Features of the development of social science in modern conditions. Social studies lesson summary "modern society"

XX century marked by turbulent events that were reflected in the development of social theory. On the one hand, private social sciences have advanced significantly - economic theory, law, political science, sociology, psychology, etc. On the other hand, at the philosophical level, the rethinking of the principles of the 19th century, which sacredly believed in progress and the omnipotence of science, continued.

The shortcomings of civilization created by science and technology, the inability of science to solve many purely human problems, have led to the emergence in social philosophy of theories that contain a strong anti-scientific element.

First, the universality was questioned scientific methods and their research effectiveness. Such trends in philosophy as hermeneutics, existentialism, directly pointed out the limitations of natural scientific methods of cognition, their inability to explore the human world. Such beliefs were based on a statement of the uniqueness of the area of ​​history and culture,

where human consciousness and free will operate. The existence in the field of social phenomena of laws correlated with the laws of nature was denied. Similar installations were also implemented in private social sciences. For example, in history it gained popularity Annales School, whose theorists developed the principles of the neo-Kantian theory of knowledge.

But the greatest sociologist of the 20th century. Max Weber(1864-1920), although he was close to the same neo-Kantian tradition, sought to maintain the rigor and scientific nature of sociology in all the problems he dealt with: the theory of social action, the theory of politics, religion, the genesis of the capitalist “spirit of entrepreneurship.”

Secondly, the ambiguity of the consequences of technological progress and the “repressiveness” of the civilization created by science and technology in relation to man were emphasized. Such motives are heard in neo-Freudianism And existentialism. A very common philosophy in the West today postmodernism based on criticism of the limitations of the scientific view of the world, the desire to “equalize rights” various shapes spiritual culture, including religion, myth, etc. Modern ecological problems provide food for additional accusations against science and technology that degrade the human environment. The destructive influence exerted by technicism on human spirituality is also emphasized.

Significant amount social research associated with the analysis of modern political and economic processes, the search for the best forms public organization in modern conditions. Moreover, discussions on these problems often take place not only at the private scientific, but also at the philosophical level.

The criticism of capitalist society, begun in the 19th century, found many both theoretical and “practical” followers. Attempts to radically change the bourgeois system led to the emergence of bloody totalitarian regimes - fascism and communism. Their collapse forced us to rethink the values ​​of freedom, democracy, and private property.

Analysis of possible types social organization, the confrontation between totalitarianism and democracy in modern world, a number of works are devoted to a person’s responsibility for choosing the society in which he will live Karl Popper(1902-1994). He contrasts two types of societies with each other: “open” and “closed”. In the modern world, a “closed” social model is implemented in totalitarian societies (communist and fascist), while an “open” social model is implemented in Western democracies. Being an unconditional supporter of an “open” society, but without idealizing it, Popper believes that the creation, preservation and strengthening of an “open” society is ensured not by historical necessity, but by the actions of people aware of their responsibility.

An analysis of individual institutions and values ​​of capitalist society was carried out in the works of famous economists John Galbraith, John M. Keynes, Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman (neoconservatism).

Hayek and Friedman not only believe the market economy that exists in modern capitalist societies is much more efficient planned economy of the socialist type, but also advocate minimal state participation in economic life, maximum freedom of the market, and private entrepreneurship.

Galbraith and Keynes, on the contrary, insist on greater state control over the market, more active regulation of market ones; relationships.

Of particular importance in last years purchased the so-called global problems. This set of problems affects humanity as a whole, every society existing on earth. These include environmental problems, problems of war and peace, health, food, resource distribution, etc. Social sciences are called upon to find ways to solve these problems. Today the world is whole. Different peoples live in it, but they are forced to live together and interact with each other. Search for mutually acceptable models of coexistence, reconciliation of different social systems and cultures is also included in the tasks of social science.

A special set of issues is associated with problems modernization, transforming backward societies into modern ones, “bringing them up” to the level of world leaders.

The problems of the future of humanity, the changing face of the world community under the influence of new information technologies are studied in various versions of theories post-industrial society(D. Bell, O. Toffler,

3. Brzezinski, A. Touraine).

So, social science of the 20th century. strives to find solutions to the diverse set of problems that life poses to him. Today, social knowledge is the most important condition for the successful development of humanity.

Control questions:

1. Like in the 20th century. did they relate to the idea of ​​progress and evaluate the role of science in society?

2. Who owned the theory of contrasting “open” and “closed” societies and what is its meaning?

3. How do the views of Hayek and Friedman, on the one hand, differ from the views of Galbraith and Keynes, on the other?

4. What are global problems?

PHILOSOPHY

1. “A human child at the moment of birth is not a person, but only a candidate for a person” (A. Pieron)

Man is the highest level of living organisms on Earth, a subject of socio-historical activity and culture, in which the biological and social principles are closely interconnected. From a biological point of view, a newborn is a human being, but from a social point of view, it is only a candidate for becoming a human being. Therefore, I believe that A. Pieron is right.

The social studies textbook emphasizes the differences between the concepts of “individual” and “personality”. Both terms characterize a person, but how? An individual is a specific person, as a holistic, unique representative of the human race with his unique psychophysiological traits (age, gender, temperament, level of abilities, characteristics of health and appearance, etc.). Personality is a human individual who is a subject social activities, possessing a set of socially significant features, properties and qualities that he realizes in public life. An individual becomes a person through the process of socialization, which includes education, training, and communication with other people. A person at the moment of birth is an individual, but not yet a person. Only communication with other people allows a child to learn to speak, think logically, and acquire cultural skills. Having mastered the experience of humanity, having found his place in society, his recognition, he will become a person in the full sense of the word - a unique personality, individuality.

Arguments can be given famous example children - "Mowgli". So, in India, a newborn girl spent several years in a troop of monkeys. When she came to people at the age of 11, she could not speak, walked on all fours, and could not learn to eat with a spoon. She looked more like an animal than a person. On the other hand, there are cases when children who were born seriously ill or disabled, with the help of special development methods, through their own efforts, with the participation of their relatives, overcame their biological imperfection and became famous scientists, politicians, etc. Thus, A. is right. Pieron: Looking at a newborn, we do not yet know whether he will become a person with all the qualities inherent in him or will be a creature biologically similar to a person, but deprived of the social and cultural characteristics characteristic of him.

2. “A human child at the moment of birth is not a person, but only a candidate for a person” (A. Pieron)

I believe that the author is right in presenting such a view, because a person, being a part of the natural world, can fully develop and live only in a society of people like him, since consciousness and speech are formed in a person throughout life, in the process of socialization, interaction with other people . By the word “man” in his phrase, the author understands personality - a human individual who is a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant traits, properties and qualities that he realizes in his life. Personality is formed in the process of upbringing and human activity, under the influence of a particular society and its culture. Not every person can become an individual. They are born an individual, and become a person or a Person with a capital P in the process of socialization.

An example of the author’s correctness is the following: in Rostov-on-Don in the late 90s they discovered a girl named Natasha, who at the age of 7 could not speak, walk on her feet, or dress, and all because she grew up in large family, where no attention was paid to her upbringing at all. She was raised by a dog, the girl ate like a dog, barked, growled, bit, moved on all fours, and did not comply with human norms of behavior. And although outwardly she looked like a person, in reality one can only talk about her as an individual. This girl was taken to an orphanage, where she was gradually accustomed to the norms of human life, taught to talk, eat with a spoon, take care of herself, and generally live in human society. My mother was born in a village remote from the city, but received a proper upbringing and education, and by the age of 30 she became the manager of a savings bank in Cheboksary. Therefore, whether a person becomes a person or not depends on his upbringing.

