EntranceMethodology for studying logical and mechanical memory source. Experimental studies of the characteristics of logical and mechanical memory in adolescence
Learning words. Using this technique, verbal mechanical memory is studied.
The subject is asked to remember 10 unrelated words (house, forest, bread, window, stump, table, needle, bridge, flag, honey).
After the first reading, none of the subjects, with very rare exceptions, can repeat all the words. Therefore, reading words is repeated several times until the subject reproduces at least 9 words. With a normally developed mechanical memory, a teenager aged 12-14 years reproduces at least 9 words after 3-4 repetitions.
An hour later, the teenager is asked to repeat the memorized words again. Thus, the strength of memorization is examined. Within normal limits, he reproduces at least 5 words.
There are quite a few options for this very simple and easy-to-use technique.
Methodology for studying the process of visual recognition. It is necessary to have 36 pictures depicting people, animals, plants, tools, etc. (pictures of classification of objects can be used). The 12 pictures intended for the main experience should be numbered.
The subject is asked to look at these 12 pictures and remember them, after which the main pictures are mixed with additional ones, and all 36 pictures are laid out in front of the subject. The subject must find the pictures that he has already seen. To test the accuracy of memory, you can ask the recognized pictures to be arranged in the order in which they were presented at the beginning of the experiment.
For teenage children, 6-9 can be considered a sufficient number of recognized pictures. At the age of 16-18 years, the number of errors should be minimal, i.e. no more than 2-3.
Method of indirect memorization. This method is designed to study logical memory.
The subject is read a series of words, to memorize each of which he must choose one of the pictures laid out on the table. Pictures are selected that have one or another logical connection with the presented word.
There are two versions of this technique - for younger and for older ages.
For younger children, the following words are suggested: lunch, garden, road, field, light, clothes, night, mistake, birds, study, chair, forest, milk, horse, mouse. They correspond to pictures that depict: bread, apple, sleigh, lamp, shirt, rake, bed, tree, book, cup, bicycle, cart, knife, school building, strawberry, pencil, car, plane, sofa, wardrobe, cow , watch, cat, house.
For older ages, the following words are suggested: rain, meeting, fire, morning, fight, response, theater, strength, meeting, grief, holiday, neighbor, squad, game, work. Pictures: washbasin, feathers, watering can, roof with smoke from the chimney, glass, pencil, mirror, horse, telephone, letter, house, tram, flower, chair, notebook, key, shovel, table, plane, axe, electric lamp, tree , hat, rake, picture in frame.
When choosing pictures during the experiment, children must explain to the experimenter why they choose this particular picture. After some time (about an hour), the child is asked to use the pictures he has selected to remember each of the words presented.
According to A.N. Leontiev, who developed the method of indirect memorization, teenage children 13-14 words.
Methodology for researching suggestibility(in the field of memory). The presented methodology makes it possible to detect, in the most general form, a teenager’s tendency to be suggestible. For this purpose, a picture with a simple plot and not too many objects depicted is selected and presented to the subject for one minute. Then the picture is removed, and the subject is asked questions about what he saw in the picture. Among these questions there should be those that relate to objects that were not in the picture. Such questions need to be formulated in such a way that they can have a suggestive influence on the teenager, that is, you can ask not just whether, for example, the child saw a tree in the picture (if in fact there was none), but what this tree looked like.
It must be taken into account that some children are characterized by increased suggestibility.
Analysis of data obtained using the described technique must be carried out taking into account the age of the teenager being studied.
Method for detecting visual eidetism. Sometimes the testimony of children is striking in its accuracy and abundance of reproducible details. In such cases, doubts may arise about the credibility of the teenager or teenager. However, the exceptional accuracy and completeness of reproduction can be explained by the presence of visual eidetism in a teenager, i.e. the ability to retain a trace of completed excitation in the visual analyzer for a long time in the form of a clear image.
The simplest experiment to detect visual eidetism is the following.
The subject is presented with a small, brightly colored picture with a lot of details against a dark background for 25-30 seconds. At the end of the exposure time, the picture is removed and the subject is instructed to continue looking at the dark background. If the child continues to see the missing picture (this can be checked by asking questions about the details of the picture), then he has an eidetic ability. I was asked to remember the 20 words below along with the serial numbers under which they appear in the list.
The answer can be considered correct only if the word is reproduced along with its serial number. For example, reproducing the word “Ukrainian” without indicating the number “1” is considered an erroneous answer. You have 40 seconds to memorize 20 words. After this time, students wrote down all the words (along with their numbers) that they could remember.
Ukrainian, 2. Economy, 3. Porridge, 4. Tattoo, 5. Neuron, 6. Love, 7. Scissors, 8. Conscience, 9. Clay, 10. Dictionary, 11. Oil, 12. Paper,
- 13. Cake, 14. Logic, 15. Socialism, 16. Verb, 17. Breakthrough, 18. Deserter
- 19. Candle, 20. Cherry
Then I calculated the productivity of memorization. To do this, the number of correctly reproduced words was substituted into the following formula:
(number of correctly reproduced words: 20) x 100 = ... %
For example, if a student correctly reproduced 10 words, then the memorization productivity will be (10: 20) x 100 = 50%
Test 2: remembering numbers
Students memorized the 20 numbers below along with their serial numbers.
You were given 40 seconds to memorize.
After this, the teenagers were asked to write down the numbers that they remembered.
- 1.43 , 2. 57, 3. 12, 4. 33, 5. 81, 6. 72, 7. 15, 8. 44, 9. 96, 10. 7, 11. 37, 12. 18, 13. 86
- 14. 56, 15. 47, 16. 6,17. 78, 18. 61,19. 83, 20. 73
My memorization productivity was calculated using the formula
(number of correctly reproduced numbers: 20) x 100 = ...%
Test 3: remembering faces with first and last names
Students were asked to remember the 10 faces shown below and their first and last names. They had 30 seconds at their disposal.
They were then asked to turn to the end of the page, which showed the same people, but in a different order, and their names were not indicated.
At the end, they counted how many people they could give their first and last names. The answer is considered correct only if both the first and last names are given correctly.
Memory productivity is calculated using the formula
(number of correct answers: 10) x 100 = ...%
Test 4: remembering logically related material
Now we can test the students’ memory capabilities in relation to the book text. They were asked to read the text below, in which the 10 main ideas were highlighted in bold and numbered. They must reproduce them keeping the same sequence 1, 2, 3, .... They were given 60 seconds to memorize.
"Automata that form norms of behavior
Automata capable of analyzing the state of consciousness(1), make long-term detailed forecasts of its development, capable of developing rules of behavior(2), that is, legal and moral norms, continuously monitor and optimize their compliance - it's a mirage(3), an impossible dream or real scientific perspective(4), which should the builders of a communist society strive for if they want to fully exploit the advantages of their system? The fact of the emergence of deontics, or the logic of norms, allows at least today talk about the possibility of answering(5) to this question. People living together, the relationship between their personal and public interests have always been regulated by certain standards (6). Absence such norms would make life impossible for society (7). The growing complexity of social relations(8), constant expansion and deepening of connections between people in the process of building a communist society makes a solution to the problem of scientific construction of legal and moral norms(9), creating a rational methodology for their compilation, included as a component in the system of regulation of public life, urgent task of our time (10)".
After 60 seconds, students were asked to write down the main ideas of the text, taking into account their logical sequence.
Memory productivity was calculated using the formula
(number of correctly reproduced thoughts: 10) x 100 = ...%
The results of the completed tests allowed me to calculate the average memorization productivity.
I have summed up the results obtained in all four tests and divided the sum by four.
Test 1 ... %, Test 2 ... %, Test 3 ... %, Test 4 ... %
Amount: 4 = ... %
When completing four tests, students had the following results: 40, 60, 30 and 70%, then the average memorization productivity will be - 200: 4 = 50%
All the data received was recorded in the proposed table, as a standard with which I compared my results.
Methodology for assessing operational visual memory. This type of memory is characterized by how long a student can store and use in the process of solving a problem the information that is necessary to find the correct solution. The retention time of information in RAM serves as its main indicator. As an additional characteristic of RAM, you can use the number of errors made by students while solving a problem (meaning errors that are associated with the information necessary for solving the problem not being stored in memory).
Visual operational memory and its indicators can be determined using the procedure. The student is given sequentially 15 minutes each, task cards presented in the form of six differently visual triangles. After viewing the next card, it is removed and instead a matrix is offered, including 24 different triangles, among which there are 6 of the triangles that the subject just saw, on a separate card. The task is to find and correctly indicate all 6 triangles in the matrix.
An indicator of the development of visual operative memory is the division of time per minute for solving a problem by the number of errors made during the solution process, plus one.
Errors are considered to be triangles incorrectly indicated in the matrix or those that the teenager could not find for any reason.
In practice, to obtain the indicator proceed as follows. Using all four cards, the number of triangles correctly found on the matrix is determined, and their total sum is divided by 4. This is the number of correctly indicated triangles. This number is subtracted from 6. The result obtained is the average number of errors. Next, the average work time is determined by dividing the total time the child worked on all 4 cards by 4.
The moment at which the subject ends working on counting triangles in the general matrix is determined using the question: “Have you already found everything you saw?” after an affirmative answer, you can stop searching for triangles in the matrix. Dividing the average time spent searching on a matrix of 6 triangles and the number of errors made allows us to obtain the required indicator.
10 points - gets a subject who has a short-term memory capacity of 8 or more units.
A similar number of points - 10 - is received by children from 6 to 9 years old if their memory capacity is 7-8 units.
8 points - the volume of short-term memory of a child aged 6 to 9 years is assessed, if it is actually equal to 5 or 6 units.
The same number of points is received by a teenager aged 12 or older, who has a short-term memory capacity of 6-7 units.
- 4 points - received by a subject who has a short-term memory capacity of 4-5 units.
- 2 points - given if the volume of short-term memory is 1-3 units.
