Colonies of France (French colonial empire). French Colonial Empire Structure and system of government of the French Colonial Empire

Almost all European countries, at various stages of their development, tried to increase their power and wealth by conquering and ruling colonies. The greatest successes in conquering and developing new lands were achieved by Spain, Portugal and England. Competing with them: the Netherlands, France and Germany. Even countries such as Denmark and Sweden owned their own colonies.

The reasons that moved people to equip colonial expeditions were: trade, search for gold and other minerals, search for places to live, neutralization of pirate states, building a prestigious image.

The colonial empire of France arose gradually; it would be more correct to distinguish two long historical stages:

• The first colonial empire (XVI-XVIII centuries) was built mainly by large royal trading companies, such as the French trading West India Company. During her conquests, the country acquired a large part of North America, the Caribbean islands and a large part of India, a significant part of which passed to England in 1763.
• The Second Colonial Empire (late 19th century) was built primarily to challenge the power of the British Empire, and lasted until the 1960s. It included the lands of North Africa, a substantial piece of West and Central Africa, Indochina and a significant number of islands around the world.

At the peak of its conquests, the empire reached a total area of ​​12.3 million square kilometers, 25 times the area of ​​the state itself. In terms of its scale, it was second only to the capabilities of Great Britain, which added 30 million square kilometers of colonized lands.

Colonies of France on the world map

Beginning of expansion

At the initial stage, which originated in the first third of the sixteenth century, there was a military annexation of territories, which was quite obviously beneficial from a political and economic point of view, which is an indisputable historical fact, without being a real priority for the development of the country.

The early travels of the Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazano, who served in France, led to the discovery of new lands. With his light hand, his places of residence were declared the property of the crown. The discoverer Jacques Cartier made three voyages along North America at the beginning of the 16th century, marking the beginning of its exploration by France.

Fishermen enjoyed visiting the Grand Bank off Newfoundland throughout the century, marking the beginning of the history of colonial expansion in North America. In 1534, the first French colonists settled in Canada. Fishing and the search for precious metals inspired the new arrivals. Spain's zealous defense of "its" American monopoly and internal religious war at the end of the 16th century prevented proper sustained efforts to gain a foothold in the region. There were early French attempts to establish colonies in Brazil in 1555, in São Luis in 1612 and in Florida, but these too were thwarted by Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.

First colonial empire of France

The history of the empire began in 1605 with the founding of Port Royal in modern Nova Scotia, Canada. Three years later, traveler Samuel Champlain founded the French settlement of Quebec, which was to become the capital of New France, a region rich in furs. By forming beneficial alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were free to rule most of the North American continent. For the time being, areas of French settlement were limited to the valley of the St. Lawrence River. And before the creation of the Sovereign Council in 1663, the territory of New France had the status of a trading colony. But the right to govern it was transferred to the British under the Utrecht Peace Treaty of 1713.

In the seventeenth century, commercial ambitions lead to conquest in the Caribbean region. The empire was replenished with Martinique, Guadeloupe and Santo Domingo. The introduced system for extracting maximum efficiency from occupied lands in this case was based on the slave trade and slave labor in the cultivation of sugar cane and tobacco plantations. During the same period, colonists settled Senegal, Africa and Reunion in the Indian Ocean and established some dominance in India.

In parallel with the expansion of the empire in North America, the conquest of the West Indies was carried out. Settlement of the area along the South American coast, in what is now French Guiana, began in 1624, and the colony of St. Kitts was founded in 1627. Before the peace agreement with the British, the island was divided, and after that it was completely ceded.

The Insular American Company founded colonies in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1635, and subsequently in Saint-Lucie in 1650. The plantations were developed with the help of slaves brought from Africa. Resistance from indigenous peoples led to bloody ethnic cleansing in 1660.

The French presence abroad was not convincing, and in February 1763 the Treaty of Paris, which marked the end of the Anglo-French War, forced the country to abandon its claims to Canada and its presence in Senegal.

The most profitable expansion of the Caribbean colonies occurred in 1664, with the creation of Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. The settlement was founded on the western edge of the Spanish island of Hispaniola. By the 18th century, Haiti had become the most profitable sugar plantation in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola was administered by the country for a short period, but was ceded to Spain after the Haitian Revolution.

Conquests were not limited to acquisitions in the New World. In 1624, the first trading posts appeared in West Africa in Senegal.

In 1664, a company was created that competed for primacy in trade in the east. Controlled lands appeared in: Chandannagar in 1673, Pondicherry, Yanaon, Mahe, Karaikal. The acquisitions formed the basis of French India. The territory of present-day Reunion in the Indian Ocean, modern Mauritius and the Seychelles in 1756 were also not ignored. Under Napoleon, Egypt was also conquered for a short period, but rule there extended only to the immediate vicinity of the Nile.

In 1699, territorial claims in North America expanded further with the founding of Louisiana in the Mississippi River basin. A wide trade network throughout the region, linked to Canada through the Great Lakes, was supported by a network of defensive fortifications centered in Illinois and what is now Arkansas.