3. “A human child at the moment of birth is not a person, but only a candidate for a person” (A. Pieron)

One cannot but agree with Pieron's words. Why? With his words, he wanted to emphasize that a real person is a person. At the moment of birth, a child is only a candidate for a person who can become a person. Man is a biosocial being. At the moment of birth, a person has only his “bio”, which makes him similar to all animals: he has the same instincts and needs. A person’s “socio” can only develop through communication with other people. As a result of communication with other people, a person develops his thinking, speech, and consciousness. At the moment of birth, a person is an individual, he is only one of the people. Over time, it acquires individual characteristics. Individuality is characteristic of every person. Each of us is different from the other in appearance; each of us has our own special character traits, interests, and abilities.

A person can become a person only through the process of socialization. In the development of personality, the role of education and interaction with other people is great. It is in these processes that a person’s socialization occurs, that is, the assimilation of values, norms, attitudes, and patterns of behavior accepted in society.

To confirm Pieron's words, a very striking example can be given. In the Middle Ages, one king decided to conduct a cruel experiment. He forbade talking to the newborn. The child was locked in a room, fed, but did not communicate with him. As a result, he never became a man in the full sense: he did not know how to speak, behave in society, and soon died. So in our life there are examples of this. If parents are not involved in raising children, then children do not know how to build relationships with other people. For a newborn to become a real person, life in society and interaction with other people are necessary.

4. “Nature creates man, but society develops and forms him.” (V.G. Belinsky)

Man is the highest stage of development of living organisms on earth, a subject of socio-historical activity and culture, but his most important characteristic is his biosocial essence.

Belinsky V.G. in his expression he very accurately and succinctly characterized the dual nature of man. Firstly, man is a creation of nature, is a chain of evolution, the same organism as everything that surrounds us. Biologically, humans are no different from animals. Secondly, he is a creation of society. This point is more complicated. What is clear is that thanks to social development, man became human. A person without society is nothing; it is not for nothing that in ancient times expulsion from society was the most terrible punishment. There are many examples in the modern world of the “Mowgli” syndrome, when a child was raised by an animal and therefore behaves like one, and not like a person, which only indicates that the social in a person is not genetically embedded, but is given by society. This is also confirmed by Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe". Without the knowledge that society has accumulated, Robinson Crusoe would have had a hard time surviving. Or maybe it’s impossible. He tried to repeat, to understand everything that was created in society.

To summarize, I would like to note that man and society are inseparable concepts. It is thanks to society that man as a biological being was able to become the person he is. The body is given to man by nature, and the mind and soul by society.

5. “Nature creates man, but society develops and forms him.” (V.G. Belinsky)

Every person in a broad sense is a “child of nature.” According to biological laws, man became isolated and developed from the animal world. Therefore, animal instincts are quite understandable in human essence; they have a natural origin. However, a person would be no different from an animal if these instincts, bestowed by nature, constituted his deepest fundamental principle and determined his entire existence.

Society has a decisive influence on the formation of a person. By society in this case we mean isolated from nature (the totality of natural conditions human existence) part of the world. Established moral norms and rules of behavior, cultural achievements, political and legal features, socio-economic relations - all these are various components of society as a whole.

Only in society does a person acquire personal characteristics(that is, such socially significant features that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society).

Thus, in my opinion, V.G. Belinsky was deeply right when he noted that biologically man is created by nature; but the human personality acquires and develops its essential characteristics in society, in interaction with other individuals, entering into various relationships with them.

On the other hand, it seems that in this statement V.G. Belinsky, these two concepts - “society” and “nature” - act as diametric opposites. I don't think this is correct. Man, society and nature are very closely interconnected and influence each other. It is known that, on the one hand, the natural environment, geographical and climatic features have a significant impact on social development, accelerating or slowing down its pace and, ultimately, determining the mentality of the people (as a set of social values, attitudes, willingness to act or think in a certain way) . On the other hand, society also influences the natural environment of humans. Recently, the negative impact of human society on the environmental situation has been most often noted.

Thus, concluding our small analysis, we note that nature and society are two main components, closely interconnected, interacting, which determine the features of the folding and formation of a person as an individual. Moreover, the second component (society) currently has a direct and most powerful influence; and the impact of nature in the modern world is largely indirect.

Development of social science in the 20th century

The idea of ​​technocracy in social cognition. Modern "neo-Darwinism". Spiritual values ​​and their role in the life of society. Problems of the essence and existence of man in the philosophy of existentialism. The essence of the theory of social stratification. Scientific development of the concepts of “social role” and “social status”. The problem of periodization historical development. History through the prism of a civilizational approach. The reasons for the emergence of various directions in the development of Marxist thought. Development of radical revolutionary ideas of Marxism in Leninism. The concept of revisionism and centrism, their historical evolution. Discussion about the place and role of Marxist teaching in the modern world.

Problems of modern social science

The current stage of development of social sciences. The increasing role of scientific discussions. Discussions about socialism and its prospects. Discussion of issues of moral improvement of the individual in the context of reforms. Discussions on youth issues and youth policy.

CIVILIZATIONS OF THE PAST

What is civilization

The relationship between the concepts of “formation” and “civilization”. Signs of civilization. Civilization and culture. Human values.

Features of ancient civilizations

The transition from a pre-class, pre-literate, pre-state and pre-urban state of society to civilization. Changing interaction between man and nature. The formation of civil society in ancient times. Contribution of the peoples of the world to the achievements of ancient civilization. Unity and relationships of ancient civilizations. Problems of modern understanding of antiquity.

Ancient civilizations of Europe

Specific features of ancient Greek civilization: classical slavery; polis as the unity of political structure and civil society. Great achievements of ancient Greek culture. The birth of philosophy. The Hellenistic civilization is a unique synthesis of eastern and ancient elements of society. Civic values ​​of Rome. Roman law. Roman eloquence.

World of barbarism

Subsistence farming and its role in the life of a barbarian. Contradictions between democratic clan structures and the rise of the nobility. Militarization of public life. The nobility and the militia are the source of military ideology. The values ​​of the world of barbarians, their unity and contradictions. The clash of barbarian and ancient societies.

European civilization of the Middle Ages

The way of life and thinking of the era. Estates medieval society. Characteristics of their values. Connections between classes and insurmountable psychological barriers between them. Monarchy and the church as a guarantor of the stability of medieval society. Christianity as the central axis of medieval civilization. The city is the cradle of a new civilization.

Transition to industrial civilization

Prerequisites for accelerating social progress in Europe. Initial accumulation of capital and the formation of economic sovereignty of owners. Renaissance values: humanism, personal freedom. The destruction of the spiritual autocracy of the church in the era of the Reformation. The virtues of early capitalism: thriftiness, frugality, moderation. The origin and development of parliamentarism. The significance of the industrial revolution and bourgeois revolutions in the transition to industrial civilization.

Civilization of the East

"Continuity" of development. The inextricable connection of Eastern civilization with nature. Traditionality as the defining moment of life. Peculiarities in the perception of religion. Lack of freedom and democracy in the European sense. Differences social psychology China, India and Japan.

Historical path of Russia

The Russian path: turning points. Features of Russia's development. Peasant community. Autocracy. The role of bureaucracy. Orthodoxy and its meaning. Russian empire.

