The unification of Russian lands into a single state. Ivan III Vasilievich - Collector of Russian land Who united

The unification of Rus' is the process of creating a single centralized state under the control of Moscow and the Grand Duke. The unification of Rus' began in the 13th century. and ended only in the 16th.

The beginning of the unification of Rus'

The unification of Kievan Rus had several prerequisites. Until the beginning of the 13th century. Kievan Rus was not a single state, but a community of several disparate principalities, which were nominally subordinate to the authority of Kyiv and the Kyiv prince, but in fact were absolutely independent territories with their own laws and policies. Moreover, principalities and princes regularly fought with each other for territories and the right to political influence. As a result internecine wars Rus' was greatly weakened (both politically and militarily) and could not resist the constant nomadic raids and attempts by other states to conquer the country's territories. Due to the lack of a unified army Rus' in the 13th century. was under the influence of Lithuania and Golden Horde (Mongol-Tatar yoke), lost its independence and was forced to pay tribute to the invaders. The economy was in decline, the country was in chaos, and the state was in desperate need of a new political system.

Features of the unification of Rus'

Constant internecine wars and the insolvency of power gradually led to the weakening of the power of Kyiv and the Kyiv prince. There was a need for the emergence of a new strong center. Several cities claimed the title of possible capital and center of the unification of Rus' - Moscow, Tver and Pereyaslavl.

The new capital city had to be far from the borders so that it would be difficult to conquer. Secondly, he had to have access to all major trade routes so that the economy could be established. Thirdly, the prince of the new capital had to be related to the ruling Vladimir dynasty. All these requirements were met by Moscow, which by that time was gaining strength and influence thanks to the skillful policies of its princes.

It was around Moscow and the Moscow Principality that the process of unification of Russian lands gradually began.

Stages of the unification of Rus'

The creation of a unified state took place in several stages. Many princes ( Oleg, Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan Kalita etc.) had something to do with this.

In the 13th century. The process of unification of the lands that had just begun was interrupted by outrages and ruin on the part of the Golden Horde, which did not want Rus' to be a strong unified state, and therefore contributed in every possible way to civil strife and disunity. The already autonomous principalities began to be divided into even smaller territories, and constant separations of cities and lands occurred, accompanied by wars and ruin.

In the 14th century. Rus' came under the influence of the Principality of Lithuania, which gave impetus to the unification of some lands under the rule of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a result, in the 14th-15th centuries. Lithuania managed to subjugate the Kiev, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Goroden principalities, as well as Chernigov, Smolensk and Volyn. Although these territories lost their independence, they still represented some semblance of a single state. At the end of the century, Lithuania captured most of the Russian territories and came close to Moscow, which by that time had become the center of political power of the remaining principalities and lands. There was also a third center - the northeast, where the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, and the princes from Vladimir bore the title of Grand Dukes.

By the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. new changes have occurred. Vladimir lost his power and completely submitted to Moscow (Moscow became the capital in 1389). Lithuania joined the Kingdom of Poland and after a series of Russian-Lithuanian wars lost a fairly large part of Russian territories, which began to gravitate towards Moscow.

The last stage of the unification of Rus' dates back to the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, when Rus' finally became a single centralized state with its capital in Moscow and the Grand Duke of Moscow. Since then, new territories have been periodically annexed to the state.

The unification of Rus' is the process of political unification of disparate Russian lands into a single state.

Prerequisites for the unification of Kievan Rus

The beginning of the unification of Rus' dates back to the 13th century. Until this moment, Kievan Rus was not a single state, but consisted of disparate principalities that were subordinate to Kyiv, but still remained largely independent territories. Moreover, smaller fiefs and territories arose in the principalities, which also lived an autonomous life. The principalities constantly fought with each other and with Kiev for the right to autonomy and independence, and the princes killed each other, wanting to lay claim to the Kiev throne. All this weakened Rus', both politically and economically. As a result of constant civil strife and hostility, Rus' could not gather a single strong army in order to resist the raids of nomads and overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Against this background, the power of Kyiv weakened and the need arose for the emergence of a new center.

Reasons for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow

After the weakening of Kyiv's power and constant internecine wars, Rus' was in desperate need of unification. Only an integral state could resist the invaders and finally throw off the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The peculiarity of the unification of Rus' was that there was no one clear center of power; political forces were scattered throughout the territory of Rus'.

At the beginning of the 13th century, there were several cities that could become the new capital. The centers of unification of Rus' could be Moscow, Tver and Pereyaslavl. It was these cities that had all the necessary qualities for the new capital:

• They had an advantageous geographical location and were removed from the borders where the invaders ruled;
• They had the opportunity to actively engage in trade due to the intersection of several trade routes;
• The princes ruling in the cities belonged to the Vladimir princely dynasty, which had great power.

In general, all three cities had approximately equal chances, but the skillful rule of the Moscow princes led to the fact that it was Moscow that seized power and gradually began to strengthen its political influence. As a result, it was around the Moscow principality that a new centralized state began to form.

The main stages of the unification of Rus'

In the second half of the 13th century, the state was in a state of severe fragmentation, with new autonomous territories constantly being separated. The Tatar-Mongol yoke interrupted the process of natural unification of lands, and the power of Kyiv by this period was greatly weakened. Rus' was in decline and needed a completely new policy.

In the 14th century, many territories of Rus' united around the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 14-15 centuries, the great Lithuanian princes owned Goroden, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kyiv and other principalities; under their rule were the Chernigov region, Volyn, Smolensk region and a number of other lands. The rule of the Rurikovichs was ending. By the end of the 15th century, the Principality of Lithuania had grown so much that it came close to the borders of the Moscow Principality. The North-East of Rus' all this time remained under the rule of the descendant of Vladimir Monomakh, and the Vladimir princes bore the prefix “all Rus'”, but their real power did not extend beyond Vladimir and Novgorod. In the 14th century, power over Vladimir passed to Moscow.

At the end of the 14th century, Lithuania joined the Kingdom of Poland, which was followed by a series of Russian-Lithuanian wars, in which Lithuania lost many territories. New Rus' began to gradually unite around the strengthened Moscow principality.

In 1389 Moscow became the new capital.

The final unification of Rus' as a new centralized and unified state ended at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries during the reign of Ivan 3 and his son Vasily 3.

Since then, Rus' has periodically annexed some new territories, but the basis of a unified state has already been created.