During a series of conflicts between France and England, a significant part of the conquered empire was lost.

Second colonial wave (1830-1870)

The second French colonial epic debuted with an attack on Algeria. Under Napoleon III, bold attacks on Mexico were carried out. Napoleon controlled southern Vietnam, Cambodia and Saigon. The authorities annexed a number of Pacific islands, such as Tahiti and New Caledonia. They tried to establish themselves in Asia.

After the Franco-Prussian War, the country grew into Indochina. Using the newly annexed lands of Vietnam, Tonkin and Annam were captured in 1883, Laos and Kwan Zhou Van. The country became the second most powerful colonial power, after England.

In the mid-19th century, a concession was established in Shanghai, which existed there until 1946, and a protectorate in Tunisia by the end of the century. At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with enormous efforts and 16 years of struggle, Mauritania became a colony. The crown was replenished with Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Benin, Niger, Chad, Congo and Morocco.

The last successful colonization interventions occurred at the end of the First World War.

Colonial administration

There were two ways to regulate colonies: assimilation or association. On the one hand, with assimilation, the administration in Paris dictates the laws to which the controlled lands must obey, on the other hand, the path of unification is a more flexible system. The path of association leaves the authorities, but residents do not become full citizens of the country. Despite the variety of administrative systems, the French government claims its sovereignty. Dominance is reflected at the economic level. The indigenous population is characterized by a lack of voting rights, special taxation and a lack of basic freedoms. Among other things, the European colonial structure conflicts with local culture and customs. The educational system used in the controlled territories is an effective means of instilling a European way of thinking.

Colonial Exhibition in Paris 1931

The international exposition, which opened on May 6, 1931 in Paris, can be considered a symbol of the country’s prestige and glory in the field of conquering the world. The laying of the first stone took place on November 5, 1928; construction took place over more than two years on an area of ​​110 hectares located around Lake Daumesnil in the east of the capital in the green forest of Vincennes. The main entrance was decorated with a golden gate, which is still preserved. The Colonial Exhibition represented all the colonies and countries under the French protectorate. For each corner of the world conquered by the country, a special pavilion was provided. Catholic and Protestant churches were represented by mission flags. About 200 buildings were occupied by large companies, restaurants and snack bars, and exotic food stores. The exhibition was complemented by a colonial museum, a tropical aquarium and a zoo. The area was decorated with majestic illuminated fountains. To move around the park, a railway was built, five and a half kilometers long, along which six stations were built. It was also possible to travel by electric vehicles. For the entertainment of visitors, 16 boats, many rowing boats and 30 boats for water attractions on the lake were purchased. The park hosted various festivals and exhibitions, among which the “Day of Colonial Tourism” occupied a special place.

The exhibition was a huge success: more than 8 million visitors, some of whom came again. The Colonial Museum taught visitors about the various stages of colonial conquest. 5 months after the opening, funding began to be cut, so the zoo, the museum of the colonies and the pagoda have survived and are popular to this day.

French colonies today

Colonization was a fairly unpopular measure, and was largely considered a waste of money and military effort. At the beginning of the twentieth century, right-wing parties opposed decolonization because they considered it too costly, and the left wing did not support its position, seeing peace, freedom and civilization in abandoning this policy. At the end of the colonial empire, the left wing advocated decolonization, while the right resisted until the civil war of 1960-1961.

Having come to power in 1936, the Popular Front lobbied for reforms designed to increase the independence of the colonies. The economic crisis of the 1930s and the Second World War led to the end of the era of conquest.

During the Brazzaville Conference in January 1944, countries worked together to develop an administrative system that would provide greater opportunities for self-determination for indigenous peoples. The first victory that marks the failure of colonial France is the declaration of independence of Lebanon and Syria in 1941, which came into force in 1943.

Having failed to organize a painless decolonization process in the middle of the last century, France experienced a difficult situation, especially in Algeria, where the war of independence lasted from 1954 to 1962 and ended practically with a civil war in France. Colonial France begins to collapse and the National Liberation Front is born, which sparks an armed uprising in Algeria. The war in Algeria was responsible for the birth of the Fifth Republic. The agreement in 1962 marked the end of the war and Algerian independence.

By the beginning of 1960, almost all former French colonies had become independent countries. Several territories remain part of France. Residents of former colonies, especially Algeria, demanded the privileged right to become citizens of the country.

Decolonization is happening in other countries as well. Tunisia became independent in 1956, African countries between 1960 and 1963. Gradually, other foreign territories also changed their status.

Belonging to the former empire became a matter of geopolitics and national pride. The older generation lives with the thought that they were lucky to live in a country that was the second largest empire and brought civilization and democracy to the peoples of nine percent of the world's surface. Decolonization, organized under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle, was approved by the majority, despite the trauma caused by the Algerian War.

Most people who obtain French citizenship today come from former colonies.

The power of 1 consul is the nature of a one-man dictatorship. Proclamation of Napoleon in May 1804 Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I. In 1807, the Tribunate was abolished, a magnificent court was created, court titles were restored, and the title of Marshal of the Empire was introduced. The address “citizen” disappeared, the words “sovereign” and “your imperial majesty” appeared. In 1802, a law on amnesty for emigrant nobles. From 1808-1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were granted; Lands were distributed both in France and abroad. Napoleon made his brothers kings in the countries of Europe conquered by France. In 1805 he declared himself king of Italy. Napoleon sought to solve internal politics. The problem is the relationship between the bourgeois state and the church. In 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism is the religion of most French people. The Church is the support of the Bonapartist regime. The elections were formal. At the time Napoleon came to power, the financial situation of the country was difficult. Streamlining finances is one of the government's top priorities. In general, the time of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.

The regime established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte was called " Bonapartism" The dictatorship of Napoleon is a form of bourgeois state in which the bourgeoisie itself was excluded from participation in political power. In the field of foreign policy, Bonapartism is characterized by pronounced nationalism. The years of the Consulate and the First Empire were marked by continuous bloody wars waged by Napoleonic France with the states of Europe. In the conquered countries, Napoleon pursued a policy that was aimed at turning them into a market for French goods and a source of raw materials for French industry. By 1806, Napoleon had formed a huge empire. In 1806, Austria and Prussia were defeated. At the end of October 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. On November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played a big role in the fate of European countries. Napoleon did not achieve his goal - the economic destruction of England. The blockade paralyzed the life of such French cities as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, and Toulon for a long time. In 1810, a system of licenses was introduced for the right to limited trade in English goods. At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire in France. Economic downturns, weariness of the population from continuous wars. In 1810-1811 in France - economics. a crisis. October 16-19, 1813, near Leipzig, the battle between Napoleon’s army and the united army of the allied states of Europe. The battle of Leipzig was called the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon's army was defeated. On March 31, 1914, the Allied army entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne in favor of his son. Napoleon was exiled for life to the island of Elba. On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was deprived of all territorial acquisitions and returned to the borders of 1792.

16. “Legitimate monarchy.” Charter of 1814 in France.

After the collapse of Napoleon I's empire in 1814, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France. The restoration was carried out on the basis of a temporary compromise between the nobility, who wanted to preserve the remnants of the feudal system, and the top of the bourgeoisie, who sought to preserve the wealth and advantages gained during the revolution and the reign of Napoleon. The political expression of the restoration was Charter 1814 She established a constitutional monarchy in France. The Charter contained references to “divine providence” and declared that “all power was concentrated in France entirely in the person of the king.” The charter emphasized impossibility of redistribution of property:“All types of property are inviolable, not excluding the so-called national” The Charter also found expression liberal ideas. It spoke about the equality of the French before the law, about guarantees of personal freedom, about freedom of speech and press, and about the inadmissibility of prosecution for political activities.

Executor was carried out by the king (he appointed ministers), and the legislator. – shared it with the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies. The legislative initiative belonged only to the king. The monarch approved and promulgated laws, justice was administered on his behalf, and judges were appointed by him. House of Peers was appointed entirely by the king, peers could be either lifelong or hereditary. Chamber of Deputies was elected for 5 years. The king convened the chambers for a session, could declare breaks in their work, and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. Suffrage was of an “excessive” nature. Only French people over 30 years of age could vote. paying a direct tax of 300 francs. The deputy was required to reach the age of 40 and pay a direct tax of 1 thousand francs. Thus, only the aristocratic elite participated in the elections, on whose support Louis XVIII was counting. At the same time, the “legitimate monarchy” of the Bourbons retained the main features of the judicial and administrative system of the First Empire.

After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815, “secondary” restoration of the monarchy and the authorities began to pursue a policy of completely restoring absolutism. In 1820, the Double Vote Law was adopted, which gave large taxpayers the right to have two votes in elections to the Chamber of Deputies. The law on the payment of compensation to emigrants who lost land during the revolution caused dissatisfaction with the royal policy. The government of Charles X was overthrown in July 1830. Charles X fled France, the throne was transferred to Duke Louis Philippe of Orleans. The political system of France after the July Revolution is the “July Monarchy”.

17. Revolution of 1830 and the “July Monarchy” in France.

The July Revolution resolved the dispute: which social class should have political dominance in France - the nobility or the bourgeoisie - in favor of the latter. A bourgeois monarchy was established in the country; the new king, Louis Philippe, was called the “bourgeois king.” " Charter of 1830“- was declared an inalienable property of the people. The King, the new charter declared, ruled not by divine right, but by invitation of the French people; he could not repeal or suspend laws, and lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the executive branch. Members of the House of Peers had to be elected, just like members of the Lower House. The “Charter of 1830” proclaimed freedom of the press and assembly. Age and property qualifications have been reduced. Under Louis Philippe, the financial bourgeoisie and big bankers dominated. The financial aristocracy received high positions in the state apparatus. She enjoyed government subsidies, benefits and privileges. All this increased the budget deficit. Its consequence was a steady increase in public debt.

Both were in the interests of the financial bourgeoisie: government loans, which the government used to cover the deficit, were given at high interest rates and were a sure source of its enrichment. The growth of public debt increased the political influence of the financial aristocracy and the government's dependence on it. The July Monarchy resumed the conquest of Algeria, which had begun under Charles X. The population of Algeria offered stubborn resistance. In 1847, Algeria was conquered and became one of the largest colonies of France. In 1847, a cyclical economic crisis broke out in France, which caused a sharp decline in production, a shock to the entire monetary system and an acute financial crisis, a huge increase in the government deficit, and a wide wave of bankruptcies. The country was on the eve of a revolution - the third in a row since the end of the 18th century. On December 28, the legislative session of parliament opened. It took place in an extremely stormy atmosphere. Domestic and foreign policies were subject to sharp criticism from opposition leaders. Thousands of Parisians took to the streets and squares of the city to demonstrate on February 22. Clashes with the police began and the first barricades appeared. On February 24, all of Paris was covered with barricades. Louis Philippe abdicated the throne in favor of his young grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebels, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned. An attempt was made to preserve the monarchy. The Chamber of Deputies spoke out in defense of the rights of the Duchess of Orleans. These plans were thwarted by the rebels. Deputies were forced to agree to the election of a Provisional Government. The February Revolution was victorious. The de facto head of the Provisional Government was Lamartine, who took over the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. February 25, 1848 The Provisional Government proclaimed France a republic. A few days later, a decree was issued introducing universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age.

France is a country where the greatest discoveries that the World has ever seen were embodied. France was ruled by people who considered themselves equal to gods. They fought bloody wars with neighboring countries. They strived for perfection. And France has reached an incredible level of science, culture, education, economics, and technical development.

Origins

The first royal dynasty in the Frankish state is considered to be the Merovingians (late 5th century), “long-haired kings.” (Kings were believed to have sacred magical powers, which consisted of extremely long hair). The dynasty is named after the legendary founder of the family, Merovey. The founder of the kingdom of the Franks is the son of Childeric Clovis, grandson of Merovey. He pursued an active policy of conquest, significantly expanded the possessions of the Franks and declared himself “king of the Romans” in the lands between the Loire and the Seine. Clovis was baptized and thanks to this received the support of the Gallo-Roman nobility and clergy. During his reign, Paris became the capital.

The unification of France began with Philip II Augustus. The first king of France to use the title "King of France" instead of the title "King of the Franks". He mastered the art of diplomacy, the wisdom of a legislator and organizer, and the talent of a commander. The territorial expansion of France was one of the results of the activities of Philip Augustus; others were the strengthening of royal power and the creation of a harmonious administrative system. He built walls, paved streets, began construction of the building that would eventually become the Louvre, and continued the construction of the great Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin (Notre Dame), the foundation of which had been laid under his father.

Louis XIV (reigned 72). Louis firmly pursued his policy, successfully choosing ministers and military leaders. The reign of Louis was a time of significant strengthening of the unity of France, its military power, political weight and intellectual prestige, and the flourishing of culture. It went down in history as the Great Century. At the same time, constant wars, requiring high taxes, ruined the country.

The events of the Seven Years' War led to the loss of almost all colonies, loss of international prestige and an acute social crisis, which gave rise to the French Revolution in 1789.

Empire. Napoleon 1. Reforms

And a new ruler came who conquered half the world. His goal was to create an empire comparable only to the Roman one.

Napoleon said: “My goal is to reconcile all French people on the basis of strong power, morality, national pride and love for the hardworking and suffering classes.”.

French Empire or Napoleon's Empire, existed for 10 years. This period is 1804–1814. characterized by the dominance of the French in continental Europe or the Napoleonic Wars and the formation of a republican system of legislation. During the revolutionary wars, Napoleon annexed to France the rich and strategically significant territories of what is now Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine. The inhabitants of these territories have long been under the strong influence of French culture and were completely loyal to the conquerors who abolished the feudal order.

In 1802, Napoleon received the title of First Consul for life. He received the right to introduce his successor for approval, appoint second and third consuls, conclude treaties on war and peace, and suspend the constitution. His birthday was declared a national holiday, and his profile began to be minted on coins.

In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor, for which a magnificent ceremony was held at Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris. The Pope was invited to the coronation, but at the last minute Napoleon took the crown from the Pope’s hands and placed it on his own head.

He sought to increase his power and gravitated toward imperial status, gaining public support in his path to reform the state and its institutions.

On the other hand, the empire of Napoleon I was unlike all contemporary monarchies. The difference was manifested in many respects, but above all in the origin and nature of Napoleon's power. In accordance with the Senate Consultation, the administration of the republic is entrusted to the emperor, who takes the title “Emperor of the French.” The Emperor had to give an oath to the French people, which sounded like this:

“I swear to maintain the integrity of the territory of the republic, to respect and compel others to respect equality of rights, political and civil freedom, the irrevocability of the sale of national property, not to impose any taxes and not to collect any fees, except by force of law, ... to govern, meaning only the interests, happiness and glory of the French people". As follows from the text of the document, the empire did not abolish the republic, and the emperor swore to protect the rights and freedoms won during the revolution. This obvious desire to combine the incompatible, to unite the monarchy and the republic manifested itself in the empire of Napoleon I and beyond.

Under Napoleon, a special political regime was created, different from those that had previously existed in France and that existed in Europe at that time. In history it was called Bonapartist. Its characteristic features are an extreme degree of concentration of power, centralization and bureaucratization of management, strict police supervision and censorship, and the suppression of any opposition. Napoleon said about his goal of organizing Europe:

“All of Europe would be one people, one family. Everywhere there would be the same laws, the same money, the same measure of scale. I would demand that not only the seas, but also all rivers be open to general trade, that the troops of all powers be limited to one Guard of the Sovereigns. I would make my son a co-reigning emperor. My dictatorial rule would end and a constitutional one would begin. Paris would become the capital of the world."

Having come to power, Napoleon radically changed the country's government structure. Napoleon's domestic policy consisted of strengthening his personal power as a guarantee of preserving the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of peasants, as well as those who bought national property during the revolution, that is, confiscated lands of emigrants and churches. The Civil Code, which went down in history as .

A special commission of four major jurists, under the direct leadership of Napoleon, in a short time brought together and harmonized all existing laws, regulations and local customs of France. In 1804, this grandiose set of laws, consisting of 2281 articles, was approved under the name of the Civil Code. The main thing in this Code is that it affirmed the equality of all before the law, freedom of conscience, inviolability of personality and property.

Napoleon himself well understood the historical significance of his legislative activities. “My true glory,” he said on the island of St. Helena, it’s not that I won forty battles. Waterloo will erase the memory of all these victories. But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever is my Civil Code.” truly outlived its creator. It remains the basis of French law and, in a sense, a symbol of the cultural greatness of France. It became a model for many economic legislations in different countries of the world, since what was done in France had not been done anywhere before.

Reforms in the education sector were of great importance. The Imperial University was created by a special decree. Under this name, a uniform centralized education system was established in France. It consisted of three levels: primary, secondary and higher and covered all educational institutions, both public and private. Unified qualification requirements and programs, combined with a variety of types of educational institutions, made it possible to satisfy the needs of society and the state for specialists in various fields and provide education to a wide range of the population.

Napoleon's administrative and legal innovations laid the foundation for the modern state, many of which are still in effect today. It was then that a system of secondary schools was created - lyceums and higher educational institutions - the Normal and Polytechnic schools, which still remain the most prestigious in France.

On the initiative of Napoleon, the Banque de France (French Bank) was created to provide financial support for industrial development, which outlived its creator by 100 years. Until 1936, no major changes were made to the management system of the French Bank, created by Napoleon: the manager and his deputies were appointed by the government, and decisions were made jointly with 15 board members from the shareholders - this ensured a balance between public and private interests. In 1803, paper money was eliminated: the monetary unit became the franc, equal to a five-gram silver coin and divided into 100 centimes.

Trying to achieve higher efficiency in the economic life of French society, Napoleon decided to take control of human labor and thinking. It cleared the way for free enterprise and free competition.

Napoleon's economic policy was to ensure the primacy of the French industrial and financial bourgeoisie in the European market. The economic balance under Napoleon's rule can certainly be considered favorable for France. His reign consolidated many of the gains of the revolutionary era and created extremely favorable conditions for the development of agriculture and industry.

To guide the activities and coordinate the development of various sectors of the economy, a special government body was created - the Council for the Management of Trade and Manufactures. It was during the years of the Empire that the industrial revolution began in France, and the foundations were laid for successful economic development in the 19th century. Napoleon said: “The monarch is obliged to carefully ensure that the division of material wealth is not made too unevenly, for in this case he will neither be able to retain the poor nor protect the rich.”

Spiritual foundations of the Empire

Paris occupied a special place. It was a center for the aristocracy and clergy. Napoleon paid special attention to the personal qualities of people and their beliefs. He believed that “Love for the motherland is the first dignity of a civilized person”, that “People of genius are meteors destined to burn out in order to illuminate their age.”. The support and understanding of the French people was important to the emperor. “The French realized that I went beyond the law only in order to restore the law,” said Napoleon. He believed that the role of the people in strengthening the power of the empire is very important and that “Military forces are not enough to defend the country, while the country defended by the people is invincible.” And the unifying force is the spiritual basis. “A society without religion is like a ship without a compass.” In 1801, an agreement was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. The Church introduced a special prayer for the health of the consul and then the emperor. Thus, the church became the support of the Bonapartist regime.

The army was subject to the will of one person, but there were no class or other similar differences; every soldier, regardless of origin, carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack. The non-commissioned officers and soldiers in the French army were excellent in their qualities. During their training, special attention was paid to instilling endurance, the ability to withstand the difficulties of military life and unconditional loyalty. Education, discipline, restraint, and willingness to obey were the essential qualities of French soldiers. Thanks to training in military schools, soldiers read Emile and Notes on the Gallic War by Julius Caesar. Military valor was cultivated - a soldier from the people was always ready to risk his life a thousand times in order to be known as the bravest of the entire company. There was not a sub-lieutenant who did not have the confidence that if he fought bravely and did not get hit by a stray cannonball, he would become a marshal of the Empire. Napoleon believed: “A hussar who is not killed at the age of 30 is not a hussar, but rubbish!” “There are two powerful forces in the world: the saber and the spirit. Ultimately, the spirit conquers the saber."

Great rulers

Under Napoleon, a whole galaxy of talented military leaders emerged:

Louis Alexandre Berthier - marshal, minister of war and at the same time chief of staff of Napoleon 1. His task was not to win, but to prepare victories. Napoleon's ideas, barely outlined, he quickly grasped and assimilated. He carried out the emperor's orders with forethought, clarity and precision. He was able to imagine extremely clearly the most complex movements of troops, he knew how to understand maps like no one else, quickly and clearly summed up the results of reconnaissance and, if necessary, could perfectly draw the location of positions. His memory was phenomenal: he remembered by heart all divisions, regiments and even battalions and companies; his physical endurance was such that he never seemed to know fatigue. Berthier possessed all the moral qualities inherent in a decent person. Napoleon said about Berthier: “He was extraordinarily active, he followed his commander everywhere, on all his trips, without slackening one iota in his clerical work... He sent out orders with amazing organization, accuracy and speed... He was one of the greatest and most valuable assistants of the Emperor, no one no one else could replace him.” Napoleon highly valued Berthier's abilities as a chief of staff. Indulging in memories on Fr. St. Helena, he once said: “If I had Berthier as my chief of staff, I would not have lost the battle.”

Joachim Murat was a cavalry commander in Napoleonic army. Marshal of France. King of Naples. For military successes and outstanding courage, Napoleon rewarded Murat with the Neapolitan crown.

Murat linked his fate not only with Napoleon Bonaparte, but also with Napoleonic cavalry, becoming the most outstanding commander of the French cavalry in the history of France. He soon became a great tactician, capable of commanding thousands of cavalrymen in campaigns and large battles. He was loved by the troops for his fearlessness in battle and his dashing, picturesque beauty of a combat cavalryman. Napoleon about Murat: “There was no more decisive, fearless and brilliant cavalry commander.” “He was my right hand, but left to his own devices he lost all his energy. In front of the enemy, Murat surpassed everyone in bravery; in the field he was a real knight; in the office, he was a braggart without intelligence and determination.”

Jean Lannes - French military leader, 1st Duke of Montebello, Marshal of the Empire. They talked about him - "Roland of the French Army". Lannes had a reputation in the army "the bravest of the brave." He had military flair and tremendous energy; During battles, he was incredibly brave and hard, like a granite rock. Lannes was well oriented in the constantly changing situation of the battle and in this he had practically no equal; he quickly rose in both the qualities of his mind and the qualities of a commander. Napoleon said about him: “Lanna’s courage was stronger than his reason; but the mind awoke every day to restore balance; I found him as a pygmy and lost him as a giant.”

Major achievements and discoveries

France is famous for its contribution to science and art, French music and cuisine are valued all over the world, but most amazing of all is painting, architecture and culture. It’s simply breathtaking when you look at the cathedrals of France. Notre Dame Cathedral (Notre Dame de Paris) still amazes people to this day.

The appearance of Paris during the period of the French Empire was no longer determined by fortress walls and castles, but by palaces, parks, and a regular system of streets and squares. In 1789, 22 universities operated in France.

Painting: the contribution of French painters to the treasury of world culture is enormous. The many schools, styles and directions of painting that emerged were subordinated to the ultimate goal of art - the transformation of the world and man according to the laws of beauty and the embodiment of the ideal in real life.

Napoleon paid special attention to scientific research work. One of the most famous discoveries made during the Egyptian campaign was the Rosetta Stone. It was discovered by soldiers during the construction of a fort in Rosetta. A decree was written on it in hieroglyphs from the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes. Subsequently, thanks to the work of scientists, the secrets of the pharaohs, kept for many centuries, were revealed.

Conclusion

Napoleon always spoke and acted on behalf of the interests of France, the nation, the French people, but never on behalf of bankers or entrepreneurs. When he considered it necessary, the emperor decisively limited the rights of the bourgeoisie and infringed on its interests.

However, Napoleon's Empire turned out to be fragile. The desire to become the sole ruler in France soon grew into the idea of ​​world domination.

Continuous wars caused an increase in taxes in France and forced the restructuring of the entire economy in relation to military needs. If at first wars were beneficial to various segments of the population, then later "blood tax" became increasingly burdensome for the people. Signs of dissatisfaction with Napoleon's policies were revealed in bourgeois circles in France. And this was one of the reasons for the collapse of the empire in 1814.

Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne, after which he was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. Before leaving, he wished to say goodbye to his guard. The best warriors of France lined up in the ceremonial palace of Fontainebleau. Officers and generals stood in front, veteran soldiers behind. With them he won all his victories. They never let him down in battle.

Napoleon said his farewell words to them: “I would like to squeeze you all in my arms, but let me kiss the banner. It represents you all". After kissing the banner, the emperor got into the carriage. The guards shouted: “Long live the Emperor!” And many of them burst into tears.

The Great Army created by Napoleon died under his rule; and immediately after the emperor's abdication, the French Empire, which he had forged over the years, disintegrated. But the glory of this great commander and statesman, talented and ambitious, does not fade. This man left a deep mark on world history and became the hero of many works. Across Europe, monuments commemorate his victories and defeats, and thousands of people around the world still dream of being like him and learn from his mistakes and achievements.

Bonaparte settled in the souls of people as the creator of the revolution, the savior of France. This man, in his unchanging gray frock coat and cocked hat, took a strong place in history, giving his name to an entire era.

Prepared based on information taken from open sources on the Internet: Direction "Charity" of the Academic System. Mianiye M.Yu.

Plan
Introduction
1 Consulate and empire (1799-1814)
2 The rise of the consulate in France
3 The Age of Empire in France 1804-1814

Introduction

The First French Empire (1804-1815) (Le Premier Empire) - The era of Napoleon Bonaparte's empire in France.

Consulate and Empire (1799-1814)

After the coup of the 18th Brumaire, the only power in France was represented by a provisional government consisting of three consuls (Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger-Ducos). Two commissions of members of the Councils of Five Hundred and the Elders were charged with drawing up a new constitution. The consuls—or, more precisely, Consul Bonaparte, since the other two were nothing more than his tools—acted with the decisiveness of autocratic power. Paris reacted to the coup completely calmly, without expressing any dissatisfaction and even clearly sympathizing with the new order; in the provinces, some people from the provincial magistracy protested here and there, but the protest was not strong. The French and even foreign exchanges reacted to the coup with complete confidence; instead of the usual reduction in stock exchange values ​​in such cases, on the very days of the 18th and 19th Brumaire they began to increase the French 5% of state values, which before the coup were selling with difficulty at 7 francs per 100. The increase continued with fluctuations throughout the following months and reached at the end of 1800 year 44 francs. On the 20th of Brumaire, a decree was made to expel 34 Jacobins from France, which was soon, however, cancelled. Numerous statements by the new government spoke of its loyalty to the principles of the revolution; the mandatory nature of the republican calendar was confirmed; The decree on emigrants “whom the fatherland forever ejects from its midst” was left in force. To prove their love of peace, the consuls turned to England and Austria with peace proposals.

By 22 Frimer VIII, the commissions that drafted the constitution had completed their work; Sieyes's draft was reworked in accordance with the wishes of Bonaparte, who was the main author of the constitution. It was a completely monarchical constitution, preserving only the ghost of popular power. The Constitution, entrusting the supreme executive power to three consuls, appointed Bonaparte as the first consul for a 10-year term, Cambaceres as the second, and Lebrun as the third (for a 5-year term). The First Consul received, directly or in a slightly disguised form, the right to appoint to all public positions, not excluding members of the legislative body, tribunate, council of state and senate (see French Constitutions). The constitution had to be subject to a popular vote (plebiscite), and this was almost the only manifestation of popular sovereignty.

When the people cast their votes, no debate was allowed; the voting was open. 3,011,000 votes were cast for the constitution, only 1,562 against it; Almost the entire Parisian intelligentsia, professors from various educational institutions, artists, lawyers, including many former Montagnards, voted in favor. The new order was put into effect even before the plebiscite, to which the constitution already in force was subjected. All power was now in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry that included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte (Minister of the Interior), Fouché (Minister of Police).

2. The rise of the consulate in France

Bonaparte's task was difficult. It was necessary to create almost completely anew the entire administration, restore finances, which were in an extremely confused situation, with a complete lack of credit, and somehow put an end to the second coalition. One of Bonaparte's first measures was to ban, on 27 Nivoze VIII (January 17, 1800), “for the duration of the war,” 60 political periodicals in Paris; only 13 were retained, and then with subordination to the Minister of Police and with the threat of prohibition if articles appeared in them that “did not show due respect for social order, for popular sovereignty, for the glory of the army ... and for powers friendly to the republic, at least these articles were extracts from foreign magazines”; the emergence of new journals was made dependent on prior permission. Police persecution of political opponents under the consulate (as later under the empire) was characterized by extreme rudeness.

Thus suppressing all manifestations of political freedom, Bonaparte energetically carried out the positive part of his program. It consisted in the creation of a firm, extremely centralized government, in the patronage of industry, especially agriculture, in the reconciliation with the new order of things of all those elements of the old society that could only reconcile with it (especially the church), in improving finances. The law of 28 Pluviosis VIII (February 17, 1800) “on the division of territory and administration” preserved and strengthened the division of France into departments and introduced a new division into districts (arrondissements). The department is headed by a government-appointed prefect; under it, a prefectural council and a general council were established, both of which were appointed by the government from the lists of departmental notables proposed by voters (voters elected from among themselves one tenth of the persons who were communal notables; these last from their environment also one tenth - that is, for the whole France has about 50,000 people - departmental notables, of whom departmental positions were filled). In the districts, under the sub-prefects, there were also district councils appointed by the government. In cities, urban management was to be managed by appointed mayors.

Thus, all management from top to bottom was made strictly centralized, returning completely to pre-revolutionary times; prefects took the place of intendants of the old monarchy, but were invested with much more real power and acted under much more effective control of the central government. On March 18, 1800, a law on the judicial organization of France was passed, imbued with the same aspirations. On February 7, 1801, this law, in view of the royalist attempt on the life of Bonaparte (see Napoleon), was supplemented by the law on special tribunals for all cases where the government deems it necessary to refer the case to exclusive jurisdiction. An important piece of legislation was the civil code of 1804, later (1807) renamed the Code Napoleon; already during the empire it was followed by codes of civil and criminal proceedings (1806), commercial law (1807), and criminal laws (1810); In all these legislative acts, the equality before the law created by the revolution was quite strictly implemented and the remnants of feudalism were destroyed. The Civil Code allowed divorce at the simple request of the spouses, but greatly expanded the power of the husband and father in the family, unconditionally subordinating the wife and children to it; illegitimate children were forbidden to find their father. In the field of criminal law, Napoleonic legislation certainly returned to pre-revolutionary traditions, generously scattering the death penalty, restoring such punishments as cutting off the right hand of parricides before execution, branding the shoulder, chaining a heavy cannonball to convicts; these punishments were finally abolished only in 1832.

In 1801, with the assistance of the government, a society for the promotion of national industry was founded. Communication routes, both land and river, have been significantly improved; the law on the protection of forests in the 11th year saved them from reckless destruction. On 7 Nivoz VIII (December 25, 1799) the church buildings were returned to the church; On July 15, 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII, by virtue of which the state church in France was restored by the law of the 18th Germinal Χ (April 8, 1802); bishops were to be appointed by the first consul, but receive approval from the pope; The last important measure in this direction, taken already under the empire, was the abolition of the republican calendar and the restoration of the Christian calendar (January 1, 1806). The Catholic Church was so reconciled with the new order of things in France that the Pope agreed to crown Napoleon as king. Subsequently, their relationship deteriorated again, so that the pope excommunicated Napoleon from the church.

Conspiracies against Napoleon, the execution of the Duke of Enghien, changes in the constitution of the year X (recognition of Bonaparte as consul for life), the constitution of the XII year, which recognized Napoleon as emperor, the coronation of Napoleon in 1804 - see Napoleon I.

3. The era of empire in France 1804-1814

In 1804, a new era began in the history of France - the era of empire, which, however, was a direct continuation of the previous one, for Napoleon, even during the consulate, was in fact the ruler of the state. Napoleon's reign was filled, with some interruptions, with wars, at first extremely happy for France, although with some unfavorable episodes (the Battle of Trafalgar); France extended its power and influence to almost all of Europe, leaving a deep mark on its internal order. Beginning with failures in Spain (see the Spanish-Portuguese War of 1807-1814) and continuing with the war with Russia in 1812, fortunes changed empires (see the Napoleonic Wars and Napoleon I). Nevertheless, the economic balance of Napoleon's reign cannot be considered absolutely unfavorable for France. It consolidated many of the gains of the revolutionary era and created extremely favorable conditions for the development of agriculture and industry.

During this era in France (mainly with the active assistance of the government), the culture of certain plants, hitherto unknown or little known in France, spread greatly; the most important of them was potatoes, the introduction of which began even before the revolution, but proceeded slowly. The area of ​​cultivated land has increased quite significantly; winemaking from 1790 to 1810 increased by one and a half times; the export of livestock from the amount of 4.5 million francs in 1790 rose to 9 million by 1812; the spinning, weaving, and silk industries received a huge boost and increased several times; the factory industry, very weak before the revolution, was very developed towards the end of Napoleon's reign. In addition to various internal measures taken for these purposes, Napoleon considered it necessary to resort to a highly protective, partly directly prohibitive, customs tariff. France's export trade grew rapidly in the first half of Napoleon's reign: in 1802-04. exports averaged 351 million francs, in 1805-07. - 402 million francs, and only in the second half began to fall, amounting to 1808-10. 343, in 1811-12. 356 million francs. Imports, hampered by tariffs and political events, fluctuated greatly from year to year, but generally fell (1802-465 million francs, 1812-257 million francs). See Continental System.