THE MODERN STAGE OF THE WORLD CIVILIZATION

DEVELOPMENT AND OUR SOCIETY

Modern civilizations

Diversity of ways and forms of social development. The current stage of civilizational development. Types of civilizations. Features of the development of “traditional society”. Achievements and contradictions of Western civilization. Transition to an industrial society. Integrity and interdependence of the modern world.

Global problems modernity

The origin of global problems and their interrelationships. Scientific and technological progress and global problems. Threat of environmental crisis. Problems of war and peace in modern conditions. The gap between the liberated countries and the developed countries. Ways to resolve global problems. New political thinking. The problem of terrorism.

Russian society in the modern world

The need to renew society. Goals and objectives of reforms. Transformations in society and the general civilizational process. Economic and socio-political crisis. Ways out of the crisis.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CIVILIZATION

Economics and its role in the life of modern society

Dependence of living standards on the state of the economy. System of economic relations. Production. Property relations. Variety of forms of ownership. Distribution, its dependence on forms of ownership. Sources of income for various population groups. Economic reforms in Russia. Problems and contradictions of the transition to a market economy. Standard of living. Living wage. Employment and unemployment.

Market relations in modern economics

Market concept. Various options for organizing economic life. The role of the market in economic life. Law of value. Law of supply and demand. Markets for goods, labor and capital. Competition and monopoly. Contradictions of a market economy. Market mechanism and government regulation. Modern market. Fiscal and monetary regulation of the economy. Russia in the system of international economic relations. Entrepreneurship: essence, functions, types. Money and its functions. Banks, inflation.

Scientific and technological progress and material production

The essence of the scientific and technological revolution (STR). New stage of scientific and technological revolution. Changing the position of a person in the production process. The impact of scientific and technological revolution on various fields of activity. Ecological threat. New quality of economic growth. Social consequences of scientific and technological revolution.

Man in the system of economic relations

Man in the system of property relations. Changes in working conditions and content. A person's attitude towards work. Distribution by work. Opportunities to increase personal income. Needs and consumption.

Economic reform in our country

The need for economic reform. The significance of the transition to a market economy. Conditions for transition to the market. Discussion about the consequences of the transition to a market. The need to create a system social protection. Exacerbation of the crisis situation in the economy. Ways to stabilize the economy.

Right

Law in the system of social norms. Legal system: main branches, institutions, relations. Administrative law. Civil law. Criminal law. Labor law. Signs and types of offenses.

CIVILIZATION AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social structure of society

The social structure of society as a set of interconnected and interacting social groups and social institutions. Types of social groups. Inequality and social stratification. Causes of social and structural changes. The role of social movements in the life of society. Family in modern society. Social relationships and interactions. Social politics. Youth as a social group. Problems of youth in conditions of social change.

Nations and national relations

Nation and its characteristics. Development of nations and national relations in the modern world. Interethnic integration, its objective reasons. Ethnic crises, their main causes and ways to overcome them. Ensuring individual rights and freedoms is a condition for the freedom of the entire people. The action of two trends in the development of nations and national relations in the Russian Federation. The crisis in the development of national relations and ways out of it.

Social status and the role of the individual

Social status of the individual and social group. Grade public importance certain social positions occupied by people: authority, prestige. Social mobility. Social role of man. Social guarantees. Deviant behavior.

Trends in the development of social relations in our country

Development and current state social structure of society. Changes in social structure currently occurring. Problems of the social sphere and prospects for the development of social relations.

MODERN CIVILIZATION AND POLITICAL LIFE

The role of the political system in the life of society

Power, its origin and types. The state: its features, forms, functions. Political relations. The structure of the political system. The relationship between organizations, political norms and political culture. Types of political regimes. Society management. Subjects and objects of politics. The principle of separation of powers and forms of its implementation. Civil society.

Constitutional state

The rule of law is a fundamental principle of a rule of law state. Equality of citizens. Protection of human rights. Mutual responsibility of the state and the individual.

Political pluralism

Political monopolism and pluralism. Principles of political partnership. Forms of resolving political conflicts under the rule of law. Multi-party system. Democracy in the modern world: its forms and mechanism of implementation.

Political status of the individual

The variety of political roles of the individual. The role of the voter. Criteria for assessing the election program of parliamentary candidates. Political leaders and imitators. Political culture.

Reform of the political system in our country

The need for reform of the political system. Updating the electoral system. Development of political pluralism. Contradictions in the process of democratization of the political system. Political system of the Russian Federation. Constitutional system of the Russian Federation. Federal structure of Russia. Political system of Mordovia. Fundamentals of the constitutional system of the Republic of Moldova.

SPIRITUAL VALUES OF MODERN CIVILIZATION

Spiritual culture

The concept of culture. Material and spiritual culture, their relationship. Continuity and innovation in the development of culture. Diversity of cultures. Mass and elite culture. Screen culture. Interaction of cultures. Mass media. Trends in spiritual life modern Russia.

Science and education

Science concept. Difference scientific knowledge from ordinary knowledge. Functions of modern science. Freedom of creativity and moral freedom of a scientist. Education concept. State regulation of the education system. Variety of types educational institutions. General trends in the development of education. System of sciences studying man.

Morality and art

The concept of religion. Cult, religious worldview. Church. The difference between the everyday ideas of believers and theology. The unifying and dividing role of religion in the modern world. World religions. Tolerance as one of the universal human values.

The spiritual life of modern man

Man is the creator and bearer of culture. Universal human culture and personality. Worldview guidelines in the choice of spiritual values. The role of literature and art in the moral and aesthetic development of the individual. Criteria for human spirituality. Lack of spirituality: causes and consequences, ways to overcome.

Problems of development of spiritual culture in our country

Development of spiritual culture in conditions of social renewal. Return cultural heritage into the spiritual life of the Fatherland. Contradictions between the spiritual potential of our society and the possibilities of introducing people to it. Liberation of literature, art, and humanities from ideological and political dictates. Priority of universal human spiritual values. Revival of culture – necessary condition renewal of society. Features of Russian civilization.

THE ROAD TO A NEW CIVILIZATION

Social forecasts for future development

Social forecasts and their role in socio-political development. Scientific and technological revolution and alternatives for the future. Global problems and ways to solve them. Priority of universal human values.

Information society

Concept of information. Information society. Prospects for the development of society in various fields, its contradictions. The role of the media in the life of society.

ON THE SUBJECT "RUSSIAN LANGUAGE"

The Russian language assignment involves a multidimensional linguistic analysis of a short text. At the same time, spelling and punctuation skills and abilities, knowledge of Russian norms are checked literary language, knowledge from the field of phonetics, vocabulary and phraseology, word formation, morphology, syntax and stylistics of the Russian literary language, as well as the history of the language and its territorial and professional varieties.

Phonetics

Phonetic system of the Russian language. Speech sounds and letters. Vowels and consonants. Voiceless and voiced, hard and soft consonants. Indication of softness of consonants in writing. Syllable, stress. Unstressed vowels, their spelling.

Vocabulary

The concept of vocabulary. Meaning of the word. Single and polysemous words. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Homonyms. Synonyms. Antonyms. Vocabulary wealth of the Russian language. Common words. Professional vocabulary. Dialect words. Borrowed words. Outdated words. Neologisms. The concept of stable phrases.