Completion of the political unification of Rus'

In order to hold the new state together and avoid its possible collapse, it was necessary to change the principle of governance. Under Vasily 3, estates appeared - feudal estates. Patrimonies were often fragmented and became smaller, as a result, the princes who received their new possessions no longer had power over vast territories.

As a result of the unification of the Russian lands, all power was gradually concentrated in the hands of the Grand Duke.

In the 13th century, the country languished under the humiliating yoke imposed by the Mongol conquest. The country was fragmented into smaller and larger principalities, which were at enmity with each other. The process of unification of Russian lands was slow and dragged on for two centuries. Who in history has shown himself to be the collector of Russian lands? We can single out several extraordinary princes who transformed fragmented Rus' into a coherent Russia.

The emergence of the Moscow Principality

Dying, the great Alexander Nevsky allocated his youngest two-year-old son Daniil a tiny inheritance, in the center of which stood Moscow. Only at the age of fifteen did Daniil Alexandrovich begin to reign in his lands with great caution, trying to live peacefully with his neighbors, since he was weak.

Contemporaries appreciated the peaceful life of the Moscow principality, and people flocked to it. Moscow slowly became overgrown with merchant shops and craft workshops. Only towards the end of his life did Daniil Alexandrovich annex Kolomna, which opened the way to the Volga, and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, which was the “key” to the capital city of Vladimir, to his lands. It can be considered that he was the first collector of Russian lands. He died at the very beginning of the 16th century and left behind five sons who continued his policies.

Ivan Danilovich

Prince Ivan was the fourth son of Daniil, and he had practically no hopes of reigning in Moscow. But his three older brothers - Yuri, Boris and Afanasy - died and left no heirs. So, in 1325, at the age of forty-two, Ivan I Danilovich began reigning in the Moscow lands. At that age, princes often died, but for Prince Ivan, life had just begun. Then no one knew that he was a collector of Russian lands.

Two years later, the Horde members were killed in Tver. This local uprising brought a punitive Mongol campaign on Rus'. Prince Ivan was forced to go suppress the uprising in Tver and as a result received Veliky Novgorod and Kostroma, as well as the throne of Vladimir.

Conditionally, Ivan Kalita became the senior prince over all the princes of Rus', this right was given to him by reigning in Vladimir. Ivan Kalita firmly established order by any means necessary. The collector of Russian lands united in Moscow church power, which was previously located in Vladimir, with secular power. For this purpose, in 1326 he founded the Church of the Mother of God for Metropolitan Peter. And after Kalita’s death, the Orthodox department remained in Moscow. Whether the Russian princes liked it or not, Moscow united the entire northeast around itself.

Personality of Ivan I Danilovich

He avoided conflicts with the Horde by all means, because it disrupted the peaceful course of life. He was entrusted with collecting tribute from all over Rus' and sending it to the Horde after But it was difficult. Everyone, under any pretext, especially the Novgorodians, tried to evade paying tribute. It was necessary to either frighten with an invasion or appease the obstinate with gifts. It was especially difficult when the Horde demanded extraordinary payments. In addition, it was necessary to restore order throughout the entire territory and deal harshly with the robbers who attacked both tribute convoys and civilians. Thus, the number of robberies decreased and the life of ordinary people became easier.

Strange nickname

Prince Ivan received his nickname “Kalita” (wallet, bag of money) for his ability to manage money, which he willingly distributed to the poor when leaving his chambers. He was immediately surrounded by a crowd, and there was a coin for everyone.

Even if the same person approached him several times, the prince never refused. So he received another nickname - Kind. In addition, he, knowing how to save, always sent tribute in a timely manner, and therefore, except for him, no one else from the Russian princes went to the Horde. This led to the fact that the exclusive right to communicate with the Horde was assigned to his heirs. Ivan Danilovich used the accumulated money for the benefit of the principality: he bought Uglich, Belozersk and Galich. That's what he was, a collector of Russian lands.

Family life

The prince was married twice. The first wife was Elena, presumably the daughter of the Smolensk prince. The second wife was Ulyana, to whom Ivan left a rich inheritance and gold jewelry from his first wife.

"Great Silence"

And from 1328 to 1340, the long-awaited peace was established in the country. There were no more devastating raids by the “filthy”. Cities were built and grew, the population, which no one destroyed or captured, increased, a peaceful and calm life was established, and forces were accumulated to fight the Mongols. Prince Ivan Kalita entered into dynastic marriages of sons and daughters with the Yaroslavl, Rostov and Belozersk princes in order to manage their inheritance. And he married the heir Simeon Ivanovich to the daughter of Gediminas in order to ensure the security of the western borders. Prince Ivan Danilovich is also a collector of Russian lands. This is certain.

At this time, Ivan Danilovich strengthened Moscow. He built five cathedrals. Metropolitan Peter laid the first stone in the foundation of the Assumption Cathedral with his own hands. Thus Moscow turned into a religious capital.

Ivan Danilovich built a strong oak Kremlin in 1339. This was a very important matter. After all, the Mongols were very suspicious of any attempts to fortify cities. Before his death, the prince took monastic vows and left his eldest son Simeon as heir. After the repose of Ivan Kalita, in 1340, his sons completed the decoration of the temples with multicolor painting, ordered ritual utensils from jewelers, and cast new bells for the belfry.

Continuing the work of father and grandfather

The policy pursued by Ivan Kalita, the collector of Russian lands, was, in short, continued by his sons and Ivan the Red. They learned everything from their father - to get along with their neighbors and the Horde, to pacify the disobedient with gifts or threats. Peace reigned in Rus' as a whole. And so time passed. The year 1359 came. During thirty years of peace, a whole generation of people grew up who did not know the raids of the Mongols. But the prince, whose glory does not fade over the centuries, Dmitry Ivanovich, could not come to terms with the economic and political dependence of Rus' on the Horde. The Mongols no longer had the same unity. They were torn apart by internal contradictions. Dmitry Ivanovich decided to take advantage of the opportune moment and overthrow the yoke.

He won the bloody Battle of Kulikovo in the early autumn of 1380, defeating Mamaev’s army. But the time for the complete liberation of Rus' has not yet come. Two years later, Tokhtamysh’s troops ravaged and burned Moscow, and again the Moscow princes, humiliated and fawning, went to the Horde khans with gifts and received

Ivan Vasilyevich - the last collector of Russian land

The son of Prince Vasily the Dark, who was blinded by other Russian princes with high ambitions during internecine wars, sat next to his father from the age of eight and was his co-ruler. It was a tough, even cruel school. Prince Vasily himself was an incompetent ruler, but his son turned out to be a powerful statesman.