- 0 points - the volume of short-term memory is 0-1 units.
Conclusions on levels of development.
- 10 points - good short-term memory developed in volume.
- 8 points - moderately developed short-term memory.
- 4 points - the level of short-term memory is not quite sufficient in volume.
- 2 points - low level of short-term memory.
- 0 points - very low short-term memory capacity.
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Age (years) |
Time (min) |
Number of mistakes |
Required indicator |
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Methodology. Assessment of working auditory memory. This type of memory is defined in the following way. To the subject at intervals of 1 second. The following words are read one by one.
After listening to each set of words, the subject, approximately 5 seconds after finishing reading the set, begins to slowly read the next set of 36 words with an interval of 5 seconds between individual words.
Glass, school, fork, button, carpet, month, chair, man, sofa, cow, TV, tree, bird, sleep, brave, joke, red, swan, picture, heavy, swim, ball, warm, house, jump, notebook, coat, book, flower, phone, apple, doll, bag, horse, fly, elephant.
In this set of 36 words, the spoken words from all 4 listened sets, marked above with Roman numerals, are arranged in random order.
To better identify them, they are underlined in different ways, with each set of 6 words having its own different ways of underlining. Thus, words from the first small set are underlined with a single solid line, words from the second set with a solid double line, words from the third set with a dotted single line, and, finally, words from the fourth set with a double dotted line.
The subject must auditorily detect in this set those words that have just been presented to him with the corresponding small set, confirming the identification of the found word “yes” and its absence with the statement “no”. You have 5 seconds to search for each word. If during this time he could not identify it, then the experimenter reads the next word and so on.
Evaluation of results. The indicator of operational auditory memory is defined as the quotient of dividing the average time spent on identifying 6 words in a large set (for this, the total time the child worked on the task is divided by 4) by the average number of errors made plus one. Errors are considered to be all words that are indicated incorrectly, or words that the teenager could not find in the allotted time, i.e. missed it.
Comment. This technique does not have standardized indicators, so conclusions about the level of memory development are based on it, as well as on the basis of a similar technique for visual working memory. Indicators using these methods can only be compared among different subjects when they are re-examined, making relative conclusions about how the memory of one subject differs from another, or about what changes have occurred in memory over time.
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Conclusion: Data processing shows that the memory of students is fundamentally different, these differences are the very individual characteristics that were mentioned above. This study of visual and auditory working memory of subjects shows that some people are better at remembering material based on visual images. For others, auditory perception predominates and acoustic images are better for them to hear once than to see several times. More specifically, as regards the study in this group, the indicators in the method for operational auditory memorization are higher than for operational visual memorization.
In general, the operational auditory memory of this experimental group can be assessed as highly developed auditory memory because the majority of subjects did not have difficulty finding words by ear in all four sets of listened words. Which speaks to the benefits of auditory memorization. Although among them there were also those (in general, these are two people) whose visual memorization predominates over auditory, however, this advantage is not clear because the indicators of their operational auditory and visual memorization are approximately equal. And yet their visual working memory is assessed as good and developed in its volume.
Methodology for “research of mediated memorization”. Purpose of the work: Study of the level of accessible semantic organization of memory, comparison of the productivity of direct and indirect memorization of pictograms.
Materials and equipment: 40 abstract concepts.
Method: educational modifications by Yu.V. Votletova and A.R. Luria methods for studying the level of accessible semantic organization of memory, developed by I.S. Vygodsky and A.N. Leontyev
Methodology "diagnostics of mediated memory". The material needed to carry out the technique is a sheet of paper and a pen. Before starting the examination, the subject is asked the following words.
“Now I will tell you different words and sentences and then pause. During this pause, you will have to draw or write something on a piece of paper that will allow you to remember and then easily recall the words that I said. Try drawings "or make notes as quickly as possible, otherwise we will not have time to complete all the tasks. There are quite a lot of words and expressions that need to be remembered."
The following words and expressions are read to the subject one after the other.
A house, a stick, jumping high, the sun is shining, a cheerful man, children playing ball, a clock standing, a boat floating on the river, a cat eating fish.
After reading each word or phrase to the subject, the experimenter pauses for 20 seconds. At this time, the teenager must have time to draw on this sheet of paper something that will later allow him to remember the necessary words and expressions. If during the allotted time the teenager did not have time to make a note or drawing, then the experimenter reads out the next word or expression.
Evaluation of results. For each word or phrase correctly reproduced from one’s own drawing or recording, the subject receives 1 point.
Not only those words and phrases that are literally restored in memory, but also those that are conveyed in other words but exactly in meaning are considered correctly reproduced. Approximately correct reproduction is scored 0.5 points, and incorrect reproduction 0 points.
The maximum overall score that a teenager should or can receive in this technique is 10 points. The subject receives this assessment when he correctly remembers everything without exception and the minimum possible score is 0 points. It corresponds to the case if a teenager could not remember a single word from his drawings and notes or did not make a drawing or note for a single word.
For an older subject, more complex words are used that cannot be depicted visually, so the subject will need to use some kind of conventional picture, looking at which he will have to remember the marked word.
For example: Biologist. Law. Turtle. Wheat. The girl is cold. Composition. Ignorance. Recognition. Warm outside. Beautiful flower
Conclusions about the level of development.
- 10 points - very highly developed indirect memory.
- 8-9 points - highly developed indirect memory.
- 4-7 points - moderately developed indirect memory.
- 2-3 points - poorly developed indirect memory.
- 0-1 point - poorly developed indirect memory.
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Subjects |
Overall rating |
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Conclusion: these indicators indicate that the process of meaningful, logical memorization in its psychological structure is completely different from the process of mechanical memorization, this is evidenced by such high indicators, i.e. It is easier for a person to remember material through intermediaries, including auxiliary minutes that facilitate the process of reproducing the material. Therefore, many people have mediocre memory, and in this case, the subjects have quite good memory because it is closest to the process of logical thinking with the only growing fact that the techniques of this thinking are aimed not only at mastering the essential connections and relationships of elements, but also at making these elements available for storage in memory for a certain period of time.
Methodology. Eysenck test. This test is presented in fragments. In fact, it consists of eight subtests, five of which are intended to assess the level of general intellectual development of a person and three to assess the degree of development of his special abilities: mathematical linguistic and those that are important for technical, design, artistic and visual and other types of activities, where figurative and logical thinking is actively used.
Each of the subtests of the Eysenck test includes a series of gradually more complex problems, the solution of which takes 30 minutes in each subtest. T. The total time for working on the entire test, including passing all its subtests, is 4 hours. Only if all 8 subtests are completed can a full assessment be made of both the level of a person’s general intellectual development and the degree of development of the above-mentioned special abilities.
For practical acquaintance with the test. Aizenka and its use in school psychological and pedagogical studies, two of the eight subtests available in the test are selected, with the help of which the menguistic and mathematical abilities of the subjects were assessed.
30 minutes were allotted to complete the task. those. in total 1 hour. During this time, you need to try to solve as many problems as possible.
The level of development of abilities is assessed based on the total number of problems correctly solved during this time by comparing the number of solved problems with standard indicators, which are then plotted in the form of a graph. There, at the end of the description of both subtests, the correct answers are given.
Note: If a task cannot be solved quickly, you can temporarily begin solving another; ultimately, only the total number of tasks correctly solved in the allotted time is taken into account.
The proposed solutions - this primarily concerns the mathematical test - may differ from those given in the key, but, nevertheless, be correct if the test taker manages to sufficiently convincingly and logically justify their validity.
Evaluation of research results Evaluation of research results is carried out using graphs. They represent averaged normative indicators based on the data of these two subtests. The norm in the strict sense of the word on each graph corresponds to an indicator equal to 100% on the vertical axis. Using the graph, find the corresponding point on the lower axis (the number of problems correctly solved by the subject in 30 minutes), restoring a perpendicular from it before transferring it to the vertical axis, you can determine the intellectual development quotient of the subject for this type of thinking. So, for example, if in the allotted 30 minutes the subject solved 16 problems, then the indicator of the level of development of his linguistic thinking will be equal to 130%. If during the same time the number of problems solved on the mathematical subtest, then the indicator of the condition for the development of mathematical thinking will be equal to 115%. The norm for the linguistic subtest corresponds to 4 correctly solved problems, and the norm for the mathematical subtest corresponds to 11 correctly solved problems.
Method No. 1
Goal: to identify the predominant type of memory.
We start by reading the words of the first row with an interval of three seconds, then the subjects write down the remembered words. After ten minutes, we show a card with the words of the second row (for thirty seconds), write it down and rest for ten minutes. We read the words of the third row aloud, and the children repeat them in a whisper and write them down. After ten minutes, we show the cards in the fourth row, which we then read out loud. Students repeat in a whisper and “write” them in the air. Then they write it down on a piece of paper.
Method No. 2
Goal: to identify the influence of semantic connections on the memorization and reproduction of verbal material, as well as the strength of memorization in the formation of logical connections.
Equipment: ten pairs of words between which it is easy to establish verbal connections
noise-water path-road
year-month table-lunch
knife and fork garden flowers
bridge-river hour-time
eye-ear snow-winter
First, we read each pair of words to the children. Test takers try to establish connections between the words of the pair. Then we call only the first word of the pair, and students must reproduce the second, using the established connection.
Focus
Dominant motives and goals of activity, type of orientation (social, personal, business), interests (predominant interests, their depth, breadth, stability, degree of activity, professional and personal interests), dreams and ideals (the degree of their generalization and reality), elements of the formative worldview.
"Tsvetik-Semitsvetik"
To carry out the technique, you will need a sheet of paper with a “Magic Flower” drawn on it with seven multi-colored petals. The size of the petals should be such that the child can write down his wish in it.