Word formation

The stem of the word and the ending. Ending, suffix, root, prefix as significant parts of a word. Alternation of consonants and vowels in the root. Spelling of words with alternating vowels o - and in the roots gora- - gar-, kos- - kas-. Spelling of words with alternating o - and in the roots lozh- - lag-, roz- - rast-. The letters e and o are after the sibilants at the root. The letters s and and after c. The letters z and s are at the end of the prefixes. Spelling of prefixes pri- and pre-. Various ways of word formation in Russian. Complex words and their spelling. Compound words and their spelling.

Morphology and spelling

Noun. The meaning of a noun and its grammatical features. Nouns, animate and inanimate, proper and common nouns. Genus. Number. Case. Types of declension. Spelling case endings of nouns. Spelling of the most important suffixes. Adjective. The meaning of the adjective and its grammatical features. Adjectives are qualitative, relative and possessive. Complete and short form. Declension of adjectives. Degrees of comparison of adjectives. Transition of adjectives into nouns. Spelling case endings of adjectives. Spelling of the most important adjective suffixes. Numeral. The meaning of the numeral name. Numerals are quantitative and ordinal. Features of declension of numerals. Spelling of numerals. Pronoun. The meaning of pronouns. Pronoun categories. Declension of pronouns and their spelling. Verb. The meaning of the verb and its grammatical features. Infinitive. Transitive and intransitive verbs. Types of verbs. First and second conjugations. Moods (indicative, conditional, imperative). Verb tenses. Person and number (present and future tense), gender and number (past tense). Participles and gerunds. Spelling verb forms. Adverb. The meaning of adverbs. Spelling adverbs. Pretext. The concept of preposition, its use in speech. Various parts of speech as prepositions. Spelling prepositions. Union. The concept of a union, its use in speech. Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Spelling conjunctions. Particles. The concept of particles and their use in speech. Spelling particles. Interjection. The meaning of interjections and punctuation marks for them.

Syntax

Simple sentence. Connection of words in a sentence: coordination, control, adjunction. Kinds simple sentences according to the purpose of the statement: narrative, interrogative, incentive. Exclamatory sentences. Members of a sentence (subject, simple and compound predicate, object, definition, circumstance) and ways of expressing them. Types of sentences by composition: personal, impersonal, indefinitely personal, nominative, complete and incomplete. Homogeneous members of the sentence. A generalizing word for homogeneous members of a sentence. Punctuation marks between homogeneous members and with generalizing words. Isolated secondary members of a sentence (definitions, applications, circumstances) and punctuation marks with them. Addresses, introductory words and introductory sentences, punctuation marks for them. Difficult sentence. Types of complex sentences. Compound sentences with conjunctions and punctuation marks for them. Complex sentences with conjunctions and allied words. General concept of the main types subordinate clauses. Punctuation marks in complex sentences. Complex sentences with several subordinate clauses (subordinate and sequentially subordinate). Unconjunct complex sentences and punctuation marks in them. Complex sentences with composition and subordination. Direct and indirect speech. Punctuation marks for direct and indirect speech.

ENTRANCE TEST PROGRAM

ON THE SUBJECT "PHYSICS"

When conducting an exam in physics, the main attention should be paid to the examinee’s understanding of the essence of physical phenomena and laws, to the ability to interpret the meaning physical quantities and concepts, as well as solve physical problems in the sections of the program. The examinee must be able to use the International System of Units (SI) for calculations, and in some cases know the units of basic physical quantities. The examinee must demonstrate awareness of issues related to the history of the most important discoveries in physics and the role of domestic and foreign scientists in its development.

MECHANICS

Kinematics

Mechanical movement. Relativity of motion. Reference system. Material point. Trajectory. Path and movement. Speed. Acceleration. Uniform and uniformly accelerated rectilinear movement. Free fall of bodies. Acceleration free fall. Rectilinear equation uniformly accelerated motion. Curvilinear motion of a point using the example of motion in a circle with a constant absolute speed. Centripetal acceleration.

Dynamics Basics

Inertia. Newton's first law. Inertial reference systems. Interaction of bodies. Weight. Pulse. Force. Newton's second law. The principle of superposition of forces. Galileo's principle of relativity. Forces in nature. The force of gravity. Law universal gravity. Body weight. Weightlessness. First escape velocity. Elastic force. Hooke's law. Friction force. Friction coefficient. Law of sliding friction. Newton's third law. Moment of power. Condition for equilibrium of bodies.

Conservation laws in mechanics

Law of conservation of momentum. Rockets. Mechanical work. Power. Kinetic energy. Potential energy. Law of conservation of energy in mechanics. Simple mechanisms. Efficiency.

Mechanics of liquids and gases

Pressure. Atmosphere pressure. Change atmospheric pressure with height. Pascal's law for liquids and gases. Barometers and pressure gauges. Communicating vessels. The principle of a hydraulic press. Archimedean force for liquids and gases. Conditions for floating bodies on the surface of a liquid. Movement of fluid through pipes. Dependence of fluid pressure on its flow rate.

MOLECULAR PHYSICS.

THERMODYNAMICS

Fundamentals of molecular kinetic theory

Experimental substantiation of the main provisions of the molecular kinetic theory. Brownian motion. Diffusion. Mass and size of molecules. Measuring the speed of molecules. Stern's experience. Amount of substance. Mol. Avogadro's constant. Interaction of molecules. Gas, liquid and solid models.

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

Thermal equilibrium. Temperature and its measurement. Absolute temperature scale. Internal energy. Quantity of heat. Heat capacity of a substance. Work in thermodynamics. First law of thermodynamics. Isothermal, isochoric and isobaric processes. Adiabatic process. Irreversibility of thermal processes. The second law of thermodynamics and its statistical interpretation. Energy conversion in heat engines. Heat engine efficiency.

Ideal gas

The relationship between pressure and average kinetic energy ideal gas molecules. Relationship between temperature and the average kinetic energy of gas particles. Clapeyron–Mendeleev equation. Universal gas constant.

Liquids and solids

Evaporation and condensation. Saturated and unsaturated pairs. Air humidity. Boiling liquid. Crystalline and amorphous bodies. Energy conversion during changes in the state of aggregation of matter.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRODYNAMICS

Electrostatics

Electrification of bodies. Electric charge. Interaction of charges. Elementary electric charge. Law of conservation of electric charge. Coulomb's law. Electric field. Tension electric field. Electric field of a point charge. Electrostatic field potential. Potential difference. The principle of superposition of fields. Conductors in an electric field. Electrical capacity. Capacitor. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. Dielectrics in an electric field. The dielectric constant. Electric field energy of a flat capacitor.

Direct electric current

Electricity. Current strength. Voltage. Carriers of free electric charges in metals, liquids and gases. Conductor resistance. Ohm's law for a section of a circuit. Serial and parallel connection of conductors. Electromotive force. Ohm's law for a complete circuit. Work and current power. Joule-Lenz law. Semiconductors. Intrinsic and impurity conductivity of semiconductors, p–n junction.

A magnetic field. Electromagnetic induction

Interaction of magnets. Interaction of conductors with current. A magnetic field. Action magnetic field on electric charges. Magnetic field induction. Ampere power. Lorentz force. Magnetic flux. Electric motor. Electromagnetic induction. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Lenz's rule. Vortex electric field. Self-induction. Inductance. Magnetic field energy.