Having ascended the throne of Moscow in 1462, he did not go to the Mongols for a label to reign. Under him, the Moscow principality grew in land and people. He decisively ended with the fragmentation of the state. Under him, the Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485) principalities, as well as the Vyatka land (1489) were annexed. In 1478, he destroyed the republic in Novgorod and completely subjugated the city and its lands to himself. Of course, this was the Grand Duke - the collector of Russian lands.

Reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin

Grandiose and large-scale work began in 1495. All the remains of the walls of the old Kremlin were razed, new high towers and walls were built, and the Neglinka River was dammed.

It turned into a lake that protected the Kremlin from the north from fires and enemies. They dug a ditch along the eastern wall, and water from the lake flowed into it. The Kremlin has become an inaccessible island. In 1479, a new Assumption Cathedral was built inside the Kremlin. Then the Italians built it and was intended to receive foreign ambassadors. Several churches and temples were also built, and the Kremlin became completely unrecognizable.

Personal life

The Grand Duke of Moscow was married twice. There was constant strife within his family. Ivan Young, son from his first wife, was the heir. But he fiercely hated his father’s second wife, Sophia Paleologue, and her sons. The new Greek family responded with the same hatred.

In 1490, Ivan the Young fell ill. The Greek woman provided him with her doctor, and he died. Ivan III made Ivan the Young's son, Dmitry, his heir. But Vasily, Sophia’s eldest son, threatened his father that he would run away to Lithuania and start a war with him for the throne. Ivan III surrendered and bequeathed the throne to Vasily. After the death of his father, Vasily sent all his relatives to prison, where they died. But first a significant event for Russia will happen.

On the Ugra River

Since 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. The Horde became worried and began to gather strength for a campaign against Moscow. In 1480, the troops of the Great Horde, which by this time had split into three khanates that were at war with each other, under the leadership of Khan Akhmat, approached almost a hundred kilometers to Moscow. It was late autumn. The Horde tried to cross several times, but their attempts were repulsed by artillery, which Ivan III reorganized and made consistent with all the best examples.

The army was commanded by Ivan Molodoy. Ivan III himself did not go into the active army, but prepared and supplied ammunition, fodder and food. For several weeks, two armies stood on opposite banks of the Ugra. Frosts struck, and Khan Akhmat led his army back. Thus ended the 240-year yoke.

When the Moscow princes showed the entire Russian society that they wanted and could free the country from the Mongol yoke, then all sympathies were on their side. But the end of the shameful dependence required tightening power within the state so that it would not again crumble into small destinies. But this is a task that the next generations will solve. In the meantime, the victory was expressed in a new title - sovereign of all Rus'.