Instructions. “Imagine that each of you, like the girl Zhenya from V. Kataev’s fairy tale “The Flower of Seven Flowers,” received a magical flower with seven magical petals. Each petal will fulfill one wish. This flower is drawn on a leaf. Write one wish on each petal. In total, each of you will be able to write seven of your most cherished desires. Does everyone understand what needs to be done?”
Processing of results and interpretation
The direction of responses to the fulfillment of one’s own desires, oriented towards the benefit of other people (peers, teachers, parents, brothers, sisters, etc.), related to school, and broad “universal human” ones (“I want people to never get sick”, “ So that no one kills other people”, “Found all the minerals”, etc.).
Since the very structure of the methodology orients children, first of all, to actualize their own desires, highlighting desires “for others” indicates the breadth of motivation, going beyond personal experience, the presence of broad meaning-forming motives, or the formation of a need for good for other people. At the same time, unfavorable options are when desires “for oneself” are completely absent.
Qualitative categories characterizing the prevailing sphere of preferences are determined.
The most common answers here are about the desire to possess certain material goods, have some new qualities, abilities, make friends, improve academic performance, fulfill the requirements of teachers, etc.
Unfavorable options are to record all answers in the area of fulfilling the demands of adults, as well as very specific (“small”) material goods (for example, candy, chewing gum and ice cream).
Particular attention should be paid to answers related to physical aggression: both to open aggressive tendencies (“I would like to beat everyone, destroy everyone,” “To take revenge on everyone,” “To beat up all those who offend me”), and victims of aggression: “So that they don’t beat me”, “So that someone will protect me when they start beating me again”).
The answer “I don’t know” is an unfavorable indicator, which may indicate both the weakness of desires and needs, the underdevelopment of their reflection, the fact that the child is not used to giving himself an account of his desires, and a kind of “refusal” of desires, their repression , as well as about a certain closeness towards adults, sometimes having the character of a negative protest. Which option takes place in a particular case should be clarified during an additional conversation.
The degree of “extension” of desires in time is determined.
Modality of statement (“I want”, “I would like”).
The use of the subjunctive mood, indicating the child’s lack of confidence in his “right to desire,” is an unfavorable symptom.
"Unfinished Sentences"
The technique consists of 56 unfinished sentences. Each of them is aimed at identifying the subject’s relationship to a particular group of social or personal interests and preferences.
The goal is to study the orientation of the student’s personality and the system of his relationships.
Research procedure: subjects are offered a form with 56 unfinished sentences, conditionally divided into 7 thematic blocks (8 sentences in each block): attitude towards learning, attitude towards school, attitude towards family, attitude towards peers, attitude towards oneself, attitude towards others people and their attitude towards their future.
You should strive to complete the task quickly and not allow you to think about the answer for a long time.
Instructions. “There are 56 unfinished sentences on the form. Read and complete them, writing down the first thought that comes to your mind. Do it quickly, don't hesitate. If you can’t finish a sentence, circle its number and work on it later.”
The survey is carried out in two stages. At the first stage, subjects complete unfinished sentences; at the second stage, they assess their emotional attitude to the content of this ending.
Instructions for stage 2. After reading each sentence, give it an emotional rating score: +1, 0, –1, on the following scale:
+1 - positive assessment and positive attitude towards what is being discussed, experiencing positive emotions: joy, satisfaction, appreciation, gratitude, self-confidence, peace, etc.;
0 - neutral assessment and neutral attitude towards what is being discussed. Absence of any emotions. The proposal is not completed.
–1 - negative assessment, negative attitude towards what is being discussed. Experiencing negative emotions: irritation, anger, frustration, fear, sadness, resentment, envy, contempt, etc., or if the sentence is not completed due to strong unpleasant experiences associated with what is being discussed.
Unfinished Sentence Sheet
1. This is how I learn...
2. School authorities...
3. My mother...
4. When I'm not there, my friends...
5. When I start to feel unlucky...
6. Most people I know...
7. I think that in the future...
8. I would like to study...
9. Our school...
10. Compared to most families, my family...
11. As for our class...
12. I am quite capable...
13. From strangers...
14. It seems to me that in the future I...
15. In my studies I see...
16. At school I...
17. My family treats me like...
18. When I express my opinion...
19. It seems to me that I...
20. People most often live...
21. I think planning for the future...
22. As for the lessons, I...
23. Our teachers...
24. I would like my father...
25. I think that my peers...
26. I could be very happy...
27. Almost all people strive...
28. Think about the future...
29. I can study...
30. Most teachers...
31. I think that most mothers...
32. In class I feel...
33. My hidden desire is...
34. It seems to me that people mostly...
35. It seems to me that in five years...
36. Homework I...
37. When I go to school...
38. My mother and I...
39. As for my classmates...
40. Most of all I'm afraid...
41. People see meaning in...
42. In the future I will do...
43. Most academic subjects...
44. I think that teachers...
45. I think that my father...
46. I don't like it when guys...
47. Most of all I love...
48. Basically, people treat each other...
49. It often seems to me that in the future...
50. When I think about studying...
51. When I remember our school...
52. My father and I...
53. When in the summer I remember our class...
54. I think about me...
55. People often...
56. I consider the purpose of my life..
Key
The scores for each block are algebraically summed up, for example, study: 0, 0, +1, –1, +1, +1, +1, –1 = +2. The result is a generalized semantic statement on a given topic (sphere). Naturally, a student can give a purely speculative assessment, without emotional involvement. But research shows that the questions that make up the test are quite emotionally significant for teenagers.
Interpretation. During testing of the test, based on the analysis of 316 attitudinal fields, the following rating scale for generalized attitudes was obtained:
very positive - more than 3;
positive - from 1 to 3;
neutral - from 0 to 1;
negative - from –3 to –1
extremely negative - less than –3.
However, a qualitative analysis of projections shows that often, already at the neutral level of the rating scale (from 0 to +1), serious psychological problems of students in this area of reality begin.
As a result, testing identifies areas in which positive attitudes predominate (positive experience, positive perceptions, positive expectations), and areas in which attitudes close to negative or negative predominate (negative experience, negative perceptions, negative expectations). It is in the latter that the child experiences the greatest number of psychological problems, productivity decreases, etc. These may include educational difficulties, relationships with teachers, parents and loved ones, peers, low self-esteem and dissatisfaction with oneself.
Spheres of manifestation of generalized semantic attitudes
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Attention
types, properties, influence on academic performance and discipline, compliance with age characteristics.
"Study of attention switching"
Purpose: study and assessment of the ability to switch attention. Equipment: table with black and red numbers from 1 to 12, written out of order; stopwatch.
Research procedure. At the researcher’s signal, the subject must name and show the numbers: a) black from 1 to 12; b) red from 12 to 1; c) black in ascending order, and red in descending order (for example, 1 - black, 12 - red, 2 - black, 11 - red, etc.). The time of the experiment is recorded using a stopwatch.
Processing and analysis of results. The difference between the time required to complete the last task and the sum of the time spent working on the first and second will be the time that the subject spends on switching attention when moving from one activity to another.
"Assessing the stability of attention using the correction test method"
Purpose: to study the stability of students' attention. Equipment: standard “Corrective Test” test form, stopwatch. Research procedure. The study must be carried out individually. You need to start by making sure that the subject has a desire to complete the task. At the same time, he should not have the impression that he is being examined.
The subject must sit at the table in a position convenient for performing this task.
The examiner gives him a “Proofreading Test” form and explains the essence according to the following instructions: “The letters of the Russian alphabet are printed on the form. Consistently examining each line, look for the letters “k” and “r” and cross them out. The task must be completed quickly and accurately.” The subject begins to work at the experimenter's command. After ten minutes, the last letter examined is marked.
Processing and analysis of results. The results in the test subject's proofreading form are compared with the program - the key to the test. The total number of letters viewed in ten minutes, the number of letters correctly crossed out during work, and the number of letters that needed to be crossed out are calculated.
The productivity of attention is calculated, equal to the number of letters viewed in ten minutes, and the accuracy calculated by the formula K= m:n * 100%, where K is accuracy, n is the number of letters that needed to be crossed out, m is the number of correctly crossed out during work letters
Memory.
Level of development of various types of memory, individual and age characteristics, tendency to cram, impact on academic performance.
"Memory Type Determination"
Goal: determination of the predominant type of memory.
Equipment: four rows of words written on separate cards; stopwatch.
For memorization by ear
: car, apple, pencil, spring, lamp, forest, rain, flower, pan, parrot.
For memorization during visual perception:
airplane, pear, pen, winter, candle, field, lightning, nut, frying pan, duck.
For memorization during motor-auditory perception
: steamboat, plum, ruler, summer, lampshade, river, thunder, berry, plate, goose.
For memorization with combined perception:
train, cherry, notebook, autumn, floor lamp, clearing, thunderstorm, mushroom, cup, chicken.
Research procedure. The student is informed that a series of words will be read to him, which he must try to remember and, at the experimenter’s command, write down. The first row of words is read. The interval between words when reading is 3 seconds; The student must write them down after a 10-second break after finishing reading the entire series; then rest for 10 minutes.
The experimenter reads the words of the third row to the student, and the subject repeats each of them in a whisper and “writes it down” in the air. Then he writes down the remembered words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
The experimenter shows the student the words of the fourth row and reads them to him. The subject repeats each word in a whisper and “writes it down” in the air. Then he writes down the remembered words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
Processing and analysis of results. A conclusion can be drawn about the predominant type of memory of the subject by calculating the memory type coefficient (C). C = , where a is 10 the number of correctly reproduced words.
The type of memory is determined by which of the rows had greater word recall. The closer the memory type coefficient is to one, the better developed this type of memory is in the subject.
"Study of logical and mechanical memory"
Purpose: study of logical and mechanical memory by memorizing two rows of words.
Equipment: two rows of words (in the first row there is a semantic connection between the words, in the second row there is none), stopwatch.
Research procedure. The student is informed that pairs of words will be read that he must remember. The experimenter reads to the subject ten pairs of words in the first row (the interval between pairs is five seconds).
After a ten-second break, the left words of the row are read (with an interval of ten seconds), and the subject writes down the remembered words of the right half of the row.
Similar work is carried out with words of the second row.
Processing and analysis of results. The results of the study are recorded in the following table.
table 2
The volume of semantic and mechanical memory
Thinking.
Level of development of types and operations; independence, flexibility, activity, speed of thought processes, logic; impact on academic performance.
"Simple Analogies"
Goal: study of logic and flexibility of thinking.
Equipment: a form in which two rows of words are printed according to the sample.
1. Run Scream
stand a) be silent, b) crawl, c) make noise, d) call, e) stable
2. Steam Locomotive Horse
carriages a) groom, b) horse, c) oats, d) cart, e) stable
3. Leg Eyes
boot a) head, b) glasses, c) tears, d) vision, e) nose
4. Cow Trees
herd a) forest, b) sheep, c) hunter, d) flock, e) predator
5. Raspberry Mathematics
berry a) book, b) table, c) desk, d) notebooks, e) chalk
6. Rye Apple Tree
field a) gardener, b) fence, c) apples, d) garden, e) leaves
7. Library Theater
viewer a) shelves, b) books, c) reader, d) librarian, e) watchman
8. Steamboat Train
pier a) rails, b) station, c) land, d) passenger, e) sleepers
9. Currant Casserole
berry a) stove, b) soup, c) spoon, d) dishes, e) cook
10. Illness TV
treat a) turn on, b) install, c) repair, d) apartment, e) master
11. House Staircase
floors a) residents, b) steps, c) stone,
Research procedure. The student studies a pair of words placed on the left, establishing a logical connection between them, and then, by analogy, builds a pair on the right, choosing the desired concept from those proposed. If the student cannot understand how this is done, one pair of words can be analyzed with him.
Processing and analysis of results. A high level of logic of thinking is indicated by eight to ten correct answers, a good level by 6-7 answers, a sufficient level by 4-5, and a low level by less than 5.
"Elimination of the superfluous"
Purpose: studying the ability to generalize. Equipment: a piece of paper with twelve rows of words like:
1. Lamp, lantern, sun, candle.
2. Boots, shoes, laces, felt boots.
3. Dog, horse, cow, elk.
4. Table, chair, floor, bed.
5. Sweet, bitter, sour, hot.
6. Glasses, eyes, nose, ears.
7. Tractor, combine, car, sled.
8. Moscow, Kyiv, Volga, Minsk.
9. Noise, whistle, thunder, hail.
10. Soup, jelly, saucepan, potatoes.
11. Birch, pine, oak, rose.
12. Apricot, peach, tomato, orange.
Research procedure. The student needs to find in each row of words one that does not fit, one that is superfluous, and explain why.
Processing and analysis of results.
1. Determine the number of correct answers (highlighting the extra word).
2. Establish how many rows are generalized using two generic concepts (the extra “pan” is dishes, and the rest is food).
3. Identify how many series are generalized using one generic concept.
4. Determine what mistakes were made, especially in terms of using non-essential properties (color, size, etc.) to generalize.
The key to evaluating results. High level - 7-12 rows are generalized with generic concepts; good - 5-6 rows with two, and the rest with one; medium - 7-12 rows with one generic concept; low - 1-6 rows with one generic concept.
Imagination.
Recreating and creative, a tendency to fantasize, manifestation in creative activity, originality, convergence, flexibility, fluency, independence, generalization, emotionality; level of development of personality creativity.
"Completing the drawing of figures"
Purpose: to study the originality of solving imagination problems.
Equipment: a set of twenty cards with figures drawn on them: outline images of parts of objects, for example, a trunk with one branch, a circle-head with two ears, etc., simple geometric figures (circle, square, triangle, etc. ), colored pencils, paper. Research procedure. The student needs to complete each of their figures so that they get a beautiful picture.
Processing and analysis of results. A quantitative assessment of the degree of originality is made by counting the number of images that were not repeated in the child and were not repeated in any of the children in the group. Those drawings in which different reference figures were transformed into the same element of the drawing are considered identical.
The calculated coefficient of originality is correlated with one of six types of solution to the imagination task. Null type. It is characterized by the fact that the child does not yet accept the task of constructing an imaginary image using a given element. He does not finish drawing it, but draws something of his own next to it (free imagination).
Type 1 - the child completes the drawing of the figure on the card so that an image of a separate object (tree) is obtained, but the image is contoured, schematic, and devoid of details.
Type 2 - a separate object is also depicted, but with various details.
Type 3 - when depicting a separate object, the child already includes it in some imaginary plot (not just a girl, but a girl doing exercises).
Type 4 - the child depicts several objects according to an imaginary plot (a girl walks with a dog).
Type 5 - a given figure is used in a qualitatively new way.
If in types 1-4 it appears as the main part of the picture that the child drew (the circle-head), then now the figure is included as one of the secondary elements to create an image of the imagination (the triangle is no longer a roof, but a pencil lead with which the boy draws a picture ).
" Warteg's "Circles" technique "
Instructions. There are 20 circles drawn on the form (Fig. 1). Your task is to draw objects and phenomena using circles as a basis. You can draw both outside and inside the circle, use one circle for drawing. Think about how to use circles to create original designs. Under each drawing write what is drawn. You need to draw from left to right. You are given 5 minutes to complete the task.
Do not forget that the results of your work will be assessed based on the degree of originality of the drawings.
Processing the results
1. The indicator of fluency of thinking is calculated - the total number of drawings, 1 point is given for each drawing. The average values of mental fluency are presented in Table. 1.
2. Flexibility of thinking - number of classes of drawings, for each class - 1 point. The results obtained are compared with the average values (Table 2).
The drawings are grouped by class:
nature;
Houseware;
science and technology;
sport;
decorative items (having no practical value, used for decoration);
Human;
economy;
Universe.
3. Originality of thinking - for each rarely seen drawing - 2 points.
Character.
Description of character traits by type of relationship (to oneself, other people, activities, things), character traits, type of accentuation.
"Drawing of a Man"
Test instructions
The test procedure consists of giving the child a simple medium-soft pencil and a standard blank sheet of A4 paper. And they ask you to create a drawing: “Please draw the kind of person you want.”
Observations of the child made while working on the drawing will provide important information about his characteristics.
How did he react to the task?
Did he express resistance or a sharp refusal?
Did you ask additional questions and how many?
Did he express an urgent need for further instructions?
If so, then in what way: did he state it directly or was it expressed in his movements and behavior?
Maybe the child boldly began to complete the task and did not express any doubts about his abilities?
Or were his doubts and insecurities reflected in everything he did and said?
Such observations provide a lot of food for thought: maybe the child feels unprotected, he is anxious, restless, unsure of himself, doubtful, suspicious, arrogant, negativistic, extremely critical, hostile, tense, calm, trusting, curious, embarrassed , alert, impulsive, etc. and so on.
After the drawing is completed, ask the child if he has drawn everything, and then move on to a conversation that is based on the drawing and its features. During the conversation, you can clarify all the unclear aspects of the drawing, and through the attitudes, feelings and experiences that the child expresses during the conversation, you can obtain unique information regarding his emotional and psychological state. The conversation may include questions:
Who is this man?
Where does he live?
Does he have friends?
What does he do?
Is he good or evil?
Who is he looking at?
Who's looking at him?
Other questions to ask your child to get as much information as possible:
Do you know this person?
Who does he look like, who does he resemble?
Who were you thinking about when you were drawing?
What is the drawn person doing, what is he currently doing?
How old is he?
Where is he located?
What's around him?
What is he thinking about?
How does he feel?
What does he do?
You like him?
Does he have bad habits?
Does he have any wishes?
What comes to your mind when you look at this drawn man?
Is this person healthy?
What does this person want most?
During this conversation with your child, you can ask him to clarify or comment on the unclear details, dubious or unclear places in the drawing. Also ask which part of the body, in his opinion, turned out best and why, and which part was the worst, why.
Interpretation of test results
Short version of graphical information processing
The answers to the questions below will make it clear whether the child is showing any obvious deviations or whether there are signs of psychopathology.
· A man's head is drawn.
· He has two legs.
· Two arms.
· The body is sufficiently separated from the head.
· The length and width of the body are proportional.
· The shoulders are well drawn.
· The arms and legs are connected to the body correctly.
· The junctions of the arms and legs with the body are clearly highlighted.
· The neck is clearly visible.
· The length of the neck is proportional to the size of the body and head.
· The man's eyes are drawn.
· His nose is drawn.
· The mouth is drawn.
· The nose and mouth are of normal size.
· The nostrils are visible.
· Hair is drawn.
· The hair is drawn well, it evenly covers the head.
· The man is drawn in clothes.
· At least the main parts of the clothing (trousers and jacket/shirt) are drawn.
· All clothing shown other than the one above is well drawn.
· Clothing does not contain absurd or inappropriate elements.
· Fingers are depicted on the hands.
· Each hand has five fingers.
· The fingers are fairly proportional and not too spread out.
· The thumb is quite well defined.
· The wrists are well drawn by narrowing and then widening the forearm in the hand area.
· The elbow joint is drawn.
· The knee joint is drawn.
· The head has normal proportions in relation to the body.
· The arms are the same length as the body, or longer, but not more than twice as long.
· The length of the feet is approximately 1/3 of the length of the legs.
· The length of the legs is approximately equal to the length of the body or longer, but not more than twice.
· The length and width of the limbs are proportional.
· The heels of the legs can be seen.
· The head shape is correct.
· The body shape is generally correct.
· The outlines of the limbs are conveyed accurately.
· There are no gross errors in the transmission of the remaining parts.
· The ears are clearly distinguishable.
· The ears are in place and of normal size.
· Eyelashes and eyebrows are drawn on the face.
· The pupils are positioned correctly.