TEXTBOOK FOR UNIVERSITIES

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES AT SCHOOL

Edited by Professor L.N. Bogolyubova

Approved by the Ministry of Education

Russian Federation as a textbook

for students of pedagogical higher education

institutions studying in the specialty “History”

BBK 74.266.0ya73

The textbook was prepared in the laboratory of social science education of the Institute of General Secondary Education of the Russian Academy of Education (scientific supervisor L.N. Bogolyubov)

L.N. Bogolyubov, Dr. Ped. Sciences, prof., corresponding member. RAO;

N.Yu. Basik, teacher at gymnasium No. 1503;

M.N. Grigorieva, Ph.D. psychol. sciences;

E.I. Zhiltsova, Ph.D. ped. sciences;

L.F. Ivanova, Ph.D. ped. sciences;

A.T. Kinkulkin, corresponding member. RAO;

A.Yu. Lazebnikova, Ph.D. ped. sciences;

A.I. Matveev, Ph.D. ped. Sci.

Methodology teaching social studies at school: Proc. for M54 stud. ped. higher textbook institutions / Ed. L.N. Bogolyubova. – M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2002. – 304 p.

ISBN 5-691-00486-7.

Today, the effectiveness of social and humanities education depends decisively on the teacher’s understanding of the place of the taught course in the system of academic disciplines, modern goals and new content of school social studies, on updating the forms and methods of teaching, on such organization educational process, which, ensuring high activity of students, would correspond to the goals and content of social science education. This textbook is intended to help the future teacher with this.

The textbook is necessary for teachers and students of historical and sociological faculties of pedagogical universities when studying methods of teaching social studies. It will be useful to teachers and students of teacher training institutes. Every teacher who wants to teach at a modern level can turn to him.

BBK 74.266.0ya73

© “Humanitarian Publishing Center VLADOS”, 2002

©Serial cover design.

"Humanitarian Publishing Center VLADOS", 2002

ISBN 5-691-00486-7

Introduction

On the threshold of the 21st century. The importance of social science education in modern conditions in Russia is being renewed along with the transformation of society, with profound shifts in the development of social sciences. Russia is experiencing one of the most profound changes in its history. The crisis state of society, the contradictions of the transition period, social and political polarization, the instability of the situation in the country they generate - all this complicates the socialization of the younger generation, which is under pressure from unresolved problems and numerous negative influences. For many Russians, the radical breakdown of the usual way of life, social and moral values ​​meant the loss of life guidelines.

The significance of modern social science knowledge especially increases due to the influence of changes occurring in the country and the world, which often have a negative impact on the self-perception of a growing person. Modern children, on the one hand, are more informed in matters of practical economics, are often active in business, can have their own income, but at the same time, their status is formally largely undefined. Sociologists and social psychologists have noted an increase in anxiety, uncertainty about the future, and fear with a low level of sense of responsibility among modern adolescents. Unfavorable phenomena that are becoming more and more pronounced include the unmotivated cruelty that exists in their environment, social infantilism, and the predominance of consumer sentiment. The commercialization of the sphere of culture and leisure, the decline in the real standard of living of many families have a negative impact on their moral and psychological state. The school has largely lost its educational leverage over its pupils, and a situation of pluralism of values, moral guidelines and cultural norms has developed. All this raises with particular urgency the question of the importance of full-fledged scientific knowledge about society and about oneself as a whole.

For an individual in adolescence, it is especially important to create favorable educational conditions to mitigate the severity of the crises he experiences associated with changes in social status, the formation of self-esteem, the development of a value system and the development of norms of relations and behavior in society. Natural interest in one’s own inner world, the desire to find a psychologically comfortable place among other people, together with the formation of the ability for a rather complex analytical and synthetic perception of reality, create favorable opportunities for assimilating current social information and mastering a variety of intellectual activities.

Social science education is a necessary condition for the optimal socialization of an individual, facilitating entry into the world of human culture and social values ​​and at the same time the discovery and affirmation of a unique and unrepeatable “I”.

In the context of renewed debate about the direction in which Russia is moving, not everyone recognizes the common trend for the whole world and for Russia: the transition from an industrial to a post-industrial information society. Researchers of this global process, among its other characteristics, highlight the following:

The transition to an information society must be accompanied by the creation of a broad and deeply “echeloned” system of education and development of creative abilities, development of an individual’s high intellectual potential and self-sufficiency potential;

In these conditions, humanitarian education acquires exceptional importance, which makes it possible to educate not a narrow specialist-technocrat, but a thinking person, concerned with spiritual and moral quests, with a broad social outlook;

A gradual transformation of the “economic man” begins into a new version of the personality, which has assimilated not only the achievements of science and absorbed the fruits of material progress, but also, importantly, absorbed the cultural, ethical and moral achievements of mankind;

The humanization of all areas of human activity, the humanization of all sciences is becoming an urgent need. The science of man, or human studies, should spiritualize, fill with meaning and humanitarian goals not only scientific research, but also all types of practical activity; it is necessary to humanize education, overcome technocratic and doctrinaire bias, expand the subjects of the humanitarian cycle at any level of education;

The post-industrial society of the third millennium should be a society that creates optimal conditions for self-determination, self-actualization and self-development of the individual;

IN vocational education at all levels, there is an increasing need to expand the profile, overcome excessively narrow specialization, which makes it difficult to adapt when changing generations of equipment, type and place of work; combination of general scientific and special disciplines with ideological, general cultural, ethical and physical education so that a skilled worker or specialist is a well-rounded personality that meets the requirements of the post-industrial era.

Analysis of the transition period in Russia with its contradictions, on the one hand, and the trend towards a post-industrial society, on the other, allows us to conclude about the growing importance of social and humanitarian knowledge in modern conditions.

Modern Russian society today has a more complex structure than ten to fifteen years ago. This is due to the emergence of a multi-structured market economy, changes in the social structure of society, the establishment of political and ideological diversity, a multi-party system, and freedom of the media. Development is accelerating, people are transforming society faster than themselves. All this exacerbates the need to create an orienting framework that allows partial, fragmentary impressions to be organized and comprehended from the standpoint of scientific knowledge. Sociology – it is the only science (except history, which examines society in the past) that studies society as a whole. This is a logically harmonious system of reliable knowledge that allows one to deduce patterns and trends in the course of social processes and predict future events. Sociological knowledge is intended to contribute to the formation of a comprehensive view of social processes, representing the framework of social thinking as a systemic understanding of the objective and subjective elements of social trends. Holistic systemic sociological thinking will help young people take an active social position in society. Understanding the essence of social processes also gives social philosophy.

The basis of the sociological vision of the world, as systemic thinking, should be knowledge about man. They represent the unifying principle of the socio-humanitarian sciences. In general, the subject social anthropology is a Creative Man, bearing personal responsibility for the results of creative activity. Various rights and freedoms proclaimed in modern stage development of society, imply at the same time an increase in the individual’s responsibility for his behavior. Free choice also means responsibility not only to society and other people, but also to oneself, one’s conscience, and moral convictions. This connection between internal and external, subjective and objective is revealed by social anthropology, which formulates the basic conceptual apparatus: freedom, choice, creativity, responsibility, conscience, the meaning of life.

The phenomenon of man is also aimed at understanding philosophical anthropology. She comprehends the problem of human nature and human existence. Its starting point today is a person in a specific situation. It is intended to prove the significance of the human in the modern world, in which there is a lot of inhumanity. In this regard, the importance of the moral and ethical component of modern education is increasing.

Plays a significant role in the study of man psychology, the weight of which increases due to the complication of interpersonal relationships in our time, the importance of organizing the interaction of people in large and small groups.