Plan Introduction 2 Socio-economic and political prerequisites and reasons for the “gathering” of Russian lands 2 Alternatives and stages of the unification process in Rus' 3 Reasons for the rise of Moscow. Ivan Kalita 5 Strengthening the Moscow Principality. Completion of the unification of Rus'. Ivan III. Multinational Russian state 9 Conclusion 15 References 17 Introduction At the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries. More than two centuries of heroic struggle of the Russian people for state unity and national independence ended with the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. The process of overcoming feudal fragmentation and the formation of centralized states within the feudal system is one of the most important problems facing Russian historical science. At different times this problem was considered from different points of view. Pre-revolutionary historical science reduced this process to the growth of the “patrimony” of the Moscow princes, paying considerable attention to the influence of historical figures on the course of history. Soviet historians, following Marx, put the laws of material social production and social relations at the forefront. Today's interest in the problem, which determines the relevance of this topic, is based on the consideration of alternative options for the historical development of the Russian state, many of which could arise in the triangle of Lithuania - Rus' - Horde. Socio-economic and political prerequisites and reasons for the “gathering” of Russian lands Despite the commonality of socio-economic and political factors underlying the state-political centralization that took place in the XIII-XV centuries. In all European countries, the formation of the Russian centralized state had its own significant features. The catastrophic consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, aggravated by the heavy Golden Horde yoke, delayed the economic development of Russian lands, contributed to the conservation of feudal fragmentation and the strengthening of feudal-serf relations. The presence of enormous land and human resources in Rus' served as the basis for the progressive development of feudalism in breadth and depth. Political centralization in Rus' significantly preceded the beginning of the process of overcoming the economic disunity of the country and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence and for organizing resistance to external aggression. The tendency towards unification manifested itself in all Russian lands. The Moscow Grand Dukes, who led the unification process, were supported by the bulk of the feudal class, interested in creating a strong centralized apparatus of power to suppress the resistance of the enslaved working masses; city ​​residents interested in eliminating the barriers of feudal fragmentation that impeded free trade and the development of market relations throughout the country; peasants who saw in the strong power of the grand duke a force capable of putting an end to feudal strife. The Russian feudal state was formed during the XIV-XV centuries. based on the growth of feudal land ownership, economy and the development of serfdom. The unification process ended with the formation at the end of the 15th century. feudal-serf monarchy. Alternatives and stages of the unification process in Rus' The main content of the initial stage of the unification process (the end of the 13th - the first half of the 14th century) was the formation of large feudal centers in North-Eastern Rus' and the selection of the strongest among them as the future political center and the territorial core of the formation of a centralized state. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the established yoke with the continued raids of the Horde led to significant changes in North-Eastern Rus'. The center of its economic and political life moved from the regions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, which were subject to frequent raids by the Tatars, to the central and outlying forest areas, less accessible to the Horde, where a number of new feudal principalities were formed on the eve and after the Batu invasion (Tver, Moscow, Gorodets, Belozersk , Starodubskoye, Suzdalskoye, etc.). The inclusion of the rulers of these new principalities in the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir, for the territorial growth of their possessions, subjectively did not yet go beyond the scope of typical feudal princely strife, but objectively acquired the significance of the beginning of the unification process. The main rivals in this struggle in the first third of the 14th century. Moscow and Tver became, turning from the capitals of small peripheral principalities into large feudal centers of North-Eastern Rus'. The economic growth and political rise of these principalities was facilitated by the rapid increase in their population due to the influx of peasants and artisans from other principalities who fled under the pressure of the Tatars. The long struggle between these two principalities ultimately led to the victory of Moscow. Another alternative center for the formation of the Russian state, paradoxical as it may be at first glance, could well have become the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - a powerful medieval formation, which at different times included many lands of modern Russia (Smolensk, Kursk, etc.), most of Belarus and a significant part of Ukraine. It is worth noting that the predominant religion here was Orthodoxy, and the population was Slavic. From the second half of the 14th century. The second stage of the unification process begins, the main content of which was Moscow’s defeat of its main political rivals in the 60-70s and the transition from Moscow’s assertion of its political supremacy in Rus' to the state unification of Russian lands around it and its organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. The unification process ended with liquidation in the last third of the 15th century. - first quarter of the 16th century. still maintaining (sometimes illusory) independence of lands and principalities. But this was already a new stage in the history of the Russian state, in which the completion of the unification process was inextricably linked with the beginning of the struggle for state centralization and for the final elimination of the Golden Horde yoke. Reasons for the rise of Moscow. Ivan Kalita There are several reasons that determined Moscow's victory in its confrontation with other political centers of Rus'. In this regard, the geographical position of the city of Moscow was especially advantageous. The Moscow River connected the Upper Volga with the middle Oka by the Lama portage. On the other hand, the city of Moscow arose at the very bend of the river, at its turn to the southeast, where it, with its tributary Yauza, almost approaches the Klyazma, along which there was a transverse route through Moscow from west to east. Finally, on the third side, a road from the Kyiv and Chernigov south to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and Rostov ran from Lopasnya through Moscow. Thus, the city of Moscow arose at the intersection of three major roads. This geographical location has resulted in important economic benefits for the city and its region. First of all, this situation contributed to the relatively earlier and denser population of the region. People's forces flocked to Moscow, as to a central reservoir, from all the edges of the Russian land, threatened by external enemies, due to its geographical location. Thus, the geographical position of Moscow, making it the intersection point of two intersecting movements - resettlement to the northeast and trade and transit to the southeast, brought important economic benefits to the Moscow prince. The density of the population in his domain increased the number of direct tax payers. The development of trade transit traffic along the Moscow River revived the industry of the region, drew it into this trade movement and enriched the treasury of the local prince with trade duties. Moscow can be considered, if not the geographical, then the ethnographic center of Rus', as this Rus' was located in the 14th century. This central position of Moscow protected it on all sides from external enemies; external blows fell on the neighboring principalities - Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Smolensk - and very rarely reached Moscow. Thanks to this cover, the Moscow region became a refuge for the marginal Russian population, which everywhere suffered from external attacks. After the Tatar pogrom for more than a century, until Olgerd's first attack in 1368. The Moscow country was, perhaps, the only region of Northern Rus' that did not suffer or suffered so little from enemy devastation; at least for all this time here, with the exception of the Tatar invasion of 1293 that captured Moscow, such disasters have not been heard from the chronicles. Using their own means, the Moscow princes gradually removed their principality from its original narrow limits. At the very beginning of the 14th century. in the north of Rus' there was no inheritance more insignificant than Moscow. Its borders did not even coincide with the borders of the current Moscow region. Of the cities that existed at that time, the specific Moscow territory did not include Dmitrov, Klin, Volokolamsk, Mozhaisk, Serpukhov, Kolomna, Vereya. The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow Principality began. In 1301, Daniil Alexandrovich captured Kolomna from the Ryazan princes, and in 1302, according to the will of the Pereyaslavl prince, who was at enmity with Tver, the Pereyaslavl principality passed to him. In 1303, Mozhaisk, which was part of the Smolensk Principality, was annexed, as a result of which the Moscow River, which was then an important trade route, found itself from source to mouth within the Moscow Principality. In three years, the Moscow principality almost doubled in size, became one of the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Rus', and the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich entered the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir. But even after the third Moscow prince from the tribe of Alexander Nevsky, Ivan Kalita, became the Grand Duke, the Moscow inheritance remained very insignificant. The first