· The eyes are proportional to the size of the face.
· The person looks straight ahead, his eyes are not squinted to the side.
· The forehead and chin are clearly visible.
· The chin is separated from the lower lip.
It is very easy to draw conclusions. In general, the child’s drawing should correspond to the description given. The closer his drawing is to this model, the higher the level of his development. Give each positive answer one point and add up the points. A normally mentally developed child should score the points indicated below in accordance with his age.
5 years – 10 points.
6 years – 14 points.
7 years – 18 points.
8 years – 22 points.
9 years – 26 points.
10 years – 30 points.
11 years old – 34 points.
12 years old – 38 points.
13 years old – 42 points.
14 years old – over 42 points.
Additional details of the drawing, such as a cane, briefcase, roller skates, etc., speak in favor of the child, but provided that this detail is appropriate in the given drawing or even necessary for the given person depicted, for example, a sword for a warrior.
There may also be negative signs in the picture that you should pay attention to, as they may indicate certain problems.
There are no eyes on the face; one eye on the face in full view; two eyes on the face in profile.
There is no nose, the nose is in the form of one vertical line or point.
No mouth or one-dimensional mouth as a horizontal line.
No torso or stick torso.
There are no hands (the figure has one hand in frontal view), no fingers.
Brushes in the form of mittens, stub brushes or fingerless circles.
No feet.
There are no clothes and no sexual characteristics.
The shin is wider than the thigh and other violations of body proportions.
First of all, note whether there are gross errors in the image of the figure, for example, those listed above. If we assume that the drawing of a human figure symbolizes the image of the body, which is considered to be very susceptible to external stimuli that disturb the emotional state of the child, then the problems that he experiences will be symbolically reflected in the drawing.
The more significant the child's disorder, the more both his body image and his graphic representation of the latter suffer. Following the body image, the child’s drawing may suffer in whole or in part, or simply become slightly different from the generally accepted one. Serious deviations include the depiction of a figure with disparate body parts, completely inappropriate details, the depiction of another object instead of a person, the erasure of a drawn human figure, rigid, motionless, robot-like or very bizarre figures. Such cases indicate serious problems and disorders.
Another significant negative factor is the child’s portrayal of a figure of the opposite sex, which is not necessarily associated with homosexual tendencies, as is often believed. It may be an expression of sexual role confusion, a strong attachment or dependence on a parent of the opposite sex, or a strong attachment or dependence on some other person of the opposite sex.
Symbolic meanings of the human figure
Each part of the depicted figure acquires a special symbolic meaning, since it reveals echoes of the emotional and social life of the child.
When interpreting this test, hasty conclusions are unacceptable. Research shows that the ways and manner of expressing emotions, experiences, conflicts and other aspects of a child’s mental life change depending on the situation and vary from person to person. Therefore, there is no need to make any diagnosis based on a single sign; in the process of analysis, it is necessary to take into account the drawing as a whole.
The head, the forehead, is the personification of the sphere of intellect, the place of localization of the child’s “I”, his mental center, so it is not surprising that maximum attention is paid to the head.
If a child pays little attention to his head, this may indicate problems of adaptation to the social environment, communication difficulties, or even the presence of neurosis, since the head and, in particular, the forehead are also a reflection of self-control and the sphere of social contacts. This is the part of the body that is always open to the gaze of others and through this is involved in the process of relationships with other people.
The absence of a forehead means that the child is deliberately ignoring the mental sphere. The ratio of the proportions of the head and body is the relationship between the physical and spiritual in the child.
If a person has a disproportionately large head, this may be a sign that the child suffers from headaches or is experiencing other negative effects in this area. Head fixation may be associated with decreased intellectual ability or control, resulting in
The modern world is oversaturated with information, news streams are updated every second, and the brain has to somehow cope with these incredible volumes. In order to adequately perceive everything around, a person must be a real superman. But, unfortunately, we do not have superpowers, and it is very difficult to fit all the knowledge we acquire into our heads.
What kind of memory is there?
Depending on the methods of storing information, memory is divided into mechanical and logical. The latter is often called semantic. Types of mechanical memory can be the following: hereditary and lifetime.
Mechanical memory
The main difference between this type of memory is the learning of any information only in the form in which it is presented. Mechanical memory is based on the neural connections of the first signaling system. When a person studies information that is expressed in words, then the words themselves will remain in the head, exactly as they were perceived. If we are talking about physical exercises, then a person will remember the movements themselves that he needs to repeat, and only in the sequence in which they were visually perceived. In this case, the logical or semantic content of the material fades into the background, but, of course, does not lose its meaning. The volume of mechanical memory is inexhaustible.
When does mechanical memory work best?
Of course, this method of memorization, especially in schools or universities, is not an indicator of the level of knowledge. However, it also has its positive sides. For example, if you are learning a foreign language, you must remember not only how new words are pronounced, but also how they are written. This cannot be done unless you concentrate on learning them in precise visual and auditory images. When mastering difficult professional terms, it is mechanical memory that is involved, otherwise the latter are remembered and reproduced with errors and speech distortions. Also, mechanical memory works when familiarizing yourself with simple physical exercises in physical education classes or in gyms.
The positive result of memorizing this or that material using rote memory is based on fixing certain connections between parts of the information being studied according to the principle of associations.
However, it is not enough just to memorize the necessary information in its external manifestation; it is important to be able to retain it in memory for a long time. This is accomplished due to the great plasticity of the nervous system. And after just a couple of repetitions, strong connections are formed and consolidated in the head. This is most often observed in those who have truly outstanding mechanical memory. If a person does not have such abilities, the necessary information can be learned through repeated repetition, due to which weak nerve connections become stronger, the necessary paths between certain parts of the cerebral cortex, which are important in remembering the information received, are repeated.
How does rote learning of material occur?
The main technique of rote memory is learning through repeated reading, viewing or repetition of certain elements. These manipulations are very primitive, their essence lies in one hundred percent repetition of the same material in the images of the first signal system, which helps to firmly consolidate the nerve connections.
As for studies, material learned mechanically is reproduced only in expressions and actions originally taken as a basis, without any deviations. If mistakes were made during training, they will be repeated when reproducing the material.
The same applies to movements: a memorized physical exercise or a simple dance will be reproduced in exactly the same form in which it was presented. If, when repeating movements or material, conditions other than those used during memorization are created, the mechanically memorized exercise will be repeated with difficulty, since it will be quite difficult for a person to adapt to the changes. For this reason, the exercise cannot be repeated exactly as it was learned.
Logical memory
The main difference between logical memory and mechanical memory is that it is aimed to a greater extent not at memorization, but at the concept of the meaning of the information received. Logical memory is based on the work of thinking. In order for information to be logically memorized, it is first analyzed, broken down into components, which are divided into important and not very important.
Logical memory is the result of mental work, which finds its expression in the form of words, diagrams, drawings, and so on, reflecting in the human mind primarily the meaning of what is being studied, and not visual or auditory manifestations.
Differences between logical memory and mechanical memory
First of all, these are the features of reproduction: logical memory manifests itself in the form of an independently meaningful presentation, while mechanical memory manifests itself in the form of an accurate repetition of information.
Logical memory has many components; it should not only be a superficial analysis of the material, but also its understanding, comprehension and reproduction in verbal form. Logical memory, just like mechanical memory, needs repetition of the information provided. Without regularly returning to the information received, knowledge will not be 100% consolidated in memory.
Another significant difference is that with rote memory, repetition is aimed at remembering the same connections, which are unchanged. That is why the same text or movement is reproduced with each repetition. For example, schoolchildren memorize poems in a clearly established sequence. It is a mechanical memory which in any other case will not achieve its purpose.
When memorizing logically, a person tries to understand the meaning of the information being studied, which with each new repetition may differ from the previous one. The meaning remains the same, but it can be expressed in a new way each time. Logical and mechanical memory are very different in the methods of study.
Productivity
Logical memory is much more productive than mechanical memory. The explanation for this fact is simple - logical memory is based on numerous and diverse connections. It has been scientifically proven that information that remains in the head through logical memorization is retained much better than exactly the same information, but learned through rote memory.
This is interesting: as practice shows, material that was learned using logical memory can be retained for life, without subsequent repetitions. But mechanically learned information is forgotten very quickly; remains in the head for a long time only with regular repetitions. The study of logical and mechanical memory continues to this day, because the capabilities of the brain have not yet been 100% explored.
Thanks to memory, a person uses experience every day: his own and his ancestors. However, logical and mechanical memory are complex mechanisms that have their own nuances.
- A person begins to use memory already in the womb; it begins to work 20 weeks after conception. The embryo even reacts to the noise of the ultrasound test. Scientists are of the opinion that a person can remember everything that happened to him not only in childhood, but even in the womb.
- Memory is individual, as it is influenced by many factors. For example, some have better developed hearing than others. Information that is interesting to a person is remembered best. But the ability to remember can always be trained.
- Age does not always mean memory deterioration. You can often hear complaints about poor memory from older people. But this is not entirely true, the whole point is that by adulthood a person stops learning, the skill of straining his memory disappears, and it does not train at all. For example, actors who have spent their entire lives learning new roles can cope with voluminous texts in their old age without any problems. This once again proves that memory development depends only on training, and not on age.
- The habit of forgetting is also present in humans. After all, it is impossible to remember everything, and the ability to forget is a real salvation for the human brain. Memory itself regulates the load, freeing the head from unnecessary information or impressions. But this does not mean at all that old information is completely erased; the data simply moves from the active stage to the passive stage, from where, if desired, it can be retrieved.
Memory can always be improved by training, taking vitamins and eating right.
Target: study of logical and mechanical memory by memorizing two rows of words.Equipment: two rows of words (in the first row there is a semantic connection between the words, in the second row there is no connection), stopwatch.
