January 1, 1792. However, the issue of borders was finally to be resolved at the Congress of Vienna, which opened in September 1814. 1 In March, the meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of the landing on the southern coast of France of a relatively small detachment of Napoleon, which, without encountering serious resistance, entered Paris on March 20. This period is known in history as Napoleon's "Hundred Days" (March 20 - June 22, 1815). The Seventh Anti-French Coalition, which united almost all European countries, opposed the restoration of the Napoleonic Empire. On June 18, 1815, Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of the Englishman A. Wellington and the Prussian G. L. Blucher defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. The newly deposed emperor was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, and the power of the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France.

Vienna system.

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, Russia (most of Poland, which previously belonged to Prussia), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), Prussia (part of Saxony, the Rhineland) received territorial increments. Great Britain inherited the Dutch colonies - the island of Ceylon and the Cape Colony in South Africa. Thirty-nine German states united into the German Confederation, maintaining their complete independence.

The new European policy was now determined by the winning countries: Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia. This is how the Vienna system developed, which, despite the contradictions between countries, generally remained stable until the middle of the 19th century.

In September 1815, the monarchs of European countries (Russia, Austria and Prussia; later they were joined by the monarchs of most European countries, including France) united in the so-called Holy Alliance. Until 1822, members of the Union met at congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. Great Britain, although not formally part of the Holy Alliance, also took an active part in the activities of the congresses. According to the decisions of congresses in the countries where they began national liberation And revolutionary movements, troops were brought in to fight them. The Austrian invasion extinguished the revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in the revolutionary events in Spain. An expedition to Latin America was being prepared to suppress the liberation struggle in the Spanish colonies there. But in 1823, US President James Monroe came out in defense of the American continent from European interference in its affairs (“Monroe Doctrine”). At the same time, this was the US bid for control over all of America.

England's recognition of the independence of the former Spanish colonies in 1824 undermined the unity of the Holy Alliance. In 1825-1826 Russia changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against the Turkish yoke, providing support to the Greeks, while Austria's position remained sharply hostile to the rebels. The contradictions within the Holy Alliance grew more and more. After 1830, its activities were virtually discontinued.

International relations in the second half of the 19th century.

The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolutions of 1848 - 1849. in Europe and subsequent events. Contradictions between Russia and Great Britain and France led to the Eastern (Crimean) War of 1853 - 1856. Russia was opposed by a coalition of Great Britain, France, Turkey and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which were openly supported by Austria and covertly by Prussia. As a result of Russia's defeat, its positions in the Black Sea and the Balkans were shaken.

After Eastern War France became one of the leading powers, led by Emperor Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I. The French hatched a plan to capture the left bank of the Rhine. At the same time, Prussia was preparing for war with France, since it was the main opponent of the unification of Germany under the rule of the Prussian kings. During the Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war of 1870 - 1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. Alsace and Lorraine went to a united Germany, proclaimed an empire.

IN late XIX V. Conflicts between European powers intensified again, especially over colonies. The most acute confrontation was in the triangle England - France - Germany. These countries were looking for allies in the inevitable confrontation.

On May 20, 1882, a secret treaty was signed between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary (as the Austrian Empire was called since 1867). Germany and Austria-Hungary took upon themselves the obligation to support Italy in the event of an attack on the latter by France, and Italy assumed the same obligation in relation to Germany. With the signing of this treaty the Triple Alliance was formalized.

At the beginning of 1887, it seemed that war between France and Germany was inevitable, but Germany had to abandon it, since Russia was ready to help France. This was due to the growing contradictions between Russia and Germany. The first cracks in the previously traditional alliance between Russia and Prussia occurred in the years Crimean War. In 1878, Germany took a position unfriendly to Russia at the Berlin Congress following the results of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877 - 1878. Nevertheless, alliance treaties were in force between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary (“The Alliance of the Three Emperors”).

The Franco-German military alarm of 1887 coincided with another aggravation of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary due to rivalry in the Balkans. This also led to a rapprochement between Russia and France. The rapprochement of the two states was facilitated by French investments and loans provided to Russia, and an increase in trade volume. In 1891, a treaty was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later a military convention. In 1893, the Franco-Russian Union was finally formalized.

The rapprochement between France and Russia supported the desire of some of the ruling circles of Great Britain to come to an agreement with Germany. Britain twice tried to buy German support with the promise of new colonies, but the Germans asked for too much territory. Later, the contradictions between Great Britain and France and Great Britain and Russia, which also concerned the colonies, were resolved. As a result, in 1904 -1907. agreements were concluded between Great Britain, France and Russia. The resulting alliance was called the “Triple Entente”, or Entente (from the French Entente cordiale - heartfelt agreement). Thus, Europe was divided into two hostile military blocs.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. 
   What were the causes of the wars? early XIX V.? Describe the course and results of the most important battles, territorial changes, and the results of wars.
2. 
   What is the Vienna System? What was its significance?
3. 
   What contradictions existed in Europe in the second half of the 19th century? What military blocs arose and why at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries?
4. 
   Some historians believe that the First World War was an inevitable consequence of the formation of two opposing military blocs in Europe. Do you agree with this opinion or could the war have been avoided? Give reasons for your answer.

Fill the table.