spiritual document of this prince, written in 1327, lists all his patrimonial possessions. They consisted of five or seven cities with counties: Moscow, Kolomna, Mozhaisk, Zvenigorod, Serpukhov, Ruza and Radonezh. In these counties there were 51 rural volosts and up to 40 palace villages. This was Kalita’s entire lot when he became the Grand Duke. But he had abundant material resources in his hands, which he put into profitable circulation. The difficult conditions of land ownership at that time forced landowners to sell their estates. Due to increased supply, land was cheap. The Moscow princes, having free money, began to buy land from private individuals and from church institutions, from the metropolitan, from monasteries, and from other princes. Buying villages in other people's appanages, Ivan Kalita bought three entire appanage cities with districts - Belozersk, Galich and Uglich. His successors continued this mosaic collection of lands. During the reign of Kalita, the Moscow principality was finally determined as the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Rus'. Since the time of Kalita, a close alliance has been formed between the Moscow grand princely power and the church, which played a large role in the formation of a centralized state. Kalita's ally, Metropolitan Peter, moved his residence from Vladimir to Moscow (1326), which became the ecclesiastical center of all Rus', which further strengthened the political positions of the Moscow princes. In relations with the Horde, Kalita continued the line outlined by Alexander Nevsky of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, regular payment of tribute, so as not to give them reasons for new invasions of Rus', which almost completely ceased during his reign. “And from then on there was great silence for 40 years and the trash stopped fighting the Russian land and slaughtering Christians, and the Christians rested and set in motion from great languor and many hardships, from Tatar violence...” the chronicler wrote, assessing Kalita’s reign. The Russian lands received the respite they needed to restore and boost their economy and accumulate strength for the upcoming struggle to overthrow the yoke. It is worth noting that the constant intervention of the Tatar khans in the political processes taking place in Rus' was the rule during this period. Thus, the unsuccessful uprising in Tver in 1327, suppressed by the Tatars with great cruelty, played into the hands of Moscow. The punitive army was led by none other than the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita. The pogrom that was carried out permanently removed Tver from the list of potential opponents of Moscow. Having earned the full “trust” of the Tatars, Ivan Kalita not only received a label for the Vladimir Principality, but also the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands. The strengthening of Moscow leads to the fact that the Metropolitan moves his residence here; the city thereby becomes the ecclesiastical center of Rus'. The significant superiority in material and human resources achieved by Moscow during Kalita's reign was reinforced by the construction of a stone Kremlin in 1367, which strengthened the military and defensive potential of the Moscow principality. The collection of tribute from all over the Russian land, carried out by Kalita with cruelty and inexorability, contributed to the concentration in the hands of the Moscow prince of significant funds, gave him the opportunity to exert political pressure on Novgorod and other Russian lands. Kalita's son, Prince Semyon Ivanovich (1340-1353), had already laid claim to the title of "Grand Duke of All Rus'" and received the nickname "Proud" for his arrogance. Strengthening the Moscow Principality. Completion of the unification of Rus'. Ivan III. Multinational Russian State As already noted, the unification of Rus' at all stages was accompanied by the struggle to eliminate the foreign yoke. The second period of the unification process saw the most significant attempt to achieve this by military means. The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, which ended in the victory of the Russian squads, contributed to a significant strengthening of the authority of Moscow as the center of the country’s unification. However, it was still premature to talk about the complete overthrow of the yoke: the overall balance of military forces was not yet in Moscow’s favor, which was confirmed by the devastating raid on Rus' by the Khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, that occurred two years later. At this stage, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania posed a much greater danger to the emerging Great Russia than the Order. Lithuania was spared by the Tatar-Mongol hordes, and the Russian lands, along with the indigenous Lithuanian lands, which formed the political and economic core of the Grand Duchy, did not suffer from the invasion. The Polotsk-Minsk and other lands of Belarus also survived the Mongol devastation, Black Rus' (Novogorodok, Slonim, Volkovysk), Grodno, Turovo-Pinsk and Beresteysko-Dorogichensk lands were not conquered by the Tatar-Mongol feudal lords. Relying on this core, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas and his descendants restrained the aggression of the Order, defeated the Tatars at Blue Waters (1362) and carried out wide expansion at the expense of Little and Great Rus'. At that time, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had an undeniable superiority over Moscow in almost all respects: in terms of population and level of economic development, which allows it to easily field more feudal warriors in the field than with the extreme tension of Moscow’s forces; in terms of area and wealth of agricultural land (chernozem of Volyn, Chernihiv and Kiev regions versus podzol and loam of the central Great Russian regions), which allowed it to continue to widen the gap with Muscovy in the degree of development of productive forces; finally, according to the international situation, because Lithuania was supported from behind by friendly and allied Poland, and behind Great Russia was the Golden Horde. Of particular importance at the second stage of the unification process was the confrontation between Moscow and Veliky Novgorod. At this time, Novgorod became a stronghold of political separatism and all forces hostile to Rus'. In the fight against Moscow, the Novgorod elite repeatedly tried to rely on the support of Lithuania. In 1456, Vasily II made a campaign against Novgorod. Having defeated the Novgorod militia, he dictated his peace terms to Novgorod: the abolition of the legislative right of the veche, the transfer of part of the Novgorod territories to the rule of Moscow, the payment of a significant indemnity, the obligation of Novgorod not to support Moscow’s opponents. In the middle of the 15th century. The Principality of Moscow, which included during the XIV - first half of the XVI century. Most of North-Eastern Rus', represented the territorial core of the emerging Russian state, the generally recognized capital of which was Moscow, and the political head of all Rus' was the Moscow Grand Duke. The unification policy of the Moscow Grand Dukes enjoyed the support of the overwhelming majority of the ruling class of feudal lords, the church, townspeople and other segments of the population interested, albeit from different social positions, in the state-political unification of the country and in strengthening state power. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, within the Moscow principality there remained only one Vereisko-Beloozersky inheritance, the prince of which was completely subordinate to Moscow. After the death of Vasily II, four more inheritances appeared, allocated to his younger sons. But the territorial size, material and human resources of the “great reign” of his eldest son Ivan III provided the latter with overwhelming superiority over his brothers. In the process of unification of Russian lands in the XIV-XV centuries. the first elements of state centralization arose - the transformation of Moscow into a state-political center for the entire country, the gradual concentration of all power in the hands of the Moscow princes, the limitation of political and immune rights and privileges of the feudal landed nobility, the abolition of certain political institutions (for example, the position of a thousand in Moscow ), the first steps to establish control over the activities of feeders, etc. Dmitry Donskoy tried to eliminate the position of the church as a “state within a state” and make it an obedient instrument in the hands of the grand ducal power. Dmitry Donskoy wanted to achieve this by placing his protege, the court priest Mityai, on the metropolitan throne, but this attempt ended in failure. The grand ducal government could not break the allied relations that had developed since the time of Kalita with the church, since it needed its support in the fight against other feudal opponents. The alliance of the church with the Moscow princes received new foundations from the middle of the 15th century. In 1439, at a council in Florence, the Papal Curia and the Patriarchate of Constantinople signed an act on the acceptance by the Orthodox Church of Catholic dogmas and the supreme supremacy of the Pope while maintaining Orthodox rituals. By going to the union, the patriarch hoped to receive help from the Catholic West in the fight against the Turkish conquerors, under whose blows the Byzantine Empire was collapsing. The Papal Curia also wanted by this act to include Rus' and other Slavic countries in its sphere of influence. But Moscow figured out the hidden political background of the Florentine Union and rejected it. The Greek Metropolitan of Moscow, Isidore, who signed the union in Florence, was removed and taken into custody. In 1448, the Russian bishops who gathered in Moscow for a church council elected from among themselves, without the sanction of the patriarch, a new metropolitan - Bishop Jonah of Kolomna, whom Grand Duke Vasily II pointed out. This act formalized the independence of the Russian Church from the Patriarchate of Constantinople. But, having become independent, the Russian Church found itself directly dependent on the growing power of the Grand Duke, which alone could protect the interests of the Church on a nationwide scale, support its