First row:
doll - play
chicken - egg
scissors - cut
horse - sleigh
book - teacher
butterfly - fly
snow winter
lamp - evening
brush - teeth
cow - milk
Second row:
beetle - chair
compass - glue
bell - arrow
tit - sister
leika – tram
boots - samovar
match - decanter
hat - bee
fish - fire
saw - scrambled eggs
Processing and analysis of results. The results of the study are recorded in the following table.
The volume of semantic and mechanical memory
Lecture 21. Methods for studying thinking
VISUAL-FIGURATORY THINKING. “DOUBLE STIMULATION” METHOD (VYGOTSKY-SAKHAROV METHOD)
Visual-figurative thinking, like visual-effective thinking, is one of the very early types. Its formation dates from 2-3 years to 5-6 years. The child learns reality through the formation of perceptual signs, which are generalized and help to recognize new objects, confidently manipulate known ones, and classify them into certain groups, i.e., the child intensively develops thinking in a form accessible to him, higher than visual effective form. In an adult, visual-figurative thinking is largely based on the properties of conceptual abstract-logical thinking, in its pure form it seems to go to the periphery. But in some cases, for example, with good development of the right hemisphere of the brain, in some professions - artist, sculptor, designer, painter - it remains the main type in adults (according to I.P. Pavlov - a type of artistic thinking).
The unit of visual-figurative thinking is a perceptual image with its constituent typical features for phenomena and objects of reality. Signs can be complete and incomplete, partial, adequate or inadequate, habitual and unusual, conscious and subconscious. The process of development of thinking itself consists of constant change, correction and awareness of the signs that make up the perceptual image.
The “double stimulation” technique was proposed to study the correlation of features at two levels: sensory-perceptual, which are based on the sensory properties of objects, and verbal, which are based on abstract symbolic features. In general, this technique allows one to clearly trace, for example, using the observation method, the basic mental operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction.
STUDY OF VISUAL-FIGURATORY THINKING USING THE “PICTOGRAM” METHOD
This technique is one of the most common, and it allows one to obtain quite extensive information concerning not only the characteristics of visual-figurative thinking, but also the characteristics of the emotional state of the subjects, the direction of their consciousness, and personal properties. This allows the technique to be used for a wide variety of purposes, for example, in art therapy, assessing interpersonal relationships, and establishing hierarchical values.
The technique was proposed by the Russian neuropsychologist A.R. Luria in 1936. Initially, this technique was intended only for clinical trials, but its simplicity and informativeness still make it possible to expand the scope of its application.
The essence of the technique is to convey any verbally designated concept through its image. The name itself - pictogram - denotes pictorial writing, when objects, events and actions are indicated by drawings or conventional signs. This is typical for illiterate people, children, some nationalities, for example, American Indians, and some nationalities of our North. Sometimes this method of communication is recognized as the most effective in some services, for example air traffic control, where various types of prohibitory or permitting signs are quite carefully constructed. The subject is not given any restrictions regarding the completeness and content of the image, as well as regarding the materials used: color, size, time. Nevertheless, for the convenience of conducting a training experiment, we can recommend that subjects adhere to a certain order of completing the task in the form of tables.
When processing experimental data, not only the indicators of all four criteria are taken into account, but also procedural issues (ease of completing a task, emotional attitude towards it, need for more space, etc.).
To obtain the main experimental results, students exchange notebooks and evaluate the pictograms in an expert way. The most important criterion is the criterion of adequacy. Sometimes one picture is enough to evaluate, sometimes you need to get additional ones! information from its author. If the connection between the proposed concept and its pictogram is justified, the expert puts a “+” sign; if there is no connection, the expert puts a “-” sign. The norm is characterized by high indicators of the adequacy criterion - from 70% and above.
CONCEPTUAL THINKING. ASSESSMENT OF CONCEPTUAL THINKING
USING THE “COMPARISON OF CONCEPTS” METHOD
Conceptual thinking belongs to the late type. In order to use concepts as a tool of thinking, one must go through a fairly long period of conscious and adequate mastery of them. Typically, conceptual thinking is associated with an adult, for whom this type is not only the main and most convenient, but also subjugating, literally permeating all other types, especially visual-effective and visual-figurative. A concept is defined as a unit of thinking that reflects the general and most essential features of objects and phenomena of reality and is expressed in verbal form. In ontogenesis, a child, under the influence of the adults around him, can also use concepts, but in him they are rather used in an approximately unconscious form, for which they even received the name “pseudo-concepts.” However, an adult, especially one who uses the verbal signs of another, non-native language, quite often goes down this path, which results in numerous communication errors.
Comparing concepts with each other, the subject conducts a survey of the general field of semantic features and selects the most stable, most characteristic ones. In some cases, the instructions are changed in order to determine the creative capabilities of the subject, and he is offered a pair of concepts from obviously different semantic spheres: suppose, to find a common feature for such pairs of concepts as “spoon” and “boat”. In the proposed method, composed of 22 pairs of compared concepts, the subject himself must establish the presence of a common semantic field and differentiate “same-field” pairs from incomparable ones that correspond to different semantic fields. If the subject does not see the differences between the homogeneity and heterogeneity of concepts and finds common features in any pairs, he can be credited not only with good imagination and a tendency to imagine, but also with a penchant for resonant demagogic reasoning, which can manifest itself in a number of other techniques.
DETERMINING THE FEATURES OF CONCEPTUAL THINKING USING THE “EXCLUSION OF THE EXCESS” METHOD
One of the most common in the practice of studying thinking of any kind is the “Exclusion of the Superfluous” method. Using this method, it is possible to demonstrate quite convincingly the features of the analytical and synthetic activity of the brain. So, for example, if subjects are presented with several names of rivers in Russia - Volga, Lena, Angara, Irtysh, Ob - and asked to throw out one extra name, then most often the subjects will exclude the word “Volga”, since all other rivers are located in Siberia. Sometimes the answers “Irtysh” appear due to the grammatical features of the gender (all other names are feminine), sometimes “Angara” (the only tributary of the Yenisei). In terms of the degree of generalization of characteristics, the answer “Volga” is the most correct. The results are assessed similarly when using pictures with four drawn objects, where one object must be excluded: for example, a kerosene lamp, an electric light bulb, a candle and the sun are drawn on the card, where the correct answer is “sun”. Reasoning like “you need to remove the candle, it burns out quickly and is not profitable” indicates a decrease and even distortion of the level of generalizations.
EXTRACTION OF SIGNIFICANT FEATURES
The proposed methodology uses 24 sets of concepts that are fairly close in meaning. The test subjects' task is to select in each line only two words that are most closely related to the test word in front of the brackets. It is possible to discuss the first task in order to remove all questions and difficulties of the subjects. By the way, from these questions the experimenter can get an idea of the features of the thinking process, for example, its excessive specificity, vagueness, and poor focus on the goal.
Sample method
War (plane, guns, battle, guns, soldiers). Reading (eyes, book, picture, print, word). Garden (plants, gardener, dog, fence, earth). Barn (hayloft, horses, roof, walls). River (bank, fish, fisherman, mud, water). City (car, building, crowd, street, bicycle). Cube (corners, drawing, side, stone, wood). Division (dividend, pencil, divider, paper). Game (cards, players, penalties, punishment, rules). Ring (diameter, diamond, hallmark, roundness, seal).
Newspaper (truth, app, telegram, paper, love, text, editor).
Book (drawing, war, paper, love, text).
Earthquake (fire, death, vibration, soil, noise)
Library (city, books, lectures, music, readers).
Forest (leaf, apple tree, hunter, tree, wolf).
Sports (medal, orchestra, competition, victory, stadium).
Hospital (room, garden, doctor, radio, patients).
Love (roses, feeling, person, city, nature).
Patriotism (city, friends, homeland, family, people).
Furniture (chairs, table, wood, sideboard, wardrobe).
Faculty (department, dean, building, student, street).
Weapons (tanks, planes, firecrackers, cannons, iron).
Vegetables (cucumber, beets, watermelon, carrots, apples).
When comparing their answers with the correct ones, subjects evaluate their results in points, where 2 points correspond to two correctly chosen words, 1 point corresponds to one correctly chosen word, and 0 points when the subject could not choose a single correct word. The results are summarized. The maximum number of points is 48 points, results less than 24 points are assessed as unsatisfactory, indicating the inability of the subjects to compare, analyze and generalize the selected characteristics.
Correctly chosen words: battle, soldiers; eyes, word; plants, earth; roof, walls; shore, water; building, street; corners, side; dividend, divisor; players, rules; diameter, roundness; text, editor; bu maga, text; voice, melody; vibration, soil; books, readers; leaf, tree; competition, victory; doctor, patients; feeling, person; homeland, person; chairs, table or sideboard, wardrobe; dean, student; tanks, guns; beets, carrots.
STUDYING CONCEPTUAL THINKING USING THE “CONNECTION LOGIC” METHODOLOGY
The “Logic of Connections” technique is most often used in classical literature under the name “Complex Analogies,” but since the “Simple Analogies” and “Complex Analogies” techniques differ from each other in further increasing the abstraction and differentiation of the relations between concepts, a more precise name for it is proposed - “Logic of connections.” The technique is aimed at finding out to what extent subjects can understand abstract types of connections between individual concepts, as well as extending this understanding to other specific examples. In addition, it makes it possible to determine the subjects’ ability to think logically, to be able to distinguish between types of connections, and to critically relate them to each other. Practice has shown that the use of this technique on subjects with insufficient education is generally meaningless, and it is recommended to use it only if they have a secondary or even higher education.