In a modern social science course, knowledge about man should be presented to students not one-sidedly, not from the standpoint of only one of the fields of science, but comprehensively. The need to synthesize knowledge about man has long been recognized, because man lives and acts as a whole. Modern philosophy of education affirms the idea that moral issues, spirituality, humanistic values, and the “human dimension” of progress become priorities in the scientific and educational process. The intrinsic value of human life and personal development in harmony with nature, society and one’s own inner world is considered as the highest meaning and “super task” of the new system of knowledge and education. You can repeat as much as you like, like an incantation, the thesis that the student should be not only an object, but also a subject of learning and upbringing, but he can fully become the subject of the educational process, as well as, more broadly, the social development of self-knowledge . In this regard, the importance of human science knowledge increases.

Russia's movement towards a market economy leads to an increase in the importance of economic knowledge. The results of labor and management, to a much greater extent than 10-15 years ago, depend on the personal choice, private initiative, and economic preparation of everyone. Any person is included in diverse economic relations, and his own well-being and the well-being of the entire society largely depends on his economic literacy. Economic knowledge about the mechanisms and laws of the economic world today is necessary for everyone entering an independent life.

No less significant at the present stage is knowledge about the sphere of politics. Unlike the conditions that existed one and a half to two decades ago, any citizen is faced with a new phenomenon - political pluralism, a plurality of parties and party ideologies. Increasing value political science – the science of politics, the structure, distribution and exercise of power - is determined by the fact that the fate of Russia, and, consequently, its own fate, depends on the sum of individual political positions, on the conscious political choice of citizens. Strengthening democracy in Russia is impossible without establishing in the minds of the majority of the population democratic values, revealed by political science.

With the development of the country’s legal system, the enshrinement in the Constitution of the Russian Federation of a full-scale set of human rights and freedoms, on the one hand, and the importance of maintaining law and order in conditions of social instability, on the other, the role of legal knowledge, familiarizing every young person with the values ​​of law and the experience of positive, socially useful behavior in the legal field.

Today, hardly anyone doubts the growing importance of the environmental component of education. The aggravation of environmental problems requires, among other measures, environmentally conscious behavior of everyone to resolve them. Hence the need to green educational subjects. Social science education cannot but include knowledge from social ecology, allowing for a deeper understanding of the interactions between society and nature.

In an environment where the idea of ​​a culturally appropriate school as a 21st century school is becoming increasingly recognized, the importance of cultural scientists. Taking into account the fact that all general education in school is aimed at transmitting cultural values ​​to students, cultural knowledge makes it possible to ensure a complete understanding of culture, which makes it possible to better understand one’s culture and penetrate into the life world of other cultures. The study of cultural knowledge creates a holistic understanding of the entire set of cultural phenomena studied at school; gives humanitarian education a relatively complete character.

The study of each of the named social and human sciences is a task high school, whose graduates will become intelligent people only with humanitarian development. As for the secondary general education school, its curriculum, neither in the present nor in the foreseeable future, can, in its basic part, accommodate academic disciplines corresponding to all of the named areas of scientific knowledge. Meanwhile, this knowledge is necessary for every person entering life. Optimal solution is to present to the student not independent sciences, as in a university, but pedagogically selected knowledge, integrated into a single social studies course. This decision corresponds to modern conclusions about the integration of humanitarian knowledge. Recently, on the pages of scientific publications, a purely disciplinary approach, the disjointed development of all branches of humanities, leading to the one-sidedness of knowledge, has been criticized. In contrast to this, the idea of ​​synthesis is put forward, of finding a principle that unites the social sciences and humanities, which makes it possible to present certain social objects holistically, comprehensively.

Social studies education occupies a special place in the system general education, performing with their own means those tasks that no one else is able to perform academic subject.

Among the general requirements for the content of education put forward by the Law “On Education” is a focus on ensuring the self-determination of the individual and creating conditions for his self-realization. Unlike the technology course, which creates conditions for professional self-determination, social studies forms the prerequisites for self-determination in the entire system of social relations: economic, social, national, political, cultural and ideological. Such prerequisites include fairly complete knowledge about all spheres of society. Self-realization is impossible without an idea of ​​the possibilities that exist in various fields and types of human activity, as well as without self-knowledge, without assessing one’s own qualities. Social science education provides the knowledge necessary for this. The orientation of the content of education towards the development and improvement of the rule of law presupposes the assimilation of the knowledge contained in the social studies course about the mechanisms and tasks of social development, the system of law and legal behavior.

The requirement contained in the Law to promote the realization of students’ right to free choice of opinions and beliefs encourages the creation of social science important conditions such freedom: ideas about the multiplicity of approaches and the complexity of solving social problems, as well as critical thinking, formulated when considering different points of view on the social problems studied in the course.

The task put forward in the Law is to develop a student’s knowledge that is adequate to the modern level of knowledge. pictures of the world cannot be solved without a complex of knowledge about society and man, the integrity of which is ensured by the integration in the social science course of information from the sciences that study various aspects of the development of society.

Global Adequacy Act Requirement general culture is implemented, of course, by the entire education system, but social science is called upon to make its specific contribution through the cultural component of its content, as well as through the formation of essential elements of ideological, environmental, economic, political, legal, moral culture (scientific ideas, methods of activity, value orientations).

Finally, without social science education it is impossible to fully fulfill the requirement of the Law on the formation of a citizen integrated into modern society. Solving this problem requires students to master civic culture, which includes political, legal, economic, and moral and patriotic components. It covers not only the relationship between the citizen and the state, but also various aspects of relations in civil society. All of them are presented in the content of social science education. The interpretation of civic education only as legal education and upbringing contradicts modern scientific ideas about the culture of citizenship.

The presentation above shows the increased importance of social science education, compared to previous decades, and the need to develop appropriate educational content. The creation of a modern social studies course required studying the experience of social science education in domestic and foreign schools.

Chapter 1

SOCIAL STUDIES AT SCHOOL: PAST, PRESENT, NEAR FUTURE

Social science is a term that unites all sciences about society. Among them are sociology - the science of society as an integral system, sciences about various spheres of social life - economics, political science, cultural studies, etc., as well as a science that studies society in the past - history.

In the education system, social studies (social studies) is called an academic discipline representing a variety of knowledge about society, except historical ones, which are presented in another academic subject - history.

Social studies is studied based on historical knowledge. History is studied using concepts developed in social studies courses. Both subjects are interrelated, but do not replace each other. In a history course, the past is studied in its concrete, unique form; In the social studies course, knowledge about society is presented in a generalized form and is most focused on modernity. Both academic subjects have independent value.

School social studies – generic concept uniting private social science courses (“Fundamentals of State and Law”, “Fundamentals of Economics”, “Introduction to Political Science”, etc.), and also denoting integral social science courses (“Introduction to Social Science”, “Man and Society”, “Civics” " and so on.). However, this understanding of school social studies education did not develop immediately. At different stages of school development, the academic subject “social studies” is filled with different content.

Today, social science teachers, even with extensive experience in teaching this subject, barely know with all the details and twists and turns the history of the appearance of social studies in the Russian school. This story is quite instructive. It revealed not only the contradictions of the era, but also the methodological searches of teachers, without knowledge of which it is hardly possible to understand the processes of renewal of social and humanitarian disciplines taking place in modern schools.

§ 1. Post-October search for new content in social disciplines

Of particular importance for the modern understanding of the place of social studies in school are the first years of Soviet power, when the formation of this subject took place: from 1917 to the mid-20s.

The social studies course appeared at a turning point in the development of the school. Its formation is determined by the needs of the time, the development trends of the Russian school of the previous period.

Already by the beginning of the 20th century. advanced domestic pedagogy had a comprehensive program for transforming the system of education and upbringing, which incorporated the experience of the public’s struggle for school renewal. Numerous pedagogical forums widely discussed issues of school improvement (by this time there were more than 200 pedagogical journals). The main ideas and demands of this program were the following: a change in the social system, its democratization as the first and most indispensable prerequisite for educational reform, democratization of education; denationalization of education, its demonopolization and depoliticization, wide involvement of the public in the management of education and school activities, active participation of parents in these activities; granting local government extensive powers in school affairs, and autonomy in the school itself; full encouragement of private initiative in education; creation of a single school, a single educational system, with continuity at all its levels; promoting the development of national schools with the right to teach in the native language of students; separation of schools from churches, guarantees of equal rights of citizens to education, accessibility and free schools, abolition of all class, national, confessional and other restrictions; ensuring universal and compulsory primary education, education for children with developmental disabilities and homeless children; introduction of co-education; freedom of teaching and abolition of censorship of school textbooks, radical renewal of the content of education. It seems that this program was proposed quite recently; many of the ideas for this reform seem so relevant.

Even before the revolution, actual pedagogical practice urgently required changes. If we look at the curricula of pre-revolutionary educational institutions, it is easy to notice that the proportion of social and humanitarian subjects in them is small. Thus, in gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums, the law of God and history occupied no more than 13% of the teaching time. Even less time (11.5%) was allocated to them in the plans of real and commercial schools. Noteworthy is the fact that these curricula practically do not include subjects that in one way or another address modernity.

The first decrees of the Soviet government on school at the end of 1917-1918 seemed to open a new, long-awaited era in the life of Russian education. They absorbed much of what was accumulated by the advanced pedagogical theory and practice of pre-revolutionary Russia, and was reflected in the reform program of the early 20th century. They relied on the humanistic and rationalistic ideas that Marxism contained.

However, already in the first decisions new government about the school, political intolerance, strict partisanship in education, a class approach, an attitude towards replacing the family with the school, etc. were noticeable. Education, according to the conviction of the new government, was the sphere in which and with the help of which communist ideology could be introduced into the mass consciousness and promoted almost immediately.

At the beginning of the search for ways to develop the Soviet school, the question of the relationship between history and modernity was controversial. This question was directly related to determining the nature of the school. We can turn to the assessment of the situation by its witnesses and direct guides to life. Even the title of one of the works on this problem, “The Struggle for Social Science and School Practice for 2 Years,” published in 1925, is characteristic. The famous methodologist B.N. Zhavoronkov, in his article in this book, writes that in the struggle for school renewal after October, adherents of the school of action or the so-called free school initially won. This was explained by a natural reaction to the rejection of the ways of the old school.

In the new conditions, the search for updated content of education took place by teachers and social scientists in different regions of Russia, was decentralized in nature and reflected different approaches to updating the content of education.

On May 12, 1918, the main staff of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) and the Council of People's Commissars moved to Moscow. In Petrograd, from the remaining employees of the Council of People's Commissars, the Council of Commissioners of the Union of Communes of the Northern Region was created (including Petrograd, Novgorod, Cherepovets, Olonets, Vologda and Arkhangelsk provinces). After some time, the Commission from the People's Commissariat for Education took shape as the People's Commissariat of Education of the Union of Communes of the Northern Region, headed by A.V. Lunacharsky, who simultaneously remained at the post of People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR in Moscow.

The search for something new was difficult. By the beginning of the 1918-19 academic year, the Petrograd Commission of Experts and the school reform department of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR, headed at that time by P.N. On the eve of the new school year, Lepeshinsky formulated his position: “... in the interests of the Unified School, continuity in the curriculum is required. Instead of dividing into classes, grouping is carried out according to the level of consciousness.

Certain fixed programs are unnecessary; they should be exemplary, not absolute. Teachers are grouped not by subjects, but by departments. 3-4 teachers are enough for the entire school. Instead of textbooks, there should be reference books for teachers and students and lively conversations. All these abstract principles must be accompanied by concrete work to develop curricula and plans and a lively exchange of views with the peripheries working in this direction.”

Another point of view was closer to the traditional organization of the educational process.

The active work of the People's Commissariat for Education contributed to the awakening of mass pedagogical enthusiasm.

The teaching staff split into supporters and opponents of the new government. Already in June 1918, a meeting of a large group of scientists and history teachers took place in Petrograd. The question was discussed: “What duty does the current moment impose on a Russian teacher, especially on a history teacher.” The meeting addressed the teachers of Russia with the words that the entire Russian historical process had led to a gaping void, state unity was destroyed and the people were left with only “vague ethnographic kinship and religious community.” The authors of the appeal argued that only the intelligentsia could save Russia, since all classes renounced her. At the same time, the “Association of Scientific and Pedagogical Organizations”, numbering over 1,200 members, and the “Scientific and Pedagogical Society of History Teachers” arose. The direction of activity of these organizations can be judged from the document, which stated that “... after the terrible blows of the world war, after the great February days and... October sins against the people, the intelligentsia is embarking on the feat of resurrecting the homeland.”

In the difficult historical situation of 1918, during an intense struggle of opinions, there was a search for the foundations of the content of historical and political education and methods for its disclosure. Thus, in Petrograd, with the participation of the humanitarian commission and the Council of Experts of the People's Commissariat of the Union of Communes of the Northern Region, a curriculum and sample programs in history, sociology and labor history (political economy) were drawn up. These programs were not consistently Marxist in content, but they were fundamentally different not only from the programs operating in the pre-revolutionary school, but also from the exemplary programs developed in 1915 by the commission of the Minister of Public Education P.N. Ignatieva.

By the time of the development of exemplary programs in socio-historical disciplines (autumn 1918), the humanitarian commission of the People's Commissariat for Education and the Council of Experts had at their disposal several documents not only of a general nature, but also specifically addressed to the development of historical and political education for students of the Soviet school.

On the eve of the school year, the First All-Russian Congress on Education was held (August 26 - September 4, 1918), at which V.I. Lenin spoke with the following words: “We say: our cause in the school field is the same struggle for the overthrow of the bourgeoisie; we openly declare that school is outside of life, outside of politics - this is a lie and hypocrisy.” This statement later began to be used in the fight against ideological opponents, and the connection with politics and life began to be understood as introducing school youth to the study of Marxism in its only version – Lenin’s.

Many historians and teachers did not share this position in the first post-October years. A prominent teacher, Professor P.F. actively opposed the politicization of school affairs. Kapterev. He wrote: “Among the ongoing political storm between political parties fighting for dominance, where should a teacher direct his school-pedagogical boat?... The first thing that a teacher can imagine in such a situation is to declare the school a non-political institution, and therefore demand that political parties they didn’t encroach on her, they left her alone.”

The idea that the school was apolitical found widespread acceptance among the intelligentsia. From the pages of pedagogical publications there were calls to “save children from social poisoning, from the poisonous breath of modernity.” They were echoed by voices that “a history teacher is not a party secretary. He should not take the side of one party or another... His task is to study the emergence of various parties together with his students.”

Meanwhile, the position of the Bolshevik Party gradually became dominant, and then the only acceptable one. But still in 1917 - 23. It was still possible to express other positions without fear of losing not only one’s position, but also one’s life.

The appeal to the teachers of the Education Commissariat of the Union of Communes of the Northern Region dated July 18, 1918 stated that politics in the sense of politicking and agitation should not take place within the walls of the school. “But to pass by in silence and hide from children and young people the grandiose events of our Great Revolution unfolding before them would be absurd and unpedagogical. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to acquaint students with the basics of the social worldview and the new socialist system proclaimed by the revolution.” Let us note the reserved nature of this recommendation.

The “Basic Labor Principles of a Unified Labor School,” adopted by the People’s Commissariat for Education on October 16, 1918, proclaimed that the new school reform “has... the character of an act of struggle of the masses for knowledge, for education,” that “we are talking about a radical restructuring of the school in the spirit of a truly popular school " The unity of the school presupposed the continuity of its levels, equality of educational start, but by no means unification or uniformity of the school. The difference in understanding the unity of the new school persisted in the future. It could not but affect the search for the content and form of education for schoolchildren.

"Regulations on a single labor school", approved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on September 30, 1918, provided for: broad participation of local governments in school affairs; development of private initiative in education: the creation of school self-government and the organization of school councils, which included all school employees, representatives of students and the “working population”; abolition of all punishments, grades, exams, mandatory homework; introducing exemplary curricula and flexible curricula to suit local conditions; encouraging diversity in textbooks, teaching aids, etc. All this opened up a wide field for pedagogical creativity and experimentation in education.

Along with the search for new content in history and social disciplines, new educational courses appeared at the school. Thus, after the adoption of the first Soviet Constitution by the Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets, “... in all schools and educational institutions of the Russian Republic without exception, the study of the basic provisions of this Constitution” was introduced.

In September 1918, at a course for teachers in Petrograd, People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky specifically dedicated his lecture to teaching history. In this lecture, he paid special attention to the role of history and sociology in instilling a sense of historicity and responsibility of everyone for a common cause, the continuity and progressiveness of which only history proves to everyone.

In 1918, Model History Programs were prepared and published in Petrograd. The explanatory note stated that teaching history in a unified labor school aims to give students in the most visual and accessible form an idea of ​​the essence of the historical process, to instill in them the skills and abilities to independently understand the phenomena of the past and prepare them for the correct understanding of the phenomena and facts of modern life. 3 hours per week were allocated to study history during each of the 4 years of study. It was supposed to study events from primitive times to the Russian revolution.

History programs were not uniform. Before 1919, each school had the right to create its own programs, but many of them contained little novelty. The majority of teachers of the old school preferred to work according to old programs that did not at all take into account the needs and interests of children.

Since 1919 major cities history programs began to be created. In contrast to the old approach to history, they predominantly included material on the history of culture. Along with cultural history, programs were created in a number of social disciplines (political economy, history of socialism, etc.). However, most programs chronologically covered the period up to the end of the 18th century, and students leaving school did not receive knowledge of modern times. And courses in social disciplines did not have holistic programs, were structured as fragmentary and were often quite random in the selection of content.

Simultaneously with the model programs for history, experimental model programs for social studies were developed and published at the beginning of 1919. These were the first programs in the history of the Soviet school on a theoretical subject of a sociological nature for the last two grades of the second-level school (8 and 9). The subject consisted of a course in labor history (political economy) and sociology. A total of 144 hours were allocated for the subject. In the 8th grade it was supposed to study the history of labor from “primitive communism to imperialism.” In the first half of the 9th grade, it was proposed to study issues of political economy of the era of imperialism. 1

The sample program put forward the following as the main objectives of the labor history course: to give students a general world diagram of the stages of development of the modern economic system, i.e. forms of development of industrial relations; find out the laws of development of the modern economic system, which should replace the old one. In the same explanatory note, teachers were guided that “teaching labor history should be conducted in such a way that students, whenever possible, take direct part in the analysis of empirical material, in the formation of concepts and the construction of laws. This can be achieved, on the one hand, by conducting a lesson in the form of an interview and, on the other hand, with the help of essays developed at home and criticized by students in class.” Criticism here meant discussion.

The program contained lists of required and recommended literature. The mandatory list included both teaching and reforming aids. 24 major works and studies are included in the mandatory list, including “Antiduring” by F. Engels, “On the Critique of Political Economy” by K. Marx, “Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism” and “State and Revolution” by V.I. Lenin. In addition, this list included the works of K. Kautsky, the course of political economy by A.A. Bogdanov and I.I. Skvortsova-Stepanova and others.

That part of the course, which was called sociology, was designed for 57 teaching hours in the final 9th ​​grade, was supposed to synthesize the natural, historical and political-economic knowledge of students and rely on the social thinking skills acquired by the beginning of the second half of the 9th grade. The course, which consisted of 7 topics, was preceded by an extensive explanatory note with a detailed analysis of the ideological content of the course and methodological instructions, as well as a list of references for both the entire course and individual topics. The program noted that studying the course should “complete the development of students’ ability to navigate the various phenomena of life around them and contribute to the development of a scientific understanding of the world.” Methods of teaching a school sociology course should, as closely as possible, correspond exactly to the methods of sociological research, so that students are not forced to take anything on faith, but together with the teacher would participate in the process of forming sociological conclusions based on specific material.

For this purpose, of course, a priori judgments, even if supported by examples, should be avoided; a hypothesis should be considered possible only if its auxiliary nature is indicated; it is necessary mainly to adhere to the inductive study of raw material.” Extensive use of abstracting and interviewing was also suggested.

It is safe to say that the sample programs for social science courses did not take into account the real capabilities of students and did not in any way correlate with the school’s ability to provide students with texts of monographs and the preparedness of teachers and students to study a new subject. Nevertheless, the first attempt to introduce a theoretical socio-political course at school indicates a recognition of the need to provide schoolchildren with sociological and political knowledge. The authors’ idea that the methods of science, in their logic, should also become methods of teaching them at school deserves high praise. The student's conviction had to be the result of the work of his own thought. Focus on independent work with the book, identifying a personal attitude to the issues being studied by discussing student essays relied on instilling the ability to defend and defend one’s point of view. In our opinion, this approach of the program to the development of independence and activity of schoolchildren can be assessed positively, although in the future, in the conditions of one-sided presentation of the material, the dominance of a single point of view in the content, discussion methods were often only declared.

Describing the searches of this period several years later, N.K. Krupskaya, in her report at the First All-Russian Conference of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature, noted: “After October, the Soviet school faced new tasks. The goals of education, the goals of education were set completely differently. The entire school was supposed to serve the task of educating a new person and equipping him with knowledge. To achieve these goals, a revision of the content of all teaching subjects was required. And, of course, the content of teaching and social studies required revision. Everyone understood that teaching social studies in the old way was unthinkable, that new content needed to be introduced. At first, all attention was focused on how to construct these social studies programs, how to introduce into them sufficient coverage of all events from a Marxist point of view, how to connect history with modernity, how to recognize that history serves for a clearer and more distinct understanding of modernity. The task was to indicate how the economy should be linked with the political system, to give a picture of the revolutionary struggle, to give a picture of the development of mankind. And since in the old social science all these questions - questions of economic development, questions of political development - were either not covered at all, or were covered at random, then the main attention was paid to them, and literary issues receded somewhat into the background.”