spiritual authority, its fight against heretical movements. The successes of Moscow in the political unification of Rus', the territorial growth of the Moscow principality, the victory of the grand ducal power over the appanage conservative opposition in the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. - all this created the conditions for the transition to the final stage of the unification process and the beginning of state-political centralization, that is, for the elimination of the independence of the last large feudal centers in Rus' - the Tver, Yaroslavl, Rostov and Ryazan principalities, the Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics. This task was solved during the reign of Ivan III and his son Vasily III. The next military confrontation between Moscow and Novgorod, which took place in 1471, led to the liquidation of the Novgorod Republic. However, the power of tradition was so strong that the Moscow grand ducal government made some concessions, preserving the city some semblance of autonomy. Almost simultaneously, in 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown. Ahmed Khan, having concluded an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, invaded the Russian land in order to again force the Moscow Grand Duke to pay tribute (payment of tribute had been stopped by Ivan III several years earlier). The situation was complicated by the outbreak of a rebellion among the appanage princes - the brothers of Ivan III, dissatisfied with the strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke. Ivan III showed extraordinary political skill - “he beat some Tatars with the help of others.” He entered into an alliance with Ahmed Khan’s enemy, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, who invaded the Ukrainian possessions of Casimir IV and thereby prevented him from coming to the aid of Ahmed Khan. At the same time, Ivan III managed to eliminate the dangerous rebellion of the appanage princes. Ahmed Khan's attempt to cross the Utra River in October 1480 was unsuccessful. Without waiting for help from Casimir and fearing the approaching winter, Ahmed Khan led his army back. The “stand on the Ugra” ended with the liberation of the Russian land from the foreign yoke. It was prepared by many years of struggle of the popular masses against the conquerors and the successes of the unification process. Having overthrown the Horde yoke, Moscow continued to unify the Russian lands even more actively. However, there were still dangerous neighbors that grew out of the Golden Horde - the Crimean, Kazan, Astrakhan khanates, the struggle with which continued for a long time. In 1485, the centuries-old enemy of Moscow, Tver, after a short (two-day) resistance, surrendered to the Moscow army. The Vyatka land, important in commercial terms, was annexed in 1489. With the entry of the northern possessions of Novgorod and the Vyatka land, the non-Russian peoples of the North and North-East also became part of the Russian state. This phenomenon was not new in the state development of Russian lands, because from ancient times Russian principalities included non-Russian peoples living in the area between the Oka and Volga rivers. In 1494, peace was concluded between the Russian state and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, according to which Lithuania agreed to return to Russia the lands in the upper reaches of the Oka and the city of Vyazma. Subsequently, the upper reaches of the Oka, the lands along the banks of the Desna with its tributaries, part of the lower reaches of the Sozh and the upper reaches of the Dnieper cities of Chernigov, Bryansk, Rylsk, Putivl - a total of 25 cities and 70 volosts - went to Moscow. The attempt of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and Poland, King Sigismund, to unite the forces of Poland, Lithuania, Livonia, the Kazan and Crimean Khanates to fight against the strengthened Moscow Grand Duchy was not successful, since in the Western Russian lands there was a strong movement for the transition to the rule of Moscow. This movement was led by Prince Mikhail Glinsky, who was in connection with Moscow. After another unsuccessful war with Russia in 1507-1508. The Lithuanian government concluded an “eternal peace” with Russia (1508), recognizing its rights to the lands that had seceded from Lithuania. In 1483 - 1485 There were major unrest among the Smerds in Pskov. The Moscow grand princely power used them to win over the mass of the Pskov population and weaken the position of the nobility. Ivan III ordered the release of the arrested Smerds. In 1510, the Pskov Republic, which was independent after separation from Novgorod in 1348, ceased to exist. After the annexation of Pskov, part of its boyars and merchants were resettled from there to the central lands. The process of unification of lands and the formation of a single state contributed to the consolidation of the Russian people and the formation of the Great Russian nationality. Its territorial base was the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, once inhabited by the Vyatichi and Krivichi, and the Novgorod-Pskov land, where the Novgorod Slavs and Krivichi lived. The growth of economic and political ties, common tasks in the struggle for national independence with the Horde, Lithuania and other opponents, historical traditions coming from the times of pre-Mongol Rus', the desire for unity became the driving factors for their unification within the framework of one nationality - the Great Russian. At the same time, other parts of the former Old Russian nationality are being separated from it - in the west and southwest, as a result of the Horde invasions and seizures of Lithuanian, Polish, and Hungarian rulers, the formation of the Ukrainian (Little Russian) and Belarusian nationalities is taking place. Some of the non-Russian nationalities were part of Ancient Rus'. These are the Finno-Ugric tribes of the Volga-Oka interfluve (Merya, Meschora, etc.), who were found by the Slavs moving here from the Dnieper region. Karelians, Chud, Izhora and others lived all these centuries in the possessions of the Novgorod Republic. In the far north, under her rule, lived the Komi-Zyryans, Komi-Permyaks, Nenets (“Samoyeds”) and others. In the XIV-XV centuries. all northern peoples became subjects of Moscow, and its merchants and industrial people flocked there. The furs they obtained were distributed throughout Rus' and surrounding countries. During the campaign of 1483, the governors of Ivan III came to “Yugra on the great Ob River”. They defeated the local prince Asyka on the Pelyma River, then the Ugra princes on the Ob. Campaign 1499-1500 Voivode Prince Semyon Kurbsky led to the annexation of Ugra, located in Western Siberia, to Russia. Conclusion The process of forming a single all-Russian state took several centuries. External danger had a decisive influence on the development of the unification process. Having won victories over their rivals and achieved significant success in the fight against the Golden Horde, the Moscow Grand Dukes emerged as the main political force in Rus'. Secular and. spiritual feudal lords were interested in strengthening the grand ducal power insofar as it could help strengthen their power over the peasants. At the same time, various groups of feudal lords had different attitudes towards the prospect of strengthening the Moscow grand-ducal power. The Novgorod boyars and clergy, for example, sought to maintain state and church independence in their land. The situation was similar in Pskov and some other lands. The Moscow boyars supported the idea of ​​​​unifying all Russian lands under the rule of Moscow, but resisted strengthening the personal power of the Grand Duke. Separatist tendencies were especially pronounced in the policies of appanage princes. The layer of service people - conditional feudal holders - was just being formed. However, this process noticeably intensified as new territories were annexed to Moscow and a significant land fund came into the possession of the Moscow princes. Service people were most interested in strong government power. The trade and craft elements of the city and village also needed the establishment of a strong unified government on the territory of the country, since it ensured the cessation of internecine wars and external security necessary for the development of trade and craft. The masses of the people - peasants, artisans, industrialists - hoped to receive in the person of the grand ducal government “fair” power, reliable protection from oppression and arbitrariness on the part of local rulers and their administrations, as well as protection from attacks by external enemies. As a result of the unification, a huge power was formed, the largest in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian (Great Russian) people were united. At the same time, the Russian state was formed from the very beginning as a multinational one, although at the same time the Great Russian nationality, which occupied a leading position in the state, formalized its unity and thus ensured a progressive form of its historical development. From the end of the 15th century. The term “Russia” began to be used. The Russian people could be proud of what was done in those glorious decades of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The chronicler reflected these feelings of his contemporaries: “Our great Russian land freed itself from the yoke... and began to renew itself, as if it had passed from winter to a quiet spring. She again achieved her ancient majesty, piety and tranquility, as under the first prince Vladimir.” References 1. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the 18th century: Textbook/Ed. B.A. Rybakova. M.: Higher School, 1983. 2. Nesterov F.F. Connection of times. M.: Young Guard, 1984. 3. Skrynnikov R.G. Russian history. IX – XVIII centuries M.: publishing house "The Whole World", 1997. 4. Bushuev S.V. History of the Russian State. M.: publishing house "Book Chamber", 1994. 5. L.N. Zharova, I.A. Mishina. History of the Fatherland. M.: Education, 1992.
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The struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke began in the XIII-XV centuries. main national task. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The question was being resolved - around which center the Russian lands would unite.

First of all, Tver and Moscow laid claim to leadership. The Tver principality as an independent inheritance arose in 1247, when it was received by the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav became Grand Duke (1263-1272). The Tver principality was then the strongest in Rus'. But he was not destined to lead the unification process. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. The Principality of Moscow is rapidly rising.

Moscow, which before the Mongol-Tatar invasion was a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, at the beginning of the 14th century. turns into an important political center of the time. What were the reasons for the rise of Moscow?

Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous central position among the Russian lands. From the south and east it was protected from the Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west by the Tver principality and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of population to the lands of the Moscow Principality. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important junction of land and water routes, serving both trade and military operations.

Through the Moscow River and the Oka River, the Moscow Principality had access to the Volga, and through the tributaries of the Volga and the system of portages it was connected with the Novgorod lands. The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to win over not only other Russian principalities, but also the church.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the territory of the Moscow Principality grew rapidly. In 1301 it included Kolomna, conquered from the Ryazan prince. In 1302 According to the will of the childless Pereyaslavl prince, his possessions passed to Moscow. In 1303 Mozhaisk was annexed from the Smolensk Principality to Moscow. Thus, the territory of the Moscow principality doubled in three years and became one of the largest in northeastern Rus'. Since Mozhaisk is located at the sources of the Moscow River, and Kolomna is located at the mouth, with their annexation the entire river came into the possession of the Moscow princes. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was one of the richest and most fertile regions of the northeast, so its inclusion in the Moscow Principality significantly increased the economic potential of the latter. The Moscow prince entered into the struggle for the Great Reign.

The struggle between Moscow and Tver for the grand-ducal throne

As a representative of an older branch, the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304-1317) received a label for the great reign in the Horde. In Moscow at this time, the son of Daniil Alexandrovich Yuri (1303-1325) ruled.

Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky was married to the sister of Khan Uzbek Konchak (Agafya). He promised to increase tribute from Russian lands. The Khan gave him the label to the Grand Duke's throne. In 1315, Mikhail started a war with Yuri, defeated his squad, and captured the khan’s sister, who soon died in Tver. Yuri blamed the Tver prince for the death of his wife. Mikhail, summoned to the Horde, was executed. Moscow prince for the first time in 1319. received a label for the great reign. However, already in 1325. Yuri was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Tverskoy - Dmitry Groznye Ochi. Khan Uzbek executed Dmitry, but, continuing the policy of pitting Russian princes against each other, he transferred the great reign to the brother of the executed man, Alexander Mikhailovich (1326-1327).

Uprising in Tver

In 1327 the population of Tver rebelled against the tax collector Baskak Cholkhan (in Rus' he was called Shchelkan), a relative of Uzbek. Outraged by the extortions and violence, the residents of Tver turned to Prince Alexander Mikhailovich for help. The Tver prince took a wait-and-see attitude. The rebels of Tver killed the Tatars. Taking advantage of this, the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich came to Tver with a Mongol-Tatar army and suppressed the uprising. At the cost of the lives of the population of another Russian land, he contributed to the rise of his own principality. At the same time, the defeat of Tver deflected the blow from the rest of the Russian lands.

And today the debate continues about two possible trends in the fight against the Horde. Who was right in the rivalry between the two principalities of the 14th century? Moscow, which was accumulating strength to fight the enemy, or Tver, which opposed the invaders with an open visor? There are supporters of both one and the other point of view.

Ivan Kalita

Ivan Danilovich (1325-1340), having defeated the uprising in Tver, received a label for the great reign, which from that time almost constantly remained in the hands of the Moscow princes.

The Grand Duke managed to achieve a close alliance between the grand ducal power of Moscow and the church. Metropolitan Peter lived for a long time and often in Moscow, and his successor Theognost finally moved there. Moscow became the religious and ideological center of Rus'.

Ivan Danilovich was an intelligent, consistent, albeit cruel politician in achieving his goals. Under him, Moscow became the richest principality in Rus'. Hence the prince’s nickname - “Kalita” (“money bag”, “purse”). Under Ivan Kaliga, the role of Moscow as the center of unification of all Russian lands increased. He achieved the necessary respite from the Horde invasions, which made it possible to boost the economy and accumulate forces to fight the Mongol-Tatars. Ivan Kaliga received the right to collect tribute from the Russian principalities and deliver it to the Horde. Without resorting to weapons, he significantly expanded his possessions. Under him, the Galich (Kostroma region), Uglich, and Belozersk (Vologda region) principalities submitted to the Moscow principality.

Under the sons of Ivan Kalita - Semyon (1340-1353), who received the nickname Proud for his arrogant attitude towards other princes, and Ivan the Red (1353-1359) - the Moscow principality included the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub lands and the Kaluga region.

Dmitry Donskoy

Dmitry (1359-1389) received the throne as a nine-year-old child. The struggle for the Grand Duke's Vladimir table broke out again. The Horde began to openly support Moscow's opponents.

A unique symbol of the success and strength of the Moscow Principality was the construction in just two years of the impregnable white stone Kremlin of Moscow (1367) - the only stone fortress in the territory of north-eastern Rus'. All this allowed Moscow to repel the claim to all-Russian leadership of Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, and repel the campaigns of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

The balance of power in Rus' changed in favor of Moscow. In the Horde itself, a period of “great turmoil” began (50-60s of the 14th century) - a weakening of central power and the struggle for the khan’s throne. Rus' and the Horde seemed to be “testing” each other. In 1377, on the Piana River (near Nizhny Novgorod), the Moscow army was crushed by the Horde. However, the Tatars were unable to consolidate their success. In 1378 The army of Murza Begich was defeated by Dmitry on the Vozhens River (Ryazan land). These battles were a prelude to the Battle of Kulikovo.

Battle of Kulikovo

In 1380 temnik (head of the tumen) Mamai, who came to power in the Horde after several years of internecine hostility, tried to restore the shaky dominance of the Golden Horde over the Russian lands. Having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiel, Mamai led his troops to Rus'. Princely squads and militias from most Russian lands gathered in Kolomna, from where they moved towards the Tatars, trying to forestall the enemy. Dmitry proved himself to be a talented commander, making an unconventional decision for that time to cross the Don and meet the enemy on the territory that Mamai considered his own. At the same time, Dmitry set the goal of preventing Mamai from connecting with Yagail before the start of the battle.

The troops met on the Kulikovo field at the confluence of the Nepryadva River and the Don. The morning of the battle - September 8, 1380 - turned out to be foggy. The fog cleared only by 11 o'clock in the morning. The battle began with a duel between the Russian hero Peresvet and the Tatar warrior Chelubey. At the beginning of the battle, the Tatars almost completely destroyed the leading Russian regiment, and wedged themselves into the ranks of a large regiment stationed in the center. Mamai was already triumphant, believing that he had won. However, there followed an unexpected blow for the Horde from the flank of a Russian ambush regiment led by governor Dmitry Bobrok-Volynets and Prince Vladimir Serpukhovsky. This blow decided the outcome of the battle by three o'clock in the afternoon. The Tatars fled in panic from the Kulikovo field. For personal courage in battle and military leadership, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

The defeat of Moscow by Tokhtamysh

After the defeat, Mamai fled to Kafa (Feodosia), where he was killed. Khan Tokhtamysh seized power over the Horde. The struggle between Moscow and the Horde is not over yet. In 1382, using the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich, who pointed out the fords across the Oka River, Tokhtamysh and his horde suddenly attacked Moscow. Even before the Tatar campaign, Dmitry left the capital to the north to gather a new militia. The population of the city organized the defense of Moscow, rebelling against the boyars who rushed out of the capital in panic. Muscovites managed to repel the enemy's assault, using for the first time in battle the so-called mattresses (forged iron cannons of Russian production).

Realizing that the city could not be taken by storm, and fearing the approach of Dmitry Donskoy with his army, Tokhtamysh told the Muscovites that he had come to fight not against them, but against Prince Dmitry, and promised not to plunder the city. Having broken into Moscow by deception, Tokhtamysh subjected it to a brutal defeat. Moscow was again obliged to pay tribute to the khan.

The meaning of the Kulikovo victory

Despite the defeat in 1382, the Russian people, after the Battle of Kulikovo, believed in their imminent liberation from the Tatars. The Golden Horde suffered its first major defeat on the Kulikovo Field. The Battle of Kulikovo showed the power and strength of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unify the Russian lands. Thanks to the Kulikovo victory, the size of the tribute was reduced. The Horde finally recognized the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands. The defeat of the Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo significantly weakened their power. Residents from different Russian lands and cities walked to the Kulikovo Field - but they returned from the battle as the Russian people.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the Great Reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily (1389-1425) in his will as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes, without asking for the right to a label in the Horde. There was a merger of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and Moscow.

Timur's campaign

In 1395, the Central Asian ruler Timur - the “great lame man”, who made 25 campaigns, the conqueror of Central Asia, Siberia, Persia, Baghdad, Damascus, India, Turkey - defeated the Golden Horde and marched on Moscow. Vasily I gathered a militia in Kolomna to repel the enemy. The intercessor of Rus' - the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir - was brought from Vladimir to Moscow. When the icon was already near Moscow, Timur abandoned the campaign against Rus' and, after a two-week stop in the Yelets region, turned south. The legend connected the miracle of the capital's deliverance with the intercession of the Mother of God.

Feudal war of the second Thursdays of the 15th century. (1431-1453)

The feuds, called the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century, began after the death of Vasily I. By the end of the 14th century. In the Moscow principality, several appanage estates were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. The largest of them were Galitskoye and Zvenigorodskoye, which were received by the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri. According to Dmitry’s will, he was supposed to inherit the grand-ducal throne after his brother Vasily I. However, the will was written when Vasily I did not yet have children. Vasily I handed over the throne to his son, ten-year-old Vasily II.

After the death of Grand Duke Yuri, as the eldest in the princely family, he began to fight for the Grand Duke's throne with his nephew, Vasily II (1425-1462). After the death of Yuri, the fight was continued by his sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. If at first this clash of princes could still be explained by the “ancient right” of inheritance from brother to brother, that is, to the eldest in the family, then after the death of Yuri in 1434 it represented a clash of supporters and opponents of state centralization. The Moscow prince advocated political centralization, the Galician prince represented the forces of feudal separatism.

The fight followed all the “rules of the Middle Ages,” that is, blinding, poisoning, deception, and conspiracies were used. Twice Yuri captured Moscow, but could not hold on to it. Opponents of centralization achieved their greatest success under Dmitry Shemyak, who was the Moscow Grand Duke for a short time.

Only after the Moscow boyars and the church finally sided with Vasily Vasilyevich II the Dark (blinded by his political opponents, like Vasily Kosoy, hence the nicknames “Kosoy”, “Dark”), Shemyaka fled to Novgorod, where he died. The feudal war ended with the victory of the forces of centralization. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the possessions of the Moscow principality increased 30 times compared to the beginning of the 14th century. The Principality of Moscow included Murom (1343), Nizhny Novgorod (1393) and a number of lands on the outskirts of Rus'.

Rus' and the Union of Florence

The strength of the grand ducal power is evidenced by the refusal of Vasily II to recognize the union (union) between the Catholic and Orthodox churches under the leadership of the pope, concluded in Florence in 1439. The pope imposed this union on Rus' under the pretext of saving the Byzantine Empire from conquest by the Ottomans. Metropolitan of Rus', Greek Isidore, who supported the union, was deposed. In his place, Ryazan Bishop Jonah was elected, whose candidacy was proposed by Vasily II. This marked the beginning of the independence of the Russian Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople. And after the capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453. the choice of the head of the Russian church was already determined in Moscow.

Summing up the development of Rus' in the first two centuries after the Mongol devastation, it can be argued that as a result of the heroic creative and military labor of the Russian people during the 14th and first half of the 15th centuries. conditions were created for the creation of a unified state and the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke. The struggle for the great reign was already underway, as the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century showed, not between individual principalities, but within the Moscow princely house. The Orthodox Church actively supported the struggle for the unity of Russian lands. The process of formation of the Russian state with its capital in Moscow became irreversible.