The technique consists of two stages. First, subjects are offered a special upper section of the form, which lists 6 types of different connections between concepts, and are asked to determine these connections independently or, in extreme cases, with the help of an experimenter. If the subject is unable to complete this part of the task, further experimentation makes no sense. If the result is positive, move on to the 2nd part of the technique. The subjects are presented with 20 pairs of concepts, next to which there is a digital row from 1 to 6 according to the number of connections being defined. The subject's task is to choose the correct number indicating one of 6 types of connections. A correct answer is scored 1 point, an incorrect answer is scored 0 points. The results are summarized. The maximum possible result is 20 points, results less than 10 points are considered unsatisfactory
Logic of conclusions
Identification of essential features
Lecture 22. Diagnosis of creative talent
The use of various methods for diagnosing creative abilities made it possible to identify general principles for assessing creativity:
b) originality index as the sum of originality indices (i.e., reciprocal values in relation to the frequency of occurrence of the answer in the sample) of individual answers, related to the total number of answers;
c) uniqueness index as the ratio of the number of unique (not found in the sample) answers to their total number.
To improve the quality of creativity testing, it is necessary to comply with such basic parameters of the creative environment as:
no time limit;
minimizing achievement motivation;
lack of competitive motivation and criticism of actions;
the absence of a strict focus on creativity in the test instructions.
At the same time, low test results do not indicate a lack of creativity in the subject, since creative manifestations are spontaneous and not subject to arbitrary regulation.
Thus, methods for diagnosing creative abilities are intended, first of all, to actually identify creative individuals in a specific sample at the time of testing.
(method of E. Torrance, adapted by A.N. Voronin, 1994)
Conditions
The test can be carried out individually or in a group. To create favorable testing conditions, the manager needs to minimize achievement motivation and orient test takers to freely express their hidden abilities. In this case, it is better to avoid open discussion of the substantive focus of the methodology, i.e. there is no need to report that it is creative abilities (especially creative thinking) that are being tested. The test can be presented as a technique for “originality”, the ability to express oneself in a figurative style, etc. If possible, testing time is not limited, approximately 1 - 2 minutes are allocated for each picture. At the same time, it is necessary to encourage test takers if they think for a long time or hesitate.
The proposed version of the test is a set of pictures with a certain set of elements (lines), using which the subjects need to complete the picture to some meaningful image. This version of the test uses 6 pictures, which do not duplicate each other in their initial elements and give the most reliable results.
The test uses the following creativity indicators:
Originality (Op), which reveals the degree of dissimilarity of the image created by the subject from the images of other subjects (statistical rarity of the answer). It should be remembered that there are no two identical images; accordingly, we should talk about the statistical rarity of the type (or class) of drawings. The atlas attached below shows various types of drawings and their conventional names, proposed by the author of the adaptation of this test, reflecting the general essential characteristics of the image. It should be taken into account that the conventional names of the drawings, as a rule, do not coincide with the names of the drawings given by the subjects themselves. Since the test is used to diagnose nonverbal creativity, the names of the pictures proposed by the subjects are excluded from subsequent analysis and are used only as an aid to understanding the essence of the picture.
Uniqueness (Un), defined as the sum of completed tasks that have no analogues in the sample (atlas of drawings).
Here is a form with half-drawn pictures. You need to complete them, making sure to include the proposed elements in context and trying not to go beyond the boundaries of the drawing. You can finish drawing anything and any way you want, and the form can be rotated. After completing the drawing, you need to give it a title, which should be signed on the line below the drawing.
Processing test results
To interpret the test results, an atlas of typical drawings of a control sample of managers (23-35 years old) is presented below. For each series of figures, the Or index was calculated for the sample. To assess the test results of subjects belonging to the contingent of managers or similar to it, the following algorithm of actions is proposed.
It is necessary to compare the completed pictures with those available in the atlas, paying attention to the use of similar details and semantic connections; If you find a similar type, assign to this drawing the originality indicated in the atlas. If the atlas does not contain this type of drawing, then the originality of this completed picture is considered 1.00, i.e. she is unique. The originality index is calculated as the arithmetic average of the originalities of all pictures, the uniqueness index is calculated as the sum of all unique pictures. Using the percentile scale constructed for these two indices based on the results of the control sample, we can determine the indicator of nonverbal creativity of a given person as his place relative to this sample:
| 1 | 0% | 20% | 40% | 60% | 80% | 100% |
| 2 | 0,95 | 0,76 | 0.67 | 0,58 | 0,48 | 0,00 |
| 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Note:
1 - the percentage of people whose results exceed the specified level of creativity;
3 - uniqueness index value.
An example of interpretation: let the first of the drawings you analyze be similar to picture 1.5 of the atlas. Its originality is 0.74. The second picture is similar to picture 2.1. Its originality is 0.00. The third drawing does not resemble anything, but the elements originally proposed for completion are not included in the drawing. This situation is interpreted as avoidance of the task and the originality of this drawing is assessed as 0. The fourth drawing is missing. The fifth drawing is recognized as unique (it has no analogues in the atlas). Its originality is 1.00. The sixth picture turned out to be similar to picture 6.3 and its originality was 0.67. Thus, the originality index for this protocol is:
The uniqueness index (the number of unique pictures) of this protocol is 1. The results of the protocol discussed above show that the subject is on the border between 60 and 80% of people whose results are given in the atlas. This means that approximately 70% of subjects from this sample have higher nonverbal creativity than him. At the same time, the uniqueness index, which shows how truly new a person can create, is secondary in this analysis due to the insufficient differentiating power of this index, so the total originality index is decisive here.
DIAGNOSTICS OF VERBAL CREATIVITY
(method of S. Mednik, adapted by A.N. Voronin, 1994)
The technique is aimed at identifying and assessing the existing, but often hidden or blocked, verbal creative potential of the subjects. The technique is carried out both individually and in groups. The time for completing tasks is not limited, but time spent on each three words of no more than 2-3 minutes is encouraged.
Test instructions
You are offered triplets of words, to which you need to choose another word so that it is combined with each of the three proposed words. For example, for the triple of words “loud - truth - slowly,” the answer can be the word “speak” (speak loudly, speak the truth, speak slowly). You can change words grammatically and use prepositions without changing the stimulus words as parts of speech.
Try to make your answers as original and bright as possible, try to overcome stereotypes and come up with something new. Try to come up with the maximum number of answers for each three words.
Interpretation of test results
To evaluate the test results, the following algorithm of actions is proposed. It is necessary to compare the responses of the subjects with the available typical answers and, if a similar type is found, assign to this answer the originality indicated in the list. If there is no such word in the list, then the originality of this answer is considered equal to 1.00.
The originality index is calculated as the arithmetic average of the originality of all answers. The number of answers may not coincide with the number of “word triplets,” since in some cases subjects may give several answers, and in others they may not give any.
The uniqueness index is equal to the number of all unique (not having analogues in the standard list) answers.
Using the percentile scale constructed for these indices and the “number of answers” indicator (productivity index), you can determine the place of a given person relative to the control sample and, accordingly, draw a conclusion about the degree of development of his verbal creativity and productivity:
| 1 | 0% | 20% | 40% | 60% | 80% | 100% |
| 2 | 1,00 | 0,94 | 0,91 | 0,86 | 0,81 | 0,61 |
| 3 | 19 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 0 |
| 4 | 49 | 20 | 15 | 12 | 10 | 1 |
Note:
1 - percentage of people whose results exceed the specified level;
2 - originality index value;
3 - uniqueness index value;
4 - number of answers.
An example of interpretation of the results: if a subject has a total of original answers of 20.25 and a total of 25 answers in his protocol, then the originality index will be 0.81. Let us assume that the number of unique answers of this subject is 16. Considering that the main indicator is the originality index, we can conclude that this person, in terms of his level of verbal creativity, is between 60 and 80% of subjects from the control sample, i.e. 70% of the sample have a total verbal creativity score higher than his.
The uniqueness index here shows how many new solutions the subject is able to offer in the total mass of completed tasks.
The number of answers shows, first of all, the degree of verbal productivity and indicates the level of conceptual thinking. In addition, this index significantly correlates with achievement motivation, i.e. the higher the number of answers, the higher the subject’s personal motivation to achieve.
INCENTIVE REGISTRATION FORM
Last name, initials _________________________________
Age _______ Group ____________ Date _______________
You are offered triplets of words, to which you need to choose another word so that it is combined with each of the three proposed words.
Write down your answers on the answer form in the line with the corresponding number.
STIMULUS WORD TRIPLES
1. random - mountain - long-awaited
2. evening - paper - wall
4. far - blind - future
5. folk - fear - world
6. money - ticket - free
7. man - shoulder straps - plant
8. door - trust - fast
9. friend - city - circle
10. train - buy - paper
| Word | Collocations | Word | Collocations |
||
| 1 | 11 | ||||
| 2 | 12 | ||||
| 3 | 13 |
Lecture 23. Methods for diagnosing interpersonal relationships
The following methods are distinguished: 1) sociometric, 2) referentometric, 3) studying the motivational core of interpersonal choices, 4) studying team cohesion.
SOCIOMETRIC METHODOLOGY
The word "sociometry" literally means "social dimension". The technique was developed by the American psychologist J. Moreno and is intended for assessing interpersonal relationships of an informal type: likes and dislikes, attractiveness and preference.
Members of the group being studied are asked to list, in order of preference, those group mates with whom they would like to work, relax, etc. Questions about a person's desire to participate in a particular activity with someone are called selection criteria. There are weak and strong selection criteria. The more important the planned activity is for a person, the longer and closer communication it involves, the stronger the selection criterion. Typically, a study combines different types of questions. They are selected in such a way as to reveal a person’s desire to communicate with group members in various types of activities (work, study, leisure, confidential friendship, etc.).
The number of elections received by each person is a measure of his position in the system of personal relationships, measures his “sociometric status.” People who receive the most votes are the most popular, liked, and called “stars.” Usually, the group of “stars” according to the number of choices received includes those who receive 6 or more choices (if, under the conditions of the experiment, each member of the group made 3 choices). If a person receives an average number of choices, he is classified as “preferred”; if less than the average number of choices (1-2 choices), then he is classified as “neglected”; if he does not receive a single choice; then he is classified as “isolated” if he receives only deviations – then to the category of “rejected”.
For each group member, it is not so much the number of elections that matters, but rather the satisfaction with their position in the group:
K ud = number of mutual choices/number of choices made by a given person.
So, if an individual wants to communicate with three specific people, and none of these three wants to communicate with this person, then K ud - 0/3 = 0.
The satisfaction coefficient can be equal to 0, and the status (the number of choices received) can be equal, for example, to 3 for the same person - this situation indicates that the person does not interact with those with whom he would like. As a result of a sociometric experiment, the leader receives information not only about the personal position of each group member in the system of interpersonal relationships, but also a generalized picture of the state of this system. It is characterized by a special diagnostic indicator – the level of well-being of relationships (LWL). The BLV of a group can be high if there are more “stars” and “preferred” members than there are “neglected” and “isolated” members of the group. The average level of well-being of the group is fixed in the case of an approximate equality ("stars" + "preferred") = ("neglected" + "isolated" + "rejected"). Low BLV is observed when there is a predominance of people with low status in a group, and the diagnostic indicator is the “isolation index” - the percentage of people deprived of choices in the group.
A sociometric procedure may aim to:
a) degree measurement cohesion-disunity
in Group;
b) identification of “sociometric positions”, i.e. the relative authority of group members according to characteristics likes and dislikes
, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.
The reliability of the procedure depends primarily on the correct selection of sociometry criteria, which is dictated by the research program and preliminary acquaintance with the specifics of the group.
The experimenter’s requirement to reveal their likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties among the respondents and manifests itself in some people in their reluctance to participate in the survey. When sociometric questions or criteria are selected, they are recorded on a special card or offered orally in an interview style. Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes or, conversely, antipathies, trust or distrust, etc.
Sample questions for studying business relationships
1. a) which of your comrades from the group would you ask, if necessary, to provide help in preparing for classes (first, second, third)?
b) which of your comrades from the group would you like to ask, if necessary, to provide you with help in preparing for classes?
2. a) with whom would you go on a long business trip?
b) Which member of your group would you not take on a business trip?
3. a) which of the group members will better perform the functions of a leader (headman, trade union leader, etc.)?
b) which of the group members will find it difficult to fulfill the responsibilities of a leader?
Examples of questions for studied personal relationships
1. a) Who in your group would you turn to for advice in a difficult life situation?
b) with whom from the group would you like to consult about anything?
2. a) if all the members of your group lived in a dormitory, which of them would you like to live in the same room with?
b) if your entire group were reorganized, which of its members would you not want to keep in your group?
3. a) who from the group would you invite to your birthday?
b) who from the group would you not like to see at your birthday?
In this case, the sociometric procedure can be carried out in two forms. The first option is a nonparametric procedure. In this case, the subject is asked to answer the questions of the sociometric card without limiting the number of choices of the subject. If there are, say, 12 people in a group, then in this case each of the respondents can choose 11 people (except himself). Thus, the theoretically possible number of choices made by each group member towards other group members in the above example will be equal to (N-1), where N is the number of group members. In the same way, the theoretically possible number of choices received by a subject in a group will be equal to (N-1). Let us immediately understand that the indicated value (N-1) of the resulting elections is the main quantitative constant of sociometric measurements. In a nonparametric procedure, this theoretical constant is the same for both the individual making the choice and for any individual who is the object of the choice. The advantage of this version of the procedure is that it allows us to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each group member and to make a snapshot of the diversity of interpersonal connections in the group structure. However, when the group size increases to 12-16 people, these connections become so numerous that it becomes very difficult to analyze them without the use of computer technology.
Another disadvantage of the nonparametric procedure is the high probability of obtaining a random selection. Some subjects, guided by personal motives, often write in Questionnaires: “I choose everyone.” It is clear that such an answer can have only two explanations: either the subject really has developed such a generalized amorphous and undifferentiated system of relationships with others (which is unlikely), or the subject deliberately gives a false answer, hiding behind formal loyalty to others and to the experimenter (which is most likely) .
Analysis of such cases has led some researchers to try to change the very procedure for applying the Method and thus reduce the likelihood of random selection. This is how the second option was born - a parametric Procedure with a limited number of elections. The subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the group. For example, in a group of 25 people, everyone is asked to choose only 4 or 5 people. The magnitude of the limitation on the number of sociometric elections is called the “sociometric limitation” or “election limit.” Many researchers believe that the introduction of a “sociometric constraint” significantly exceeds the reliability of sociometric data and facilitates statistical processing of the material. From a psychological point of view, sociometric limitation forces subjects to be more attentive to their answers, to choose to answer only those group members who really correspond to the proposed roles of partner, leader or comrade in joint activities. The election limit significantly reduces the likelihood of random responses and makes it possible to standardize election conditions in groups of different sizes in one sample, which makes it possible to compare material across different groups.
Currently, it is generally accepted that for groups of 22-25 participants, the minimum value of the “sociometric constraint” should be chosen within 4-5 choices.
The disadvantage of the parametric procedure is the inability to reveal the diversity of relationships in a group. It is possible to identify only the most subjectively significant connections. As a result of this approach, the sociometric structure of the group will reflect only the most typical, “selected” communications. The introduction of a “sociometric limitation” does not allow us to judge the emotional expansiveness of group members.
A sociometric card or sociometric questionnaire is compiled at the final stage of program development.
When the sociometric cards are filled out and collected, the stage of their mathematical processing begins. Sociomatrix (table) . First, you should build a simple sociomatrix. The election results are distributed throughout the matrix using symbols. The results tables are filled out first, separately for business and personal relationships. The surnames of all members of the group being studied are written down vertically behind the numbers; horizontally - only their number. At the corresponding intersections, the numbers +1, +2, +3 indicate those whom each subject chose in the first, second, third place, and the numbers -1, -2, -3 - those whom the subject does not choose in the first, second and third place. .
Mutual positive or negative choices are circled in the table (regardless of the order of choice). After the positive and negative elections are entered into the table, it is necessary to calculate vertically the algebraic sum of all elections received by each member of the group (sum of elections). Then you need to calculate the sum of points for each member of the group, taking into account that the choice in the first place is equal to +3 points (-3), in the second - +2 (-2), in the third - +1 (-1). After this, the total algebraic sum is calculated, which determines the status in the group.
Analysis of the sociomatrix for each criterion gives a fairly clear picture of the relationships in the group. Summary sociomatrices can be constructed that give a picture of elections based on several criteria, as well as sociomatrices based on data from intergroup elections. The main advantage of the sociomatrix is the ability to represent elections in numerical form, which in turn makes it possible to rank group members according to the number of elections received and given, and to establish the order of influences in the group. Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram is constructed - a map of sociometric elections (sociometric map.
Sociogram. Sociogram is a graphic representation of the reaction of subjects to each other when answering a sociometric criterion. A sociogram allows you to make a comparative analysis of the structure of relationships in a group in space on a certain plane (“shield”) using special signs (Fig. below). It gives a clear idea of the intra-group differentiation of group members based on their status (popularity). An example of a sociogram (map of group differentiation) proposed by Y. Kolominsky, see below:
--> positive unilateral choice,
positive mutual choice,
------> negative unilateral choice,
negative mutual choice.
The sociogram technique is a significant addition to the tabular approach in the analysis of sociometric material, because it allows for a deeper qualitative description and visual representation of group phenomena.
Read also:
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Methodology “Determining the type of memory” in younger schoolchildren
Target: Determine the predominant memory type.
Equipment: four rows of words written on separate cards; stopwatch.
For memorizing by ear: car, apple, pencil, spring, lamp, forest, rain, flower, pan, parrot.
For memorization with visual perception: airplane, pear, pen, winter, candle, field, lightning, nut, frying pan, duck.
For memorization during motor-auditory perception: steamer, plum, ruler, summer, lampshade, river, thunder, berry, plate, goose.
For memorization with combined perception: train, cherry, notebook, autumn, floor lamp, clearing, thunderstorm, mushroom, cup, chicken.
Research procedure. The student is informed that a series of words will be read to him, which he must try to remember and, at the experimenter’s command, write down.
The first row of words is read. The interval between words when reading is 3 seconds; The student must write them down after a 10-second break after finishing reading the entire series; then rest for 10 minutes.
The experimenter reads the words of the third row to the student, and the subject repeats each of them in a whisper and “writes it down” in the air. Then he writes down the remembered words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
The experimenter shows the student the words of the fourth row and reads them to him. The subject repeats each word in a whisper and “writes it down” in the air. Then he writes down the remembered words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
Processing and analysis of results. A conclusion can be drawn about the predominant type of memory of the subject by calculating the memory type coefficient (C). C= a / 10, where a is the number of words reproduced correctly. The type of memory is determined by which of the rows had greater word recall. The closer the memory type coefficient is to one, the better developed this type of memory is in the subject.
Methodology “Determination of the coefficient of logical and mechanical memory”
The technique is used to determine the level of development of logical and mechanical memory. A special coefficient is introduced - K. K1 is the logical memory coefficient, K2 is the mechanical memory coefficient. Coefficients K1 and K2 range from 0, when the child did not remember a single word, to 1, when the child completely completed the task. Research procedure: 10 pairs of words from task 1 are read to the child (the interval between pairs is 5 seconds). After a 10-second break, the left words of the row are read (with an interval of 15 seconds), and the child writes down the remembered words of the right half of the row.
Similar work is carried out with the words of task 2.
Words for task 2:
Beetle - chair
Fish is fire
Knitting needle - sister
Hat - bee
Boots - samovar
Fly agaric - sofa
Compass - glue
Decanter - take
Match - shoes
Grater - coming
Processing the results.
Logical memory capacity: K1 = B1 / A1,
where K1 is the logical memory coefficient,
B1 - the number of remembered words from the first row,
A1 is the number of words in the first row.
K2 is calculated similarly - volume of mechanical memory, determined by
2nd task.
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