Portuguese geographical discoveries. History of Portugal (briefly)

With a population of just over 10 million people, Portugal occupies a small piece of land with an area of ​​92 thousand square kilometers. Nevertheless, it is one of the most ancient European states and has existed for more than eight centuries. A brief history of Portugal includes the period of formation of the nation, the era of great geographical discoveries, many wars and a rich cultural heritage.

The history of the development of this small southern European state demonstrates to the world the proud and unbridled character of its people, who managed to go beyond what was permitted by religious leaders, step into the unknown, accumulate considerable wealth, stand guard over scientific research and visit the center of the political life of the Middle Ages. The Portuguