About bad memory and good memory Of course, more or less good memory is not only an innate quality. But still, the strength of the first assimilations that form the basis of mental work, and then the strength of subsequent assimilations that are not in connection with the work begun,

Basic information about the work

Template version 1.1 Branch Nizhny Novgorod Type of work Electronic written pre-defense Name of the discipline Psychology Topic Development of student's memory in the process of educational activities Last name of the graduate Lopygin Name of the graduate Oleg Patronymic of the graduate Grigorievich Contract No. 09200070701021 Content

memory students optimization mnemonic

Introduction

Theoretical review of the problem of memory in domestic and foreign literature

1 Representations of the main scientific schools about the specifics and mechanisms of formation of mnemonic processes

2 Types of memory and their features

Experimental study of the development of students' memory in the process of educational activities

1 Stages and procedure of experimental research

2 Results of the experimental study

Conclusion

Glossary

List of sources used

Introduction

The work is devoted to one of the most important problems of theoretical and practical psychology - the problem of developing a student's memory in the process of educational activity.

The relevance of this problem is justified by the fact that memory is one of the most important attributes of human life itself, ensuring the normal functioning of the individual and society. The development of memory as the highest mental function is the basis for the differentiation of humans and animals, and also seems to be one of the most important vectors of human progress, since it is a necessary condition for learning, acquiring knowledge, and developing skills.

Memory ensures the integrity of the human personality with its inherent certain picture of the world, the motivational-need sphere. Observations of people with impaired memory show that a person who has lost his memory ceases to be a person; he turns into an automaton, acting under the influence of primitive needs and momentary influences.

Memory is the most important resource for personal development, provides a connection between the past and the present and helps predict the future. As S.L. Rubinstein noted, “without memory we would be creatures of the moment... our past would be dead to the future... the present, as it passes, would irrevocably disappear into the past.”

Currently, in the context of developmental and educational psychology, much attention is paid to the study of the development of memory as a higher mental function at different stages of ontogenesis, as well as to the study of psychological and pedagogical conditions that contribute to the optimization of the mnemonic activity of children and adolescents.

The problem of memory development is of particular relevance during the period when study becomes the leading activity for the child.

Numerous studies show that the correct organization of primary school children’s mastery of educational activities is inextricably linked with the optimization of their memory and the formation of mnemonic techniques in them.

Currently, the amount of information required for memorization, preservation and reproduction by students is rapidly increasing.

In school practice, complaints from teachers and parents about poor memory are traditional and quite common. Thus, the problem is clearly revealed: insufficient development of basic mnemonic operations leads to low academic performance, which is one of the reasons for indiscipline, aggressiveness and other emotional and interpersonal problems in children of primary school age.

In connection with the great pressing problem of memory development, already starting from Aristotle, mnemonic processes were subjected to detailed study in a variety of branches of scientific knowledge: philosophy, physiology, chemistry, cybernetics, psychology.

Today, there are numerous scientific schools and directions focused on the study of memory in its various aspects and presented in the works of domestic psychologists L.S. Vygotsky (2007), A.N. Leontiev (2006), A.A. Smirnova (2007), P.I. Zinchenko (2003), A.R. Luria (2008), V.Ya. Lyaudis (2006), V.D. Shadrikov (2000) and others, as well as foreign ones - Norman D.A. (2005), Atkinson R. (2004), etc.

Based on the above, it is formulated purpose of the study:studying the specifics of student memory development in the process of learning activities.

Research objectives:

1. Systematize scientific information regarding the definition, typology of memory and the mechanisms of its functioning.
2. To identify the specifics of memory as a higher mental function in primary school age.
3. To study the basic mnemonic techniques used in the practice of psychological and pedagogical support for primary school students.
4. Conduct an experimental study of the development of students' memory in the process of educational activities.

An objectresearch: memory as the highest mental function in children

primary school age.

Itemresearch: psychological and pedagogical conditions for the development of memory in primary school students in the process of educational activities.

Hypothesisresearch: the development of students' memory in the process of educational activities is possible with the organization of psychological and pedagogical support aimed at diagnosing the main characteristics and developing mnemonic skills in children.

Research base:The study was conducted at MAOU Secondary School No. 81 in Nizhny Novgorod. It was attended by 1st grade students - 14 people (7 girls, 7 boys). The age of children is from 7 to 8 years.

Research methods: theoretical analysis of literature; empirical methods: testing, mathematical and statistical methods for assessing the reliability of the results obtained (G-sign test method) and qualitative analysis of the results obtained.

The survey was aimed at identifying the development of mnemonic techniques among students; The typology of voluntary memorization methods by V.Ya. Lyaudis was taken as criteria.

Testing was carried out using the following methods:

.Subtest “Repetition of numbers” from D. Wechsler’s test, aimed at diagnosing short-term memory

.“Grouping” technique by E.L. Yakovleva, aimed at diagnosing the ability to semantically process memorized material

.Methodology by K.P. Maltseva “Mnemonic supports”, aimed at diagnosing and correcting mnemonic activity.

Practical significance of the work:The results of the study will contribute to the organization of psychological and pedagogical support for children of primary school age to optimize mnemonic activity.

Structure of the work: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, list of sources used, glossary, appendices.

The first chapter presents the main foreign and domestic theories of memory, and also provides comparative characteristics of definitions of memory and typologies.

The second chapter presents the specifics of the memory of children of primary school age, and also examines the main mnemonic techniques that help optimize the memory of students.

The third chapter presents an experimental study of the development of students' memory in the process of learning activities.

1 Theoretical review of the problem of memory in domestic and foreign literature

1.1 Views of the main scientific schools about the specifics and mechanisms of formation of mnemonic processes

Memory occupies a special place in the structure of the psyche: it is one way or another integrated into all mental cognitive processes - and therefore received the status of a “general organic function”. Memory provides processes for storing individual experience, as well as genetically determined mechanisms for transmitting information.

Currently, memory as a mental cognitive process is represented in all studies in general psychology.

Let's consider the basic terminology on the topic “Memory”, identified by domestic researchers.

A.V. Petrovsky, R.S. Nemov, A.G. Maklakov define memory as a mental cognitive process. It should be noted that the definitions are almost identical: A.V. Petrovsky: “Memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by an individual of his experience.”

R.S. Nemov gives several definitions: “... the ability to receive, store and reproduce life experience” and the second, more accurate and strict, from his point of view: “... psychophysiological and cultural processes that perform the functions of remembering, preserving and reproducing in life information."

A.G. Maklakov: “By memory we mean the imprinting, preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience.”

Thus, we can conclude that all the definitions listed above rely on the basic processes of memory (all authors emphasize memorization and reproduction, with some discrepancy in the mention of “recognition”). R.S. Nemov simultaneously notes the psychophysiological and cultural specificity of memory processes (in this case it can be assumed that his definition is based on L.S. Vygotsky’s concept of the cultural and historical development of higher mental functions).

The above researchers pay attention to the role of memory processes in human life: memory “separates man from the animal kingdom and ... is a condition for successful adaptation” (R.S. Nemov); “ensures the unity and integrity of the individual” (A.V. Petrovsky); “represents a “end-to-end” process that ensures the continuity of mental processes and unites all cognitive processes into a single whole” (A.G. Maklakov).

Thus, the adapting and integrating functions of memory are emphasized.

In science, the first ideas about memory came down to understanding this mental phenomenon as a specific imprint (in other words, a trace) of objects (in other words, various types of stimuli) that were perceived by a person in the process of cognition of the surrounding world.

The mechanisms of mnemonic processes have been studied in the context of various sciences: physiology, biology, psychology.

From the point of view of biochemistry, mnemonic processes are associated with changes in the composition of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and other biochemical structures, which determines the memorization, preservation and reproduction of “traces” of neuro-brain processes. A.V. Petrovsky considers the significance of RNA as “the basis of individual memory,” and all structural and chemical changes in brain cells are “a product of previous activity,” which are “a necessary condition ... for more complex actions.”

From a physiological point of view, the functioning of memory and, above all, such a mnemonic process as the storage of information, is due to the formation of neural connections, or associations. The physiological nature of mnemonic processes is presented in different studies with some disagreement. However, almost everywhere memory is interpreted as an elementary process of imprinting, which has a biological origin.

Memorization is possible if electrical activity occurs. A reciprocal relationship has been discovered between chemical and structural changes in the brain and electrical activity. The process of reverberation is examined in detail, according to which a “simple chain” arises, in which the excitation makes a circle and begins a new one. The reverberation process can be stopped in the event of the appearance of new signals, chemical processes in neurons and synapses. The fact that received information is retained throughout life is explained by the presence of multiple electrical activity in neurons - “consolidation”.

A.V. Petrovsky and A.G. Maklakov associate the development of the physiological theory of memory, first of all, with such a discovery in the field of physiology as the teaching of I.P. Pavlov on the laws of higher nervous activity. A.V. Petrovsky, using the terms “stimulus” and “reinforcement,” argues that reinforcement is “nothing more than achieving the immediate goal of an individual’s action.” And this formulation of the question is fully consistent with the basic provisions of the domestic theory of activity.

Numerous studies have noted the fact that the physiological mechanisms of memory have not yet been fully studied.

Let's consider the main psychological theories of memory.

A.V. Petrovsky, A.G. Maklakov note the presence of three theories of memory: psychological, physiological and biochemical, representing “different levels” of studying this problem.”

A.V. Petrovsky believes that all theories of memory should be classified depending on what role they assigned to the subject’s activity in the formation of memory processes and how they viewed the nature of this activity. A.V. Petrovsky notes that in most theories the focus was either on the object (“material” in itself, or the subject (“pure activity of consciousness”), regardless of the activity of the individual. Thus, this author comes to the conclusion about the “inevitable one-sidedness of all theories."

Let us pay attention to associative theories that were first presented by Aristotle: associations by contiguity, associations by similarity, associations by contrast. Then these ideas were experimentally proven by a number of foreign and domestic researchers.

D. Hume, W. James, G. Spencer created the concept of associative psychology, according to which almost all mental phenomena were interpreted primarily from a mechanistic point of view. The authors of this concept believed that there is a certain connection between all mental processes, which in the process of reflecting the realities of the external world does not depend on a person’s awareness of their most important internal connections.

A.V. Petrovsky conducted a critical analysis of the “associative theory”, which, from his point of view, despite some positive aspects, does not answer the question of what determines the selectivity of memory, and in a number of other areas, memory processes are not associated with the activity of the subject and are applied only to the higher stages of memory development. The most correct theory that can consider memory in the necessary scientific context, from the point of view of A.V. Petrovsky, is the theory of activity, since it allows us to highlight activity as the main determinant of the formation of memory as one of the mental processes.

Nevertheless, some ideas of the theory of associative connections were experimentally confirmed by domestic psychophysiologists I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov. I.P. Pavlov examined the basic patterns of associative connections, which, in his opinion, consist in the existence of temporary connections that arise as a result of simultaneous or sequential exposure to two or more stimuli.

In the context of the processes of association formation, memory processes were also considered by the famous German psychologist L.G. Ebbinghaus. In connection with this methodological basis, the researcher studied mechanical memory by memorizing unrelated units (syllables). Classic today are his experimental studies, which made it possible to establish a number of important patterns of memorization, preservation and forgetting of information.

In modern psychology, the associative theory is presented as one of the many explanatory models of mnemonic processes.

In the context of this work, the Gestalt concept regarding the problem of memory mechanisms deserves special attention. In their understanding of the nature of mnemonic processes, representatives of this theory relied on the idea of ​​“gestalt,” which presupposes the original, holistic organization of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Thus, it was emphasized that memory processes are determined by the formation of a gestalt (“whole”, “structure”, “system”). That is, it is the presence of a systemic organization of the whole that influences the features and mechanisms of functioning of its parts.

Experimental studies of memory, carried out in the context of Gestalt psychology, were based on the postulate of the holistic structure of the material that a person remembers and reproduces. Thus, this assumption acted as an alternative to the associative theory, according to which random sets of elements are perceived, imprinted and reproduced

From the point of view of representatives of Gestalt psychology, the reproduction of certain information was due to the fact that a person had a certain attitude toward memorization or reproduction, which contributed to the formation of certain integral structures in the human mind, control of the process of memorization and reproduction, and selection of the necessary information.

In the context of Gestal psychology, a number of experiments were carried out in Russian psychology, for example, under the leadership of B.V. Zeigarnik. Thus, the concept of “the effect of unfinished action” entered into Russian psychology, which is consistent with the “quasi-need” discovered by K. Levin. The main content of the memory phenomena identified by psychologists is that subjects remember best those tasks that remained unfinished at the end of the experiment. That is, the need to complete the task remained unfulfilled. Conclusions were drawn about the influence of motivation caused by the fact of unfinished tasks on the selectivity of memory.

In the semantic theory of memory, A. Binet and K. Bühler considered the dependence of mnemonic processes on the presence of certain semantic connections, which make it possible to combine the memorized material into “semantic structures”. That is, representatives of this direction considered the semantic content of the memorized material to be the main determinant of the processes of memorization and reproduction.

In the psychoanalytic direction, various memory phenomena have been studied quite widely, starting with S. Freud (for example, the phenomenon of “infantile amnesia”). An important contribution to the development of the theory of memory is traditional psychoanalytic ideas about the influence of such personal characteristics as emotions, motives, needs on the functioning of a number of mnemonic processes. The concept of psychological defense mechanisms by S. Freud and A. Freud illuminated in sufficient detail the problem of “motivated forgetting,” which is represented at the basis of “repressing” traumatic events from the conscious level of the psyche. There is mixed evidence regarding how negative and positive events are retained in memory. For example, some representatives of modern psychoanalysis believe that negative events are reproduced more often by individuals with a strong “I”.

In the behavioral direction, attempts were also made to study mnemonic processes, which in some way resonated with the ideas of associative theory. From the point of view of representatives of behavioral psychology, successful memorization is facilitated by the reinforcement of mnemonic activity with some stimulus.

Despite the numerous experimental facts obtained, the question of the origin of memory remained practically open. However, within the framework of the French psychological school (for example, in the works of P. Janet), such mnemonic processes as memorization, processing and preservation were first identified; and also - the idea of ​​the social determination of mnemonic processes and their conditionality by human practical activity is substantiated.

The problem of developing students' memory in the process of educational activities, considered in this work, has led to special attention to the study of memory in the context of higher mental functions.

Research on the formation and development of higher mental functions is presented in most detail in the concept of cultural-historical development of the Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky, and then experimentally substantiated by A.A. Smirnov and P.I. Zinchenko.

So, in the concept of L.S. Vygotsky, special attention was paid to the problem of higher voluntary and conscious forms of memory, which first exist in the form of interpsychic functions, as a product of interaction between a child and an adult, and then, through gradual internalization, acquire the status of intrapsychic functions, that is, they become the basis for arbitrary reference to one’s experience and independent use of various methods of mnemonic activity

Highlighting the natural and cultural levels of development of the human psyche, L.S. Vygotsky experimentally confirmed the existence of higher forms of memory, which are social in origin. He also studied the development of memory in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. The ontogenetic aspect of memory development included the stages of voluntary and involuntary, direct and indirect functioning of mnemonic processes.

As R.M. Granovskaya notes, the merit of L.S. Vygotsky is that he “threw a bridge” between involuntary and mediated voluntary memory. From his point of view, the development of voluntary memory from involuntary memory in a child is possible in the case of interaction with an adult using the mediating function of speech. The first stages of the formation of voluntary memory are presented in the form of external actions using objects. Then the actions are internalized and self-regulated - at this stage, memory acquires the characteristics of indirect and logical.

A.N. Leontiev associated historically early forms of voluntary memory with the process of memorizing some objects through others. For example, a pebble, put by a person in his pocket under certain circumstances, subsequently falling into his hand, served as a “reminder”, that is, it was used as a specific means of remembering.

In the literature there are numerous descriptions of “folk” mnemonic means and actions: notches, slicing, memory knots, etc. Thus, memorization and reproduction with the help of all these aids can be considered “indirect”.

Traditionally, there are two directions in the development of indirect memorization in phylogenesis. The first direction is usually associated with the use of external object intermediaries (amulets, pebbles, etc.), which help optimize memory. The result of this “path” was the construction of monuments, the development of writing, the emergence of photography, cinema, etc. The second direction in the development of mediated memorization involved the inclusion of special actions (tying a “knot for memory”, notching) in the organization of the process of memorization and reproduction.

Gradually, in the process of phylogenetic development, independence of information reproduction from external intermediaries was formed. External stimuli specific to involuntary memory began to be replaced by internal stimuli as voluntary memory was formed.

L.S. Vygotsky noted that speech was the main instrument for the development of voluntary memory. The process of a person mastering inner speech contributed to the use of words as an internal stimulus, a kind of intermediary with the help of which the processes of self-regulation of memorization and reproduction can be organized.

P. Janet, studying memorization as an activity that compensates for absence, identified the following stages of memory formation in a child: “waiting”, “delayed action”, “preserving instructions” (first with the help of objects, then with the help of signs). Voluntary memory reaches its highest level if the child is ready to reproduce the memorized material. The more common retelling involves the child's ability to differentiate the time perspective of events and awareness of relationships.

Thus, the ontogenetic context of the formation of individual memory largely corresponds to phylogenesis: recall is first carried out through objects, then through words, and finally through the structure of words.

In the studies of A.A. Smirnov and P.I. Zinchenko, experimental searches for arbitrary forms of mnemonic activity were deepened, and the connection between memory processes and thinking processes was examined. Following the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky and A.N. Leontiev, these psychologists revealed the laws of memory as a meaningful human activity, identified the dependence of memorization on the structural and content characteristics of goal setting, and identified a number of mnemonic techniques.

Modern domestic psychological science adheres to the point of view that memory is, first of all, determined by the nature of a person’s activity and the direction of his personality.

Today, a point of view has been established according to which memory processes cannot be considered separately from the characteristics and properties of the individual. It has been experimentally proven that certain manifestations of memory are primarily determined by the orientation and motivational sphere of the individual.

As is known, the orientation of a person is diverse in its content: it incorporates a large number of goals and motives of activity, inclinations, and interests that differ in their degree of stability. Thus, the uniqueness of the course of mnemonic processes is determined. A large amount of experimental data has been obtained in favor of the fact that objects of the surrounding world that are within the sphere of interests of the individual are remembered much more effectively and are preserved for a long time. It influences the characteristics of mnemonic activity and the professional orientation of the individual.

Memory depends on various personal characteristics: age, development of the volitional, emotional and intellectual spheres.

In Russian psychology, some psychoanalytic ideas regarding mnemonic processes have also been experimentally confirmed. For example, P.P. Blonsky conducted research in which he found that emotionally charged information is remembered more effectively than emotionally neutral information. He experimentally proved that more than 90.0% of information that has a negative emotional connotation is remembered. P.P. Blonsky asked the subjects to reproduce early childhood memories in writing. It should be noted that in terms of frequency of occurrence, the following thematic groups were represented in the first three places: “mysterious and new”, “death”, “severe frights and fears”. The last places were occupied by: “happy moments”, “other”, “emotionally indifferent events”.

S.L. Rubinstein agrees that an emotionally rich event will be captured better than an emotionally neutral one. However, he emphasizes, the capture of a pleasant or unpleasant event will depend on the degree of its relevance for the person’s personality, on its place in the history of its development. So, for example, a pleasant event, which was the completion of an action that was once relevant to the individual, will most likely be forgotten. But if a pleasant memory is associated with currently unresolved problems that determine new prospects for personal development, then it will most likely be retained in memory. The same logic applies to unpleasant events.

S.L. Rubinstein also notes that the content of the memorized material depends on the characterological characteristics of the individual.

Modern studies in the history of psychology repeatedly note the role of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, A.A. Smirnov and P.I. Zinchenko in memory research within the framework of the theory of development of higher mental functions and activity theory.

For example, R.S. Nemov emphasizes that in the context of activity theory, “memory acts as a special type of psychological activity, including a system of theoretical and practical actions subordinated to solving the mnemonic problem - memorizing, preserving and reproducing various information...; carefully examines...the dependence of memory products on the place in the structure of the purpose and means of memorization,...the comparative productivity of voluntary and involuntary memorization depending on the organization of mnemonic activity...".

1.2 Types of memory and their features

Manifestations of memory are distinguished by a wide variety of forms, which is due to the fact that memory, one way or another, accompanies all types of diverse human activities.

Classifications are based on a variety of criteria, so today there are a large number of typologies of mnemonic processes that are enriched with new information.

A.V. Petrovsky notes that consideration of the characteristics of memory should be determined by the characteristics of the activity itself in which memorization and reproduction are carried out.

A.V. Petrovsky distinguishes types of memory in accordance with three main criteria:

By the nature of mental activity: motor memory; emotional memory; figurative memory; verbal-logical memory.

By the nature of the goals of the activity: involuntary memory; arbitrary memory.

According to the duration of material retention: long-term memory; short-term memory; RAM .

A.G. Maklakov, when considering the main types of memory depending on the characteristics of mental activity, draws attention to the first manifestations in the process of ontogenesis; he notes that in the early stages, some types of memory are predominantly conditioned reflex in nature.

A.V. Petrovsky pays more attention to the individual differences of carriers of a certain type of memory and introduces another type of memory - “eidetic memory”, which “works” with the help of so-called “eidetic images, or visual images of memory”, is the result of irritation of the senses external stimuli and is characterized by such detailed clarity, completely inaccessible to ordinary representation.

From the point of view of R.S. Nemov, there are two grounds for classification: the first is the division of memory according to the time the material is stored, the second is the analyzer that predominates in the processes of memorizing, storing and reproducing the material. So, the typology presented by R.S. Nemov looks like this:

According to the time of storage of the material: instantaneous (or iconic) memory; short-term memory; RAM; long-term memory; genetic memory.

According to the analyzer that predominates in the processes of memorizing, storing and reproducing material: motor; visual; auditory; olfactory; tactile; emotional, etc.

It should be noted that almost all modern ideas of memory theory consider the problem of the relationship between different types of memory, but different authors use different types of memory as comparable objects.

Thus, A.V. Petrovsky considers the relationship of all types of memory in accordance with the classification he adopted. He once again emphasizes that this relationship is due to the fact that “the division of memory into types, which he accepted as the basis, is associated with various aspects of human activity, acting in organic unity.” For example, verbal-logical memory can be either involuntary or voluntary, and also either short-term or long-term. He notes the existence of a connection between different types of memory, for example, motor, figurative and verbal-logical. However, the connection between short-term and long-term memory is considered as two stages of a single process and emphasizes that short-term memory is a kind of “passport” of all memory processes.

Considering the relationship between memory processes, R.S. Nemov focuses on the analysis of the characteristics and relationship of the “two main types of memory,” from his point of view, which a person uses in everyday life: short-term and long-term. R. Nemov, as well as A.V. Petrovsky, notes the large role of short-term memory in human life, in particular for the normal functioning of long-term memory and compares short-term memory with “an obligatory intermediate storage and filter that passes the necessary, already selected information into the long-term memory".

Particular attention should be paid to the concept of R. Atkinson and R. Shifrin, according to which there is an interconnected work of short-term and long-term memory, including repression, repetition and encoding as private processes that make up the work of memory.

Let's consider descriptive models of the most common types of memory today.

According to P.P. Blonsky, different types of memory are formed in humans at different stages of ontogenesis. Therefore, they can be considered in ontogenetic sequence.

Motor memory - this is memory for movements. It is the basis for the formation of various motor skills: labor, sports, practical, etc. A.A. Smirnov’s experiments show that memorization will be more productive if it occurs at the level of actions (rather than thoughts), moreover, accompanied by overcoming obstacles. Already at preschool age, the level of development of motor memory allows children to clearly coordinate actions related to the acquisition of written language.

Affective memory is memory for feelings. It plays an important regulatory role in human life, especially in the system of interpersonal relationships. The feelings that a person has experienced can act as unique stimuli that encourage action or hinder its implementation.

Figurative memory is the memory of ideas and images that in the past affected the senses. There are visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and eidetic memory. The latter presupposes the preservation in consciousness of bright and distinct images of previous perception.

Verbal-logical memory is a memory for thoughts, determined by the activity of the second signaling system, which is specific only to human memory. This type of memory contributes to the formation of abstract thinking and successful learning in general.

In the context of the problems of this work, the classification of memory according to the nature of the goals of the activity into voluntary and involuntary memory is of particular importance.

Involuntary memory is the unintentional imprinting of external stimuli in the absence of deliberate memorization. This type of memory is characterized by special selectivity, namely: what is involuntarily remembered better is that which has a direct connection with the vital necessity and actual needs of a person, with the goals and objectives of his activity.

From the point of view of P.I. Zinchenko and A.A. Smirnov showed that involuntary memorization is determined by the degree of activity and the content of a person’s motivational sphere.

Voluntary memory involves purposeful memorization associated with the use of volitional efforts and special means for its implementation. This type of memory is directly related to the thinking process.

According to the criterion of time of retention of material, sensory, short-term and long-term memory are distinguished.

Sensory memory is a primitive, receptor process. The reticular formation plays a direct role in the formation and preservation of images.

Short-term memory helps process and sort large amounts of information, which protects the brain from overload. The duration of short-term memory is approximately 20 seconds. Therefore, to retain information at this level, activity aimed at memorization and concentration on one type of activity is necessary. Short-term memory is necessary for understanding the sequence of words, instructions, and solving problems. Therefore, in learning, poorly developed short-term memory prevents 6-7 year old children from solving complex problems and building behavioral strategies. Without productive short-term memory, long-term memory will also be problematic. Transition from the level of short-term memory to the level of long-term memory. seems possible with the help of volitional processes.

Long-term memory is characterized by the fact that its duration and volume are practically unlimited and depend on the importance of the information being remembered, on the method of encoding, systematization, as well as the features of reproduction. The successful functioning of long-term memory depends on the degree of its semantic organization and on the level of speech development. The learning process involves focusing on long-term memory. Therefore, it is important to have a well-structured system of lessons and ways of presenting educational material.

Working memory manifests itself during the performance of a certain activity and “serves” this activity. The volume of “operational memory units” directly determines the successful implementation of a particular activity. Therefore, for memorizing material, the formation of optimal operational memory units is of great importance.

Thus, from the first chapter you can do the following: conclusions:

Human memory is, on the one hand, a complex activity, the result of which is determined by such factors as motivation, the formation and retention of intentions, the choice of an adequate plan and the composition of operations necessary for its implementation. On the other hand, these higher or second order factors, as their necessary prerequisite, require the preservation of the trace-forming function in the form of the primary biological ability of the brain to receive and record current impressions.

Memory is one of the broadest psychological concepts. Thanks to memory, a connection of the present, past and future occurs. It is memory that ensures the stability of the individual and facilitates the process of learning and development. All knowledge, abilities, skills without memory are not needed by a person, since he would not be able to use them.

There are several bases for classifying types of memory. One of them is the division of memory according to the time of storage of the material, the other - according to the analyzer that predominates in the processes of memorizing, saving and reproducing the material.

Memory manifests itself in the processes of remembering and preserving what was previously perceived, in reproducing and recognizing what happened before, as well as forgetting what is not necessary at some moments in our life. Memorization, recollection, reproduction, recognition are built on the basis of the elementary ability to imprint. These are specific processes in which thinking is essentially included in a complex and contradictory unity with speech, attention, interests, emotions, etc. are included.

Research by V.D. Shadrikov and L.V. Cheremoshkina showed that the specificity of the mnemonic abilities of primary school students lies in the severity of the “perceptual-representational level of mnemonic actions”: that is, children remember, first of all, through repetition, as well as such techniques as groupings, recoding, strongholds, associations.

About 20.0% of students did not cope with the task: they showed an inability to correctly retain the task, involuntary reproduction was fragmentary, and an unconscious solution to the problem.

2. Experimental study of the development of students' memory in the process of educational activities

.1 Test procedure

The study consisted of three stages.

At the first stage of the study, a semi-standardized conversation was conducted with primary school teachers and first grade teachers to obtain an expert assessment regarding the development of basic mnemonic techniques among primary school students that allow optimizing educational activities.

Teachers were asked to determine, based on the experience of educational cooperation with children, the level of formation of certain mnemonic techniques.

At the second stagestudents were asked to complete the “Repetition of Digits” subtest from D. Wexler’s test, aimed at diagnosing short-term memory; the “Grouping” technique by E.L. Yakovleva, aimed at diagnosing the ability to semantically process memorized material.

At the third stagestudents were asked to perform K.P. Maltseva’s “Mnemonic Supports” method, aimed at diagnosing and correcting mnemonic activity.

We present a brief description of the diagnostic tools.

The questionnaire for teachers in order to obtain an expert assessment regarding the formation of mnemonic techniques in students was based on the typology of methods of voluntary memorization by V.Ya. Lyaudis: 1) classification of educational material according to certain essential characteristics; 2) highlighting the supporting “points” that carry the main semantic load (title, abstract, questions, etc.); 2) drawing up a plan as a generalization of the supporting “points”; 3) structuring - awareness of the relative position of the structural components of the material required for memorization; 3) schematization - presentation of the memorized material in the form of diagrams; 4) analogy - identifying similarities in certain characteristics of any facts, objects, etc.; 5) recoding - verbalization or pronunciation, presentation of information in figurative form; 6) supplementing the memorized material with new information, integration with it; 7) serial organization of material - establishment of intergroup relations, connections, etc.

The teacher was asked, using conventionally identified three levels (high, medium, low), to determine the level of development of basic mnemonic techniques among students in 1st grade.

The subtest “Repetition of numbers” is borrowed from the test by D. Wexleraimed at diagnosing short-term memory. To determine the volume of short-term memory, material that carried a minimum of meaning was taken. That's why numbers were used. This technique was included by Wechsler in his scale for measuring intelligence. The technique consists of two parts: the first is aimed at determining the amount of memory and consists of digital series of different lengths. The length of each subsequent row increases by one. There are seven rows in total. The second part offers a test of concentration, also consisting of number series.

Stimulus material and instructions are presented in Appendices B and C.

Students were first presented with the first row of numbers from the first series. If the student correctly reproduced the first row, he was offered the next one. If any row of the first series was incorrectly reproduced, the student was given a row of the second series of similar size. If it was reproduced correctly, the student was again offered the next row from the first series. If a student incorrectly reproduced two rows of the same size from the first and second series, the test was stopped and they moved on to the second part, “Counting Down.”

During the implementation, the following were observed: rules:

1.The numbers were pronounced extremely clearly at intervals of 1 second.

2.During the period from the end of the counting by the experimenter to the beginning of its reproduction by the students, all sounds were excluded.

.The same row was not repeated twice.

.The experiment began with direct counting. Then we moved on to counting in reverse order.

When analyzing the first part - “direct counting”, emphasis was placed on determining the volume of short-term memory. When analyzing “counting back” - to determine the concentration of attention. This selection of tasks is explained by the fact that memory is directly related to attention: poor concentration can significantly reduce memory productivity.

The number of digits in the last correctly reproduced row during direct counting was considered as an indicator of the capacity of short-term memory. The number of numbers correctly named when counting backwards is an indicator of concentration.

Age standards: short-term memory capacity: 3-6 units (average value - 4); attention: 2-5 units (average value - 3).

“Grouping” technique by E.L. Yakovlevais aimed at diagnosing the ability to semantically process memorized material.

Stimulus material and instructions are presented in the Appendix.

During the test, the following rules were observed: words were read with a pause of 1 second between the pronunciation of the elements of the series. Upon completion of reading the entire series, the student was asked to reproduce it. Reproduction was free: conditions were created for the student to make an independent conclusion about the possibility of combining words into groups. All words reproduced by the student were recorded in the protocol. Then the student was read again a series of words with a task for memorization and reproduction in a free order. The words reproduced by the student were recorded in the protocol. Then a third reading and reproduction of words was carried out, followed by their fixation.

When processing the results obtained, we relied on the standards for the flow of mnemonic activity stated by the author of the methodology, E.L. Yakovleva. At first playback, the volume of short-term memory of children 7-8 years old is 3-5 words. There are practically no grouped words. In the second presentation, grouped words appear. Groups consist of two words. The total volume of reproduced words increases by 2-4 words. On the third playback, groups of 3 words appear and one or two groups of all 4 words may appear.

K.P. Maltseva’s teaching methodology “Meaning Units” consists of two parts: “Teaching the creation of mnemonic supports” and “Drawing up a plan.”

The method consists in the fact that the student is given the task of highlighting the main thing in the text (creating mnemonic supports) and indicating the path to analyze the text. To isolate the main thing, the student must consistently answer two questions: “Who (or what) is this part talking about?” and “What is said (reported) about this?”

The answer to the first question allows you to highlight the main thing in the part to which it relates, and the second question confirms the correctness of this selection. This technique consists of two parts. The first part is aimed at highlighting semantic supports, the second - at drawing up and using a plan as a semantic support for the student’s mnemonic activity.

The first part of the methodology is aimed at diagnosing and teaching the creation of mnemonic supports.

Instructions are provided in the attachment.

For reading and subsequent work, the story by K. Paustovsky “Hare's Paws” was offered.

After reading the story, questions are asked. Depending on the child’s capabilities, questions can be asked by the experimenter or directly by the student himself.

The appendix provides a list of sample questions.

K.P. Maltseva gives “general rules for identifying mnemonic supports”:

The text is not pre-divided into parts.

The main ideas are highlighted as you read the material.

The parts form themselves around the main ideas.

The main ideas of the text must have a single semantic connection - flow from one another like a “stream”.

Correctly highlighted main ideas should form a short story.

If some written sentence does not correspond to the others, it means that the main idea is not highlighted and you need to return to this place in the text.

Mnemonic support points (main thoughts) should be expanded sentences, independently composed or taken from the text.

After 3-4 lessons, both questions “Who (or what) are they talking about?” and “What does it say about this?” most students were not required to specify each semantic part. Based on this fact, we can conclude that the students internalized this mnemonic technique and transferred it from the external plan of action to the internal one.

The training methodology for creating mnemonic supports was carried out over 5 lessons with a frequency of 2 lessons per week for 30 minutes.

Then, in order to increase the effectiveness of students’ mnemonic activity, the second part of the methodology was used.

Part 2: Making a plan

This part of the methodology is aimed at teaching how to draw up a plan as a semantic support for memorization.

The highlighted main ideas are considered not just an abbreviated story, but an outline of the text. At this stage, when the support points begin to act as points of the plan, requirements are imposed on them, which students immediately become familiar with:

A) the points of the plan must express the main ideas so that it is clear who (or what) is about and what is said in each part of the story.

B) They must be related to each other in meaning;

C) The points of the plan must be clearly expressed.

The clarity of the plan points within the framework of this teaching methodology means that they must be formulated in the form of sentences in which there is a subject, predicate and other members of the sentence. Such an extended sentence really expresses the main idea. And, besides, a plan is only a tool, and everyone can choose the tool that he likes best and allows him to achieve his goal: remember.

After the plan is drawn up, you need to read the text and note what is said on the first point, on the second, etc. Then close the textbook and try to retell out loud everything you remember, looking at the outline (but not at the textbook). Next, read the text again, noting what was forgotten during the retelling and what is remembered, and retell it out loud again.

A qualitative analysis of the data obtained showed that after working with the text according to the proposed scheme, not only the main ideas are remembered, but also other material.

Research results

A semi-standardized conversation with primary school teachers showed: teachers repeatedly note that mnemonic abilities have a positive effect on the formation in students of such universal educational actions as regulatory (“reflect the ability to build educational and cognitive activity, taking into account all its components: goal, motive, forecast, means , control, evaluation”), as well as cognitive (“reflect systems of ways of knowing the world around us, constructing an independent search process, research and a set of operations for processing, systematizing, generalizing and using the information received”).

Figure 1. Expression of a high level of proficiency in mnemonic techniques among students of 1st grade

Legend:

.Classification of educational material. 2. Identification of support “points”. 3. Making a plan. 4. Structuring. 5. Recoding. 6. Addition of memorized material. 7. Serial organization of material. 8. Repetition

A quantitative analysis of the results of expert assessments of teachers based on the questionnaire we compiled showed that the highest level is present in such categories as: “repetition” - 57.1% (8 people); “adding to memorized material” - 42.9% (6 people); “drawing up a plan” - 28.6% (4 people) and “identifying strong points” - 28.6% (4 people).

Teachers also note that the most common “technique” among students is repetition of studied material, which is aimed at complete reproduction without seeing the structure and connections between components.

Empirical data were obtained regarding the indicator of short-term memory capacity and concentration of attention among students in 1st grade.

We provide a sample protocol for a psychological examination of short-term memory using the “Repetition of Numbers” technique.

Playback.

Direct count.

3-8-6

3-4-1-7

3.8-4-2-9-3 - the order of numbers during reproduction is distorted, so the child was asked to memorize the same row from the second series.

.8-5-6-2 - when playing, the child incorrectly showed the order of the numbers and replaced the last number with another. Therefore, the study was stopped.

Conclusion: The last correctly reproduced row is equal to four digits.

Countdown.

.4-7-6 - during reproduction, the student replaced the last digit, so he was offered the same row from the second series.

3.2-5-… - when playing back, the student stopped at the third number. The research is stopped.

Conclusion: The last correctly reproduced row is equal to three digits.

Conclusion: Maxim P-ov showed a low level of short-term memory and an average (with a tendency to low) level of concentration. The obtained indicators may cause the child to not successfully master educational activities.

We present the average indicators of short-term memory capacity and concentration of attention in the studied class.

Figure 2. Average indicators of short-term memory capacity in 1st grade.

As can be seen from the figure, 28.6% of students (4 people) show a high level of short-term memory capacity, 57.1% (8 people) - an average level and, finally, 14.3% (2 people) - a low level .

Figure 3. Average indicators of concentration in 1st grade.

As can be seen from the figure, 21.4% of students (4 people) show a high level of concentration, 64.3% (9 people) - an average level, and, finally, 14.3% (1 person) - a low level.

The data obtained suggest that students in this class may experience certain difficulties in memorizing and reproducing educational material.

We present the results of diagnostics of the ability to semantically process memorized material using the “Grouping” method.

When carrying out this technique, special attention was paid to the fact that compensation for limitations in the capacity of short-term memory can be carried out using the technique of “enlargement” of units of memorized information. Such “enlargement” is possible only with semantic processing of the material, which makes it possible to find commonality in elements of information and combine them on this basis. To diagnose the possibilities of semantic processing of the material, the “Grouping” technique was used.

In the process of repeated perception and reproduction of a verbal series, the first perception of the material had, as it were, an “indicative goal.” Students identified its features, understood that some words can be combined, and gave a designation to one group or another. The names obtained in the process of generalizing groups of words (“Clothes”, “Animals”, “Dishes”, “Trees”) played an organizing, regulating role - and determined the direction of the memorization process. Thus, the students themselves formulated “reference” words, which they then relied on when reproducing the material.

We present a protocol for a psychological examination of mnemonic activity using the “Grouping” technique

Date: 03/05/12. Last name: P-ov Maxim. Age: 7 years 8 months

Playback.

1. Christmas tree, dress, poplar, cup, hare. 2. jacket, Christmas tree, squirrel, mug, pine, hare.

Jacket, mug, squirrel, hare, cup, pine, skirt, Christmas tree, bear.

Conclusion: In the first presentation, 5 words were reproduced. There is no group formation. In the second presentation, 6 words were reproduced. There is no group formation. In the third presentation, 9 words were reproduced. There is the formation of groups of 2 words (“squirrel, hare”).

Conclusion: Maxim P-ov did not show skills in semantic processing of material due to targeted productive memorization. The process of mnemonic activity is normal: the number of words reproduced and the dynamics correspond to the age norm.

General conclusion based on the results of a psychological examination of class 1 “G” student Maxim P-ov, 7 years 8 months, dated 03/05/12.

A diagnostic examination of memory, carried out using the “Repetition of Digits” and “Grouping” techniques, showed: 1) the volume of short-term memory corresponds to a low level of the age norm; 2) the student has not developed semantic processing skills when memorizing material; 3) the process of mnemonic activity corresponds to the age norm.

We present the average number of words reproduced.

Figure 4. Average indicators of the number of words reproduced using the “Grouping” method in 1st “G” class

We present the average indicators of the number of reproduced semantic groups in the class under study.

As can be seen from the figure, students experience positive dynamics in the process of repeated memorization and reproduction of material: the number of words reproduced almost doubles (from 3.93 to 7.71). The data obtained allow us to state that repetition is one of the effective mnemonic techniques.

Figure 5. Average indicators of the number of semantic groups reproduced using the “Grouping” method in 1st “G” class

As can be seen from the figure, in the process of repeated reproduction of words, students independently come to the conclusion about the possibility of composing semantic groups as an effective mnemonic tool. This skill contributes to the positive dynamics of memorization productivity.

We present the results of diagnostics according to part 1 of K.P. Maltseva’s method “Meaning Units” - Creation of mnemonic supports.

We present a protocol for a psychological examination of mnemonic activity using the “Meaning Units” technique (Creating semantic supports) .

Date: 03/05/12. Last name: P-ov Maxim. Age: 7 years 8 months

P: Who is mentioned at the beginning of the text?

M.: The story talks about grandfather.

P: What does it say about grandfather?

M.: That he went hunting in the forest, saw a bunny, shot at it, but missed.

M.: Grandfather in the forest realized that a fire had started and the fire was moving quickly.

P: Then who are they talking about?

M.: About grandfather.

P: What is said about him?

M.: Grandfather cured a hare that was badly burned in a forest fire.

P: This is stated at the end of the story. What is said before this?

M.: About grandfather.

P: What is said about him?

M.: Silent.

Conclusion: out of the eight questions proposed, the student answered 5 correctly, that is, he showed 62.5% reproduction accuracy. He left two questions unanswered. He answered one question incorrectly, violating the sequence of presentation.

Conclusion: The student experiences significant difficulties with the organization of mnemonic activity associated with the correct reproduction of basic semantic units, as well as with their sequence. It should be noted that this student uses repetition - reproduction that is almost identical to the text. This fact may indicate the student’s insufficient vocabulary and low ability to generalize. The degree of development of formulated answers is normative for a given age.

Figure 6. Dynamics of the number of reproduced mnemonic supports in 1st “G” class

As can be seen from the figure, in the first test, when students were asked to independently identify the semantic units of the story, the average accuracy rate was 57.1% (range from 25.0% to 100.0%). After training in the technique of creating semantic supports, the average accuracy of execution was 83.9% (range from 50.0% to 100.0%).

We present the results of diagnostics according to part 1 of K.P. Maltseva’s method “Meaning Units” - Drawing up a plan.

Figure 7. Dynamics of the expression of the skill “connectedness in meaning”

As can be seen from the figure, after the training experiment (in the 2nd test), there was a positive dynamics in the students’ plan-making skills according to the “connectedness in meaning” criterion. The number of students who showed a high level of this skill increased from 35.7% to 71.4%.

Figure 8. Dynamics of the expression of the skill “degree of expansion and clarity”

As can be seen from the figure, after the training experiment (in the 2nd test), there was a positive dynamics in the students’ plan-making skills according to the “connectedness in meaning” criterion. The number of students who showed a high level of this skill increased from 42.9% to 64.3%.

The assessment of shifts in the values ​​of the studied characteristics was carried out using the G-criterion, designed specifically for assessing the results between two measurements on the same sample of subjects. It allows us to identify differences between small samples when psychological influence is carried out over a short period of time.

Conclusions.According to the methods used, G-sign criteria made it possible to identify the dynamics of changes in the characteristics of the subjects and calculate differences in the level of quantitatively measured characteristics.

Analysis of empirical data showed that significant shifts were found (at p ? 0.01) on the scales: “Number of words reproduced”, “Number of semantic groups reproduced” (E.L. Yakovleva’s “Grouping” Methodology). Significant shifts were also found (at p ?0.01) on the scales: “Number of reproduced semantic supports”, “Level of connectedness of semantic supports in meaning”, “Level of the degree of expansion and clarity of semantic supports” (Methodology of K.P. Maltseva “Semantic units ").

No significant differences were found.

A.A. Rean notes that the very process of a child’s education at school, his mastery of all the structural and content components of educational activity is a factor that contributes to the optimization of all cognitive and personal characteristics, including memory. Game as the leading type of activity is being replaced by study - purposeful cognitive activity, during which the student is forced to accept, process and store with further reproduction a large amount of a wide variety of information.

In preschool age, memorization is predominantly involuntary, which is associated with an insufficiently developed ability to process information semantically, less ability to form associative series, and little experience in using mnemonic techniques.

Also, involuntary memorization and reproduction in preschool age is directly related to his interests. But already at school age, the child is required to remember what the content of the curriculum in a particular academic subject provides and requires. The learning process contributes to the student’s development of skills in setting differentiated tasks for memorizing educational material, in different ways, ways of memorizing and reproducing information, depending on the level of its complexity.

In such a situation, the most in demand is voluntary memory, which is a mental cognitive process that presupposes high activity of the student, based on a special memorization setting, presupposing mastery of certain mnemonic techniques and the presence of volitional efforts.

From the point of view of V.S. Mukhina, voluntary memory becomes a fundamental function for educational activity: “the child comes to understand the need to make his memory work for himself.”

Memorizing and reproducing various educational material creates conditions for the rapid development of student reflection regarding his personal mental formations in the process of mastering educational activities; and also creates conditions for the formation of the skill of “teaching oneself,” which involves changing oneself in knowledge and becoming “the ability to perform voluntary actions.”

Currently, there is conflicting information regarding the severity of mechanical and logical memorization in children of preschool and primary school age.

So, for example, from the point of view of the Russian psychologist A.A. Smirnov, primary school age is characterized by the rapid development of mechanical memorization relating to logically incomparable information units. The researcher refutes the widespread opinion that age-related development contributes to the development of logical memorization. When analyzing the results of his experiments, A.A. Smirnov states that with age, the potential for logical memorization decreases significantly.

This scientific fact is explained by the fact that training students’ memory in the process of learning aimed at memorization contributes to the comprehensive optimization of all mnemonic processes, including such relatively primitive ones as mechanical memorization. With the correct organization of explanation of educational material, psychological and pedagogical conditions are created for the formation of successful memorization by students of simple, meaningful material.

Experimental data have been obtained according to which, during primary school, a student’s mechanical memory develops significantly, while the development of logical mediated memory is characterized by a slower pace.

Despite the fact that a child of primary school age can easily make do with the resources of mechanical memorization, it is necessary to create conditions for the development of logical memory. To do this, at the very beginning stages of learning, mnemonic techniques should be formed in children, which will have a positive effect on the productivity of logical memorization.

From the point of view of A.A. Rean, the formation of arbitrary logical memory will be facilitated by “rationalization of the student’s mental and practical work”, training in mnemonic techniques, consisting of two stages. The first stage involves the creation of psychological and pedagogical conditions for students to master the mental operations necessary for memorizing and reproducing material. The second stage involves learning to use mental operations as a means of memorizing various information.

Research by V.D. Shadrikov and L.V. Cheremoshkina showed that the specificity of the mnemonic abilities of primary school students lies in the severity of the “perceptual-representational level of mnemonic actions”: that is, children remember, first of all, through repetition, as well as such techniques as groupings, recoding, strongholds, associations. Techniques that require operating with the content of the material (structuring, systematization, analogies, classifications, etc.) remain in the zone of proximal development of students.

According to the “parallelogram” of A.N. Leontyev, the process of human development is accompanied by the development of increasing mediation of his mental processes.

N.V. Repkina, studying memory and the peculiarities of goal setting in the educational activities of junior schoolchildren, came to the conclusion that the desire itself, the focus on memorizing certain educational material, does not completely determine the structural and content components of the mnemonic task that the student needs to accept.

To successfully accept mnemonic tasks, it is required that the student identifies a specific memorization item in the object (text).

The experimental study allowed N.V. Repkina to state that approximately 20.0% of students identify the cognitive content of the text as the goal of memorization, approximately 20.0% of students highlight plot aspects, while the remaining students find it difficult to identify a specific goal for memorization. Based on the empirical results obtained, it can be argued that in the process of educational activity, the educational task is transformed into different goals of mnemonic activity. Such differences are explained by the different content of educational motivation and the level of formation of goal-setting mechanisms.

Voluntary mnemonic activity of students is possible if the student independently determines the content of the mnemonic task, searches for identical means of text transformation and consciously controls their use. Practice shows that approximately 10.0% of students reach the described level by the fourth grade. Also, 10.0% are able to independently determine a mnemonic task, but have difficulty applying a method for solving it. Most students are not able to understand the mnemonic task or its awareness is completely mediated by the content of the material.

N.V. Repkina comes to the conclusion that the development of successful mnemonic activity of primary school students can only be achieved by optimizing the processes of self-regulation, and above all, goal setting in the context of the systematic development of all components of educational activity.

Thus, one of the main tasks of psychological and pedagogical support for the educational activities of primary school students is to create conditions for the formation of certain mnemonic techniques

Conclusion

The theoretical and experimental research conducted on the problem of developing students' memory in the process of learning activities allowed us to draw the following conclusions.

It can be concluded that such theoretical concepts as associative theory, Gesttel theory, behaviorism and some others, despite their certain contribution to the development of the study of the problem of memory, could not explain the reasons for the selectivity of memory, the genesis of memory. Physiological and biochemical theories of memory have yet presented a complete picture of the physiological and chemical bases of memory processes.

The main changes that occur with human memory during development are analyzed in the context of two directions: phylogenetic and ontogenetic. Summarizing the most well-known concept of memory development by P.P. Blonsky and the theory of cultural-historical development of memory by L.S. Vygotsky, it can be argued that the main line of improving human memory is active activity aimed at improving the means of memorization and changing the connections of the mnemonic function with other mental processes and human conditions.

Currently there is no complete theory of memory. It seems important when studying memory processes to focus on the activity approach, where the issue of determining memory processes is resolved in the context of activity theory, and the ideas of a number of previous theories about the “disunity” of the subject and object of action are overcome.

Thus, at present, theoretical and practical research in the field of studying memory processes is based on a solid theoretical foundation: the theory of higher mental functions of L.S. Vygotsky and the theory of activity of A.N. Leontiev.

The experimental study was structured in accordance with the hypothesis put forward, suggesting that the development of students' memory in the process of educational activities is possible with the organization of psychological and pedagogical support aimed at diagnosing the basic characteristics of memory and developing mnemonic skills in children.

It should be noted that most of the methods used were both diagnostic and developmental, corrective in nature. The choice of methods for the experimental study corresponded to the traditional understanding in Russian psychology of the main goal of diagnostic research into the mental cognitive processes of children of primary school age (L.S. Vygotsky).

The methods used were built in accordance with the basic idea of ​​Russian psychology that semantic memory is directly related to thinking and the highest form of its manifestation - speech. A word is not only a symbol of a specific object, but is also a concept, i.e. reflects the system of connections into which an object enters. The student’s awareness of the presence of a large number of semantic connections behind a word allows him to carry out the so-called “recoding” and include it in a whole semantic system.

The connections that the student uses to memorize serve as a means to help remember the necessary information.

It was assumed that semantic memorization contributes to the formation of so-called “mnemonic supports” - large structural units of recall that allow one to overcome the limitations of short-term memorization. The most effective for memorization and reproduction are considered to be those mnemonic supports that reflect the main ideas of any material.

Therefore, the main direction in optimizing memory for first-grade students was the formation of semantic memory skills: the ability to generalize material, highlight the main thoughts in it.

As a result of the experimental study, which included the stages of ascertainment, formation and control diagnostics of the memory of children of primary school age, positive dynamics were identified in terms of the following indicators: “Number of words reproduced”, “Number of semantic groups reproduced”, “Number of semantic supports reproduced”, “Level of connectedness of semantic supports in meaning”, “The level of the degree of development and clarity of semantic supports”.

Using the G-sign criterion, significant differences were identified, which allows us to speak about the correctness of the chosen methods of psychological influence aimed at optimizing mnemonic techniques in children of primary school age.

Prospects for this studycan be considered the construction of a comprehensive program aimed at supporting the development of mental cognitive processes in primary school students, which will create favorable psychological and pedagogical conditions for their successful mastery of educational activities.

Techniques that require operating with the content of the material (structuring, systematization, analogies, classifications, etc.) remain in the zone of proximal development of students.

At primary school age, there is a high sensitivity for the development of such a higher mental function as thinking. It is thinking that determines the successful development of all other cognitive processes and personal characteristics of a first-grader, their awareness and voluntariness.

According to the “parallelogram” of A.N. Leontiev, the process of human development accompanied by the development of increasing mediation of his mental processes. It is at primary school age that voluntary and intentional memorization arises, and the task of voluntary reproduction is set. Students become capable of using memory aids. Therefore, the development of memory is directly related to the development of intelligence.

L.F. Obukhova identifies the main psychological neoplasms of primary school age, in the context of which it would be correct to consider the process of memory development:

“arbitrariness and awareness of all mental processes and their intellectualization, their internal mediation, which occurs through the assimilation of a system of scientific concepts...”;

“awareness of one’s own changes as a result of the development of educational activities.”

However, memory is also essential for the development of a child's personality, especially in the context of educational activities.

B.I. Dodonov identifies two types of mnemonic abilities that influence the success of the learning process at school. These abilities have different physiological explanations: the ability to imprint and the ability to process information semantically. The greatest importance for successful educational activities is the ability to process information, which is the integration of memory and thinking processes.

I.Yu. Kulagina and V.N. Kolyutsky believe that the main vectors of development of mnemonic processes at this stage of ontogenesis are arbitrariness and meaningfulness.

Research has shown that primary schoolchildren are capable of involuntary memorization of educational material if it arouses their interest, is presented in the context of their usual play activities, is accompanied by the demonstration of visual aids, or the teacher creates special conditions for the formation of a wide associative series with the child’s existing knowledge. experience, vivid images, etc.

N.V. Repkina experimentally studied the forms of involuntary memory of third-grade students when they performed tasks aimed at analyzing new concepts. It was found that about 20.0% of junior schoolchildren showed the skills to correctly accept a task, hold it, and fulfill the goal of the action. They also turned out to be capable of involuntary memorization and reproduction of the theory presented to them.

About 60.0% of students showed various types of transformation of the task posed by the teacher, depending on the degree of their cognitive interest. These schoolchildren turned out to be capable of involuntary imprinting and reproducing only the actual content of the educational task and showed an insufficiently conscious decision.

About 20.0% of students failed to complete the task: they showed an inability to correctly retain the task, involuntary reproduction was fragmentary in nature, and an unconscious solution to the problem.

The experimental data obtained made it possible to assume that by the age of 9-10 years three qualitatively different forms of involuntary memory are formed. Only one fifth of students develop memory that contributes to conscious and stable memorization of educational material. The rest of the students develop types of involuntary memory that have a mobile mnemonic effect, mediated not by the context of educational activity, but by the characteristics of the material or stereotypical methods of action.

However, at primary school age, physiological and personal prerequisites are created for the formation of voluntary memory. Therefore, the learning process creates conditions for optimizing this higher mental function.

It is known that even in preschool age, children develop a high level of mechanical memory. Practice shows that using this type of memory and ignoring the conditions for the formation of logical voluntary memorization significantly deforms the course of normal mental development of a first-grader child. In addition, if by the end of primary school a student has not mastered the skills of logical memorization, then in the middle grades, when the amount of information required for memorization and reproduction increases significantly and becomes more complex, he will experience significant difficulties in mastering the school curriculum. The level of mechanical memorization ability, which allows the child to reproduce verbatim insufficiently meaningful structured educational material, will decrease, logical memorization skills will not be formed, and therefore the child will lack resources for further development.

Comprehension and structuring of educational material also contributes to successful memorization. Thus, it can be argued that there is an inextricable connection between mnemonic activity, thinking and semantic memory.

In the process of teaching a child in primary school, psychological and pedagogical conditions must be created to optimize semantic memory by mastering a variety of mnemonic techniques, that is, rational methods of memorization. Control should be organized not so much over the result of completing a learning task, an educational task, but over the memorization process itself, the methods of mnemonic activity used by the student.

In the context of this work, considering the problem of creating conditions for the development of students’ memory in the process of learning activities, special attention should be paid to organizing the process of accepting a mnemonic task.

N.V. Repkina, studying memory and the features of goal setting in the educational activities of junior schoolchildren, came to the conclusion that the desire itself, the focus on memorizing certain educational material does not completely determine the structural and content components of the mnemonic task that the student needs to accept .

The experimental study was aimed at testing the main hypothesis, suggesting that the development of students' memory in the process of educational activities is possible with the organization of psychological and pedagogical support aimed at diagnosing the main characteristics of memory and developing mnemonic skills in children.

The study was conducted at MAOU Secondary School No. 81 in Nizhny Novgorod from March 1 to April 27, 2012. 14 students (7 girls, 7 boys) took part in the study. The average age of children is from 7.6 years.

Empirical methods were used during the research: conversation, testing, mathematical and statistical methods for assessing the reliability of the results obtained (G-sign test method) and qualitative analysis of the results obtained

Glossary

No. ConceptDefinition1 Associationestablishing connections by similarity, contiguity or opposition 2Analogyestablishing similarities, similarities in certain relationships of objects, phenomena, concepts 3Playbackreconstruction of material stored in memory, occurring at several levels, recognition based on perception 4Groupingdividing the material into groups for some reason (meaning, associations, etc.) 5Motor (motor) memoryMemorization and reproduction of movements and their systems 6Long-term memoryMemorizing for a long time information that is significant for a person 7Memorizationmemory process indicating the introduction into memory of newly received information 8Forgettingmemory process, expressed in the inability to remember or in erroneous recognition and reproduction 9Short-term memoryretains a generalized image of perceived information for a short period of time 10Classificationdistribution of objects, phenomena, concepts into groups, based on certain common characteristics 11Mnemotechnical techniquesa set of ready-made, known methods of memorization 12Involuntary memorizationretention of repeatedly perceived material in memory 13Memory capacityquantitative indicator of the productivity of mnemonic processes 14RAMstoring information for a certain, predetermined period of time necessary to perform some action or operation 15Memorya form of mental reflection consisting in consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness 16Recodingverbalization, pronunciation, naming, presentation of information in one form, transformation of formations based on semantic, phonemic and other features 17Repetitionconsciously controlled and uncontrolled processes of information circulation 18Semantic groupinghighlighting semantic parts in the text, their formation, drawing up a plan; search for semantic reference points, drawing up a plan, classification, systematization, etc. 19Savemore or less long-term retention in memory of certain information that has two sides 20Structuringestablishing relative position hour those that make up the whole 21Schematizationa depiction or description of something in basic terms or a simplified representation of memorized information mation 22Recognitionassigning a perceived object to already known categories List of sources used

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Founder behaviorism is the American scientist John Brodes Watson (1878-1958), who openly proclaimed the need to replace the traditional subject of psychology (mental phenomena) with a new one (behavior), declaring mental phenomena fundamentally unknowable by natural scientific methods.
Watson believed that the ultimate goal of the science of behavior was to understand and explain it, and not mental phenomena, which the science of behavior could do without. To achieve this goal, it is enough to fulfill three conditions: accurately describe the behavior itself, find out the physical stimuli on which it depends, and establish the connections that exist between stimuli and behavior. The scientific search of behaviorists was mainly aimed at clarifying the relevant connections in order to use them to explain behavior as a reaction to stimuli.
From the point of view of a behaviorist (of that time), the behavior of an animal and a person is fundamentally the same. Therefore, it is quite acceptable, when studying the behavior of animals, to directly transfer the results of relevant research to humans and, conversely, to interpret the types and forms of animal behavior “in a human way.” It was argued that man differs from animals only in the greater complexity of his behavioral reactions and the greater variety of stimuli to which he is capable of reacting.
Watson, however, could not completely deny either the presence or the significance of psychic phenomena in human life. He considered them “functions” that play some active role in the organism’s adaptation to living conditions, but at the same time he admitted that he could not accurately determine this role. Watson denied the fundamental possibility of scientific research into human consciousness. Since, when objectively studying human behavior using methods borrowed from the natural sciences, the behaviorist “observes nothing that he could call consciousness, feeling, sensation, imagination, will, he no longer believes that these terms indicate genuine phenomena of psychology.” .
The desire to objectify the science of behavior was certainly a positive development in comparison with the science of the soul, divorced from real life problems. However, it was impossible to completely abandon the study of mental phenomena, given their actual significance in human life and behavior. Therefore, quite soon the orthodox views of the founder of behaviorist teaching were softened by his followers, who at the same time tried to bring the science of behavior closer to reality, to reconcile it with the established philosophical understanding of man, in whose life mental phenomena play a noticeable positive role. That was done neo-behaviourists in the 30s of the 20th century, and the most famous of them were Edward Chase Tolman (1886-1959) and Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952).
Having accepted the basic behavioral ideas, including the natural scientific behavioral orientation of research and the desire to make psychology an objective, practically useful science, Tolman abandoned the understanding of behavior only as a system of reactions to stimuli and introduced the idea of immanent activity (not reactivity) of the body, about purposefulness, rationality and expediency of behavior. The goal was the organizing and directing principle of behavior for Tolman; it began to be understood as the final result that should be achieved as a result of the practical implementation by the body of a series of interrelated behavioral acts.
Tolman concluded that the connections between stimuli and behavioral responses are not direct, but indirect. They are changed and modified by the so-called “intermediate variables,” among which there are many actual psychological phenomena. The most important of them in humans are the following: goal, expectation, hypothesis, cognitive map of the world, sign and its meaning. “Behavior,” Tolman wrote, “...is goal-oriented and cognitive. Goals and cognitive moments constitute its immediate basis and fabric.”
The ideas expressed by Tolman were further developed in the works of K. Hull.
Both behaviorism and neobehaviorism did not explore what is happening in the human mind, so this approach as a whole is sometimes called the “black box” approach to a person. Psychologists who adhere to this philosophy and methodology believe that science, in explaining human behavior, should deal only with what is observable, measurable, enters the body in the form of stimuli and leaves it in the form of reactions to these stimuli. This is the basis of Hull's theory of learning, based on a system of physiological postulates and a number of laws connecting stimuli and reactions.
The second direction, which declared itself during the crisis of psychology, is Gestalt psychology . If behaviorism, as one of the ways out of the crisis in psychology, arose and developed in the USA, then this direction originated in Germany and received recognition in Europe. Gestalt psychology also focused on the natural sciences as a model of scientific knowledge, but used more the achievements of physics and mathematics, rather than the physiology of the body.
Representatives of this trend, among whom we can name Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967), Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) and others, were most dissatisfied with the simplified atomistic approach to the study and analysis of mental phenomena, characteristic of associative introspective psychology. Such psychology decomposed all complex phenomena into elementary ones, trying to derive from their combination according to the associative principle the laws of the formation of integral mental structures. Mental phenomena, in fact, were reduced to various combinations of the simplest elements according to a limited number of laws.
Gestalt psychologists made a name for themselves by asserting the existence of their own laws for the formation of complex, integral systems of mental phenomena that cannot be reduced to the elementary laws of the combination of elements. Wertheimer, characterizing the specifics of this approach in psychology, wrote: “The main problem of Gestalt theory could be formulated as follows: there are connections in which what happens as a whole is not derived from elements that supposedly exist in the form of separate pieces, then linked together, but “On the contrary, what appears in a separate part of this whole is determined by the internal structural law of this whole.” In the research of Gestalt psychologists, the study of complex phenomena by elements and their connections was replaced by elucidation of the structure of these connections and the laws of its formation. For this reason, this direction in the history of psychology is sometimes called structural psychology (one of the translations of the word “gestalt” into Russian means “structure”). Many representatives of Gestalt psychology, in addition to psychology, had a basic education in one of the exact sciences, and this influenced their psychological views. W. Köhler, for example, studied physics and used the relevant knowledge to explain the processes of perception and thinking.
The ideas of Gestalt psychology played a positive role in the development of a number of important problems in psychology. They affected perception, thinking, memory, personality and interpersonal relationships. They also contributed to the application in the field of psychology of useful theories and concepts borrowed from natural science research. They transformed the old introspective psychology, making it more consistent with the achievements of the natural sciences. At the same time, Gestalt psychology, like behaviorism, did not solve the main problems that gave rise to the general crisis of psychological science, but only somewhat reduced their severity, attracting the attention of researchers to new interesting problems.
The third direction that emerged during the crisis was psychoanalysis . Its foundations were developed by the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Representatives of psychoanalysis, unlike behaviorists and Gestalt psychologists, did not focus on the exact and natural sciences as a model for constructing scientific psychological knowledge. They sought to find a way out of the crisis in psychology itself, forming a closer union with other sciences that also deal with mental phenomena, for example, medicine.
Freudianism - and this is his merit - he sought to fill psychological knowledge about a person with new life truth, create a theory and, on its basis, obtain information useful for solving practical, primarily psychotherapeutic problems. It is no coincidence that S. Freud began his scientific research precisely with the analysis and generalization of psychotherapeutic practice and only then turned the accumulated experience into a psychological theory.
Psychology in psychoanalysis has again found a living person, since ancient times its inherent depth of penetration into the essence of his soul and behavior. However, carried away by his speculative theoretical constructions (most of them, as it turned out later, did not have a statistically reliable factual basis), S. Freud moved further and further from empirical reality into the realm of psychological fantasy, and this led to the rejection of many of his ideas not only from a number of sensible scientists, but also from Freud’s own students.
For psychoanalysis, the key concepts were “consciousness” and “unconsciousness”. The latter was assigned a particularly important role in explaining human behavior. Freud wrote that there is strong evidence that subtle and difficult intellectual work, which requires deep and intense thinking, can take place outside the sphere of consciousness, that there are people “in whom self-criticism and conscience ... turn out to be unconscious and, while remaining so, determine most important actions." According to Freud, guilt can also be unconscious.
In addition to the three listed attempts to scientifically resolve the problems that gave rise to the crisis, attempts of a different kind were also made. One of them consisted, for example, in the rejection of any explanations of psychological phenomena and a call for their description and understanding at the level of intuition. It was the so-called understanding psychology , which was represented, in particular, by Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911). He believed that atomistic, elemental psychology, based on explanatory methods borrowed from the natural sciences, cannot provide a holistic understanding of man as a real, living person. An understanding psychology must take its place.
The main task of understanding psychology is to reveal the semantic content of a person’s mental life, his system of values. “One cannot help but wish for the emergence of a psychology,” wrote Dilthey, “capable of capturing in the network of its descriptions what is contained in the works of poets and writers more than in current teachings about the soul.” The subject of such psychology should be the development of mental life in its entirety. Descriptive psychology at the same time must be analytical, and the living, artistic process of understanding must be included in the analysis. Understanding psychology sought to obtain and collect information about the elements of consciousness that are necessary and sufficient to represent the entire course of individual mental life. Good psychologists, according to Dilthey, are writers, historians, actors, teachers, and doctors.
Starting from the 30-40s of the 20th century, important changes began to occur in the demarcation and differentiation of psychological knowledge initiated by the period of open crisis of psychological science. If the first independent directions of psychological research that arose during two decades of the 20th century - behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, Freudianism and understanding psychology - represented different lines of development of thought, having almost no intersections and in their postulates difficult to compatible with each other, then with 30 's, along with the continuation of the process of differentiation of psychological knowledge, the process of their integration begins and gradually gains strength, i.e. combining and using in the created theories, in experiments and in practice, various approaches reflecting the positions of behaviorism, Gestalt theory, psychoanalysis and other areas of research. Let us consider some of the concepts of this kind, characteristic of psychology in the mid-20th century.
Cognitive psychology . This direction arose in connection with the development of cybernetics, computer science, and mathematical computer programming and, to a certain extent, was a negative reaction to the shortcomings of all psychological concepts that ignore consciousness and downplay the role of thinking in determining human behavior. Here the main attention was paid to how a person perceives, processes and stores various information about the world and about himself, how he uses it when making decisions and in everyday behavior. A significant stimulus to the development of this branch of psychology was the development of high-level computer languages ​​and programming technology. It is known that the same initial data entered into a computer generates different results during their processing, depending on what program the machine is running on. So it is at the human level: in order to explain and predict his behavior in response to a certain set of external and internal stimuli, it is necessary to know how he perceives them and processes them in his head, how he makes decisions.
Cognitive processes for a psychologist are analogous to a computer program. This branch of knowledge, which is mainly interested in how a person reacts to the world around him cognitively, is focused on their study. Cognitive psychology is interested in how a person’s consciousness and his knowledge system are structured. In research conducted in this direction, “a person’s cognition of the surrounding world... is considered as an active process, a necessary component of which are psychological means that are formed in the learning processes... including learning from life itself.”
Along with the ideas of cybernetics and computer science, psychological theories of the cognitive direction included many special terms borrowed from these sciences: signal, program, information, coding, system input and output, etc. The main special concept of cognitive psychology is “schema”. It represents a plan in a person’s head for collecting and processing information about objects and events perceived by the senses. The body has many circuits interconnected in a dynamic system. In their structure and method of functioning, they depend little on the sources and nature of information. Perception, memory, thinking and other cognitive processes are determined by patterns in much the same way as the structure of an organism is determined by its genotype. Cognitive schemas develop in a person’s individual experience, but are partly innate. They allow us to perceive, process and store information about the past, present and probable future in a certain way.
Neo-Freudianism . This direction grew out of the classical psychoanalysis of Freud and is represented by such names as Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), Karen Horney (1885-1952), Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949), Eric Fromm ( 1900-1980), etc. The problems characteristic of it and the basic system of concepts that proponents of this direction use to solve them have much in common with Freud’s theory, although a number of concepts presented in this direction are very radically different from it. But nevertheless, Freudianism and neo-Freudianism are united by the belief in the existence and special role of the unconscious in the human psyche and behavior, the conviction that a person has many stable negative phenomena called “complexes.”
The main provisions of A. Adler’s psychoanalytic concept are as follows. It denies the direct dependence of human mental development on organic factors. It is argued that from the first years of life a child has a pronounced, deeply felt sense of his own inferiority, which he strives to overcome. In addition to the inferiority complex, the child is ascribed to the desire for creative self-improvement from the first years of life. A person is considered as a being who initially strives for a certain life goal, acting mainly rationally, expediently and deliberately. The purpose of life is set by the person himself. Much in a person’s behavior depends on its character: under the influence of a given goal, he forms images, memory, develops a specific perception of reality, certain character traits, inclinations and abilities, moral character, emotions and feelings.
Another psychoanalytic concept developed by C. Jung is sometimes called “analytical psychology.” According to it, the psyche is a complex whole, the relatively independent parts of which are peculiarly separated from each other. The center of human individuality is the so-called “I complex”. There are two types of unconsciousness associated with it: personal And collective . The first is represented by what a person has acquired through individual life experience; the second is inherited by him and reflects the social experience accumulated by humanity. The personal unconscious contains complexes that form an integral part of the mental life of the individual. The collective unconscious includes myths, primitive forms of thinking, impressions and images deposited in the human brain since ancient times and passed on from generation to generation. They can manifest themselves, for example, in dreams, the content of which seems to take a person back to the distant past.
The personal unconscious appears to a person as part of his own life; the content of the collective unconscious is something alien to it, strange, unusual, causing strong negative experiences and neuroses. A typical way of existence and representation of the collective unconscious is religious teaching, stories, myths, images, judgments associated with it. Another expression of the same thing in human culture is fairy tales.
Jung's important contribution to psychological science was the introduction into scientific circulation of ideas about two types of personality: introverted and extroverted. The first is characterized by turning inward in search of reasons that explain the actions performed; the second is characterized by a tendency to respond vividly to external influences and find the origins of behavior in them.
E. Fromm was the author of the concept of “humanistic psychoanalysis”. Unlike his teacher S. Freud, who affirmed the biological conditioning of the human psyche and behavior, E. Fromm argued that they are socially conditioned. A person’s character is created by society, the circumstances of his life, and where personal freedom is suppressed, pathological characters arise. The most typical of them are: conformism, masochism, sadism, destructiveness and recluse.
Genetic psychology . The founder of this direction is Jean Piaget (1896-1980), an outstanding psychologist of our time of Swiss origin. This direction is directly related to the study of the child’s mental development and his intelligence. The concepts of logic and mathematics are widely used in Piaget’s concept, and intellectual development itself is presented in the form of a doctrine about the development of logical thinking in children from birth to early adolescence.
The further development of psychological knowledge in the modern foreign world is characterized by several trends. One of them is the gradual blurring of boundaries between different schools and directions. This, in particular, is reflected in the fact that more and more psychological theories are appearing in the world, the authors of which consciously seek to integrate knowledge accumulated in different psychological concepts: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, understanding psychology, cognitive psychology and genetic psychology.
The second is that psychology is gradually moving beyond the scope of academic science and becoming practically a very useful field of knowledge. In addition to its traditional areas of application (medicine, pedagogy), it is widely used in industry, economics, politics, legal practice - in a word, wherever human-related problems arise. Now, perhaps, it is easier to list those branches of practice where it is necessary and actually used.
The third trend is to expand and enrich both the conceptual and methodological apparatus of psychological research through those sciences with which psychology comes into contact when solving various scientific and applied problems. The strengthening alliance with cybernetics and computer technology promises it especially many benefits.

Domestic psychological thought also has a long tradition. Their roots go back to the 19th century. (if we keep in mind only the development of psychology by scientists specializing in this field of knowledge). Historically, the emergence of interest in psychology in our country was associated with the same processes that preceded its emergence as an independent science abroad (before the revolution, the history of our country repeated the main steps of European civilization).
Thanks to the presence of many talented scientists who came to science after the revolution, psychology did not suffer the fate of genetics and cybernetics (although in many ways the history of the development of these sciences in our country is similar). These are Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977) and a number of others. It is to their work that we primarily owe the fact that currently psychologists in our country do not have to start from scratch. They managed not only to preserve and develop science, but also to raise new generations of scientists who subsequently continued relevant research. These are Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev, Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev (1907-1972), Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets (1905-1981), Daniil Borisovich Elkonin (1904-1984), Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin (1902-1988), etc. The main works of domestic psychologists of this generation fall in the 30s to 60s. This period is characterized by the emergence and development of several schools and directions:

• one of them arose in Georgia, it was headed by Dmitry Nikolaevich Uznadze (1886-1950). The school of D.N. Uznadze adopted the concept of attitude and widely used it to analyze many psychological phenomena;
• Another, perhaps the strongest, direction turned out to be associated with the name of L.S. Vygotsky. It was mainly adhered to by scientists working in Moscow, in particular at Moscow State University, and a number of scientific institutes. The focus of this group of scientists was mainly on issues of general and educational psychology;
• the third school was created by S.L. Rubinstein, who at one time led scientific research at the Department of Psychology of Moscow State University and at the Institute of General and Educational Psychology. Subsequently, he was subjected to criticism, which was carried out using far from scientific methods of influence, and was removed from office. S.L. Rubinstein is credited with writing the first and only one in our country in terms of fundamental content and breadth of coverage of the psychological problems of work, entitled “Fundamentals of General Psychology” (first appeared in the early 40s and was republished in 1989). This work included (as far as the strict censorship of that time allowed) the advanced achievements of domestic and world psychological science. The main achievements of Russian psychological science concerned mainly the following sections:

• general psychology;
• developmental and educational psychology;
• psychophysiology.

B.G. Ananyev made a great contribution to the study of issues of perception, the psychology of pedagogical assessment, and general integral issues of human science, in which psychology plays the role of a leading science. Thanks to B.G. Ananyev was the creation of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) University, the preparation of a galaxy of well-known scientists in our country, united under the name of the “Leningrad School”.
A similar organizational role in the creation of the department and faculty of psychology at Moscow State University was played by S.L. Rubinstein and A.H. Leontyev. A.N. Leontiev also made a significant contribution to the development of problems of perception, memory, consciousness, personality and mental development. He developed a theory called the psychological theory of activity, in line with which cognitive processes acquired an original interpretation.
A.V. Zaporozhets together with D.B. Elkonin laid the foundations of child psychology. In the sphere of main scientific interests of A.V. Zaporozhets, organizer and long-term director of the Institute of Preschool Education of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, included issues of age-related development and child upbringing. D.B. Elkonin is known as the author of a very popular textbook on child psychology, the theory of children's play, the concept of periodization of age-related development and a new concept of teaching children of primary school age.
A significant contribution to the development of educational psychology was made by the works of P.Ya. Galperin. Of his few but thorough works, the most famous was the theory of the planned (stage-by-stage) formation of mental actions, which opened up a practically effective way of teaching mental and other operations to adults and children.
Thanks to A.R. Luria said a new word in neuropsychology - a field of knowledge that studies the anatomical and physiological foundations of higher mental functions, i.e. how perception, attention, memory, imagination and thinking are represented in the human brain. Of particular importance were the scientific works of A.R. Luria, dedicated to the study of the neurophysiological foundations of human memory and thinking. They laid the scientific and psychological basis for modern medical psychology and are now widely used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in medical practice.
The works of psychophysiologist E.N. have become widely known throughout the world. Sokolova. Together with his colleagues, he created the theory of color vision, a theory that explains human perception of the shape of objects, a neurophysiological theory of memory, and studied many mechanisms that explain the processes of perception and memory at the neural level. E.N. Sokolov studied in detail the orienting reflex, which was included in the explanatory structure of the neurophysiological foundations of attention.
Since the 80s, the process of restructuring domestic psychological science and its integration into world psychological knowledge began. On the one hand, this process is characterized by the same trends that were noted in the analysis of modern foreign psychology, and on the other hand, it has its own characteristics associated with the socio-political situation in our country. All this is encouraging and allows us to hope that soon domestic psychology will again take its rightful place in the world

Many domestic and foreign psychologists have studied memory: L.S. Vygotsky, F.I. Zinchenko, A.N. Leontyev, P.P. Blonsky, A.A. Smirnov, P. Janet, G. Ebbinghaus, G. Muller and others. While studying memory, these scientists developed a number of laws and theories of memory.

One of the first psychological theories of memory, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day, was the associative theory. It arose in the 17th century, was actively developed in the 18th and 19th centuries, and received primary distribution and recognition in England and Germany.

This theory is based on the concept of association of connections between individual mental phenomena, developed by G. Ebbinghaus, G. Müller, A. Pilzecker and others. Memory in line with this theory is understood as a complex system of short-term and long-term, more or less stable associations by contiguity, similarity , contrast, temporal and spatial proximity. Thanks to this theory, many mechanisms and laws of memory were discovered and described, for example, G. Ebbinghaus’s law of forgetting, presented as a curve in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Forgetting curve according to G. Ebbinghaus.

In accordance with this law, introduced on the basis of experiments with memorizing three-letter nonsense syllables, forgetting after the first error-free repetition of a series of such syllables proceeds quite quickly at first. Already within the first hour, up to 60% of all information received is forgotten, and after 6 days less than 20% of the total number of initially learned syllables remains.

According to the associative theory, individual elements of information are remembered, stored and reproduced not in isolation, but in certain logical, structural-functional and semantic associations with others.

Over time, the associative theory encountered a number of intractable problems, the main of which was the explanation of the selectivity of human memory. Associations are formed on a random basis, and memory always selects certain information from all that is received and stored in the human brain. It was necessary to introduce another factor into the theoretical explanation of mnemonic processes that would explain the purposeful nature of the corresponding processes.

Nevertheless, the associative theory of memory has provided a lot of useful information for understanding its laws. In line with this theory, it was established how the number of memorized elements changes with different numbers of repetitions of the presented series and depending on the distribution of elements over time; how elements of a memorized series are stored in memory depending on the time elapsed between memorization and reproduction.

At the end of the 19th century, the associative theory of memory was replaced by Gestalt theory. For her, the initial concept and at the same time the main principle on the basis of which it is necessary to explain the phenomena of memory was not the association of primary elements, but their original, holistic organization - gestalt. It is the laws of gestalt formation, according to the supporters of this theory, that determine memory.

In line with this theory, the importance of structuring the material, bringing it to integrity, organizing it into a system during memorization and reproduction, as well as the role of human intentions and needs in memory processes (the latter was intended to explain the selectivity of mnemonic processes) was especially emphasized. The main idea that ran like a red thread through the research of supporters of the discussed concept of memory was that, both when memorizing and when reproducing, material usually appears in the form of an integral structure, and not a random set of elements formed on an associative basis.

The dynamics of memorization and reproduction in Gestalt theory were seen as follows. A certain state of need that is relevant at a given moment in time creates in a person a certain attitude toward memorization or reproduction. The corresponding attitude revives certain integral structures in the individual’s consciousness, on the basis of which the material is, in turn, remembered or reproduced. This setting controls the progress of memorization and reproduction and determines the selection of the necessary information.

Having found a psychological explanation for some facts of memory selectivity, this theory, however, was faced with an equally complex problem of the formation and development of human memory in phylo- and ontogenesis. The fact is that both the motivational states that determine mnemonic processes in humans and the gestalts themselves were thought of as predetermined, non-developing formations. The question of the dependence of memory development on human practical activity was not directly raised or resolved here.

No satisfactory answer to the question of the genesis of memory was found among representatives of two other areas of psychological research into mnemonic processes: behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

The views of behaviorist supporters on the problem of memory turned out to be very close to those shared by associationists. The only major difference between them was that behaviorists emphasized the role of reinforcement in remembering material and devoted much attention to studying how memory works in learning processes.

The merit of Freud and his followers in the study of memory was the clarification of the role of positive and negative emotions, motives and needs in remembering and forgetting material. Thanks to psychoanalysis, many interesting psychological mechanisms of subconscious forgetting related to the functioning of motivation have been discovered and described.

Around the same time, i.e. At the beginning of the 20th century, a semantic theory of memory emerged.

It is argued that the work of the corresponding processes is directly dependent on the presence or absence of semantic connections that unite the memorized material into more or less extensive semantic structures (A. Binet, K. Bühler). When memorizing and reproducing, the semantic content of the material comes to the fore. It is argued that semantic memorization is subject to different laws than mechanical ones: the material to be learned or reproduced in this case is included in the context of certain semantic connections.

With the beginning of the development of cybernetics, the advent of computer technology and the development of programming, the search began for optimal ways to accept, process and store information by a machine. Accordingly, we began cybernetic and algorithmic modeling of memory processes. Over the past few decades of similar research, a wealth of material has been accumulated, which has turned out to be very useful for understanding the laws of memory.

Representatives of these sciences began to show increased interest in the actual psychological research of memory, because this opened up opportunities for improving programming languages, its technology and machine memory. This mutual interest led to the fact that psychology began to develop a new theory of memory, which can be called information-cybernetic. Currently, she is taking only the first, but very promising steps towards a deeper understanding of human memory using the achievements of cybernetics and computer science.

After all, the human brain is also a kind of complex electronic computing and analog machine.

In Russian psychology, the direction in the study of memory associated with the general psychological theory of activity has received predominant development. In the context of this theory, memory acts as a special type of psychological activity, including a system of theoretical and practical actions subordinated to the solution of a mnemonic task - remembering, preserving and reproducing various information. Here, the composition of mnemonic actions and operations is carefully examined, the dependence of memory productivity on the place in the structure of the goal and means of memorization (or reproduction), the comparative productivity of voluntary and involuntary memorization depending on the organization of mnemonic activity (A.N. Leontiev, P. I. Zinchenko, A. A. Smirnov, etc.).

The study of memory as an activity began with the work of French scientists, in particular P. Janet. He was one of the first to interpret memory as a system of actions focused on remembering, processing and storing material.

In our country, this concept was further developed in the cultural-historical theory of the origin of higher mental functions. The stages of phylo- and ontogenetic development of memory, especially voluntary and involuntary, direct and indirect, were identified.
According to the activity theory of memory, the formation of connections-associations between various representations, as well as memorization, storage and reproduction of material are explained by what a person does with this material in the process of its mnemonic processing.

A. A. Smirnov discovered a number of interesting facts that reveal the features of memorization mechanisms and the conditions under which it occurs better or worse. He found that actions are remembered better than thoughts, and among actions, in turn, those associated with overcoming obstacles, including these obstacles themselves, are more firmly remembered.

Let us consider the basic facts obtained in line with various theories of memory.

The German scientist G. Ebbinghaus was one of those who, back in the last century, guided by the associative theory of memory, obtained a number of interesting facts. In particular, he derived the following patterns of memorization, established in studies where meaningless syllables and other material poorly organized in terms of semantics were used for memorization.

Relatively simple events in life that make a particularly strong impression on a person can be immediately remembered firmly and for a long time, and after many years from the moment of the first and only meeting with them, they can appear in the mind with distinctness and clarity.

A person can experience more complex and less interesting events dozens of times, but they are not imprinted in memory for a long time.

With close attention to an event, experiencing it once is enough to subsequently accurately and in the right order reproduce its main points from memory.

A person can objectively correctly reproduce events, but not realize it, and, conversely, make mistakes, but be sure that he reproduces them correctly. There is not always a clear connection between the accuracy of reproducing events and confidence in this accuracy.

If you increase the number of members of a memorized series to an amount exceeding the maximum capacity of short-term memory, then the number of correctly reproduced members of this series after its one-time presentation decreases compared to the case when the number of units in the memorized series is exactly equal to the capacity of short-term memory. At the same time, as such a series increases, the number of repetitions necessary to memorize it also increases.

Preliminary repetition of material that is to be memorized (repetition without memorization) saves time on its assimilation if the number of such preliminary repetitions does not exceed the number necessary for complete memorization of the material.

When memorizing a long series, its beginning and end are best reproduced from memory (“edge effect”).

For the associative connection of impressions and their subsequent reproduction, it seems particularly important whether they are scattered or form a logically connected whole.

Repeating memorized material in a row is less productive for memorizing it than distributing such repetitions over a certain period of time, for example, over several hours or days.

New repetition helps to better remember what was learned before.

With increased attention to the memorized material, the number of repetitions required to learn it by heart can be reduced, and the lack of sufficient attention cannot be compensated for by increasing the number of repetitions.

What a person is especially interested in is remembered without any difficulty. This pattern is especially pronounced in adulthood.

Rare, strange, unusual impressions are remembered better than familiar, frequently occurring ones.

Any new impression received by a person does not remain isolated in his memory. Being remembered in one form, it may change somewhat over time, entering into an associative connection with other impressions, influencing them and, in turn, changing under their influence.

T. Ribot, analyzing cases of amnesia—temporary memory loss—that are important for understanding the psychology of memory, notes two more patterns:

a person’s memory is connected with his personality, and in such a way that pathological changes in personality are almost always accompanied by memory impairments;

A person’s memory is lost and restored according to the same law: with memory loss, the most complex and recently acquired impressions suffer first; when restoring memory, the situation is the other way around, i.e. the simplest and oldest memories are restored first, and then the most complex and recent ones.

A generalization of these and many other facts made it possible to derive a number of laws of memory. It has been established that in the memorization, preservation and reproduction of material, various operations of processing and recoding it are involved, including such mental operations as analysis, systematization, generalization, synthesis, etc. They provide the semantic organization of the material, which determines its memorization and reproduction.

When reproducing a text for the purpose of memorizing it, what is imprinted in memory is not so much the words and sentences themselves that make up the text, but rather the thoughts contained in it. They are the first to come to mind when the task of remembering a given text arises.

The memorization mindset promotes it, i.e. Memorization occurs better if a person sets himself an appropriate mnemonic task. If this installation is designed to memorize and store information for a certain period of time, which happens when using RAM, then it is by this period that the memory mechanisms are triggered.

What takes the place of its goal in the structure of an activity is remembered better than something that constitutes the means for carrying out this activity. Therefore, in order to increase the productivity of memorizing material, you need to somehow connect it with the main goal of the activity.

Repetition plays a big role in memorization and recall. Their productivity largely depends on the extent to which this process is intellectually saturated, i.e. is not a mechanical repetition, but a new way of structuring and logical processing of the material. In this regard, special attention should be paid to understanding the material and understanding the meaning of what is done with it in the process of memorizing.

To learn the material well, it is not advisable to immediately learn it by heart. It is better if repetitions of the material are distributed over time in such a way that there are a relatively larger number of repetitions at the beginning and end of memorization than in the middle. According to data obtained by A. Pieron, the distribution of repetitions throughout the day saves time by more than twice as compared to the case when the material is immediately learned by heart.

Any of the parts into which, when memorizing, the entire material as a whole is divided, should itself represent a more or less complete whole. Then all the material is better organized in memory, easier to remember and reproduce.

One of the interesting effects of memory, for which a satisfactory explanation has not yet been found, is called reminiscence. This is an improvement over time in the reproduction of memorized material through additional repetitions. More often, this phenomenon is observed when distributing repetitions of material in the process of memorizing it, and not when memorizing it immediately by heart. Reproduction delayed for several days often gives better results than reproducing material immediately after learning it. Reminiscence is probably explained by the fact that over time, the logical and semantic connections formed within the material being memorized become stronger and become clearer and more distinct. Most often, reminiscence occurs on the 2nd -3rd day after learning the material. Let us note that reminiscence as a phenomenon arises as a result of the superposition of essentially two different laws on each other, one of which characterizes the forgetting of meaningful and the other of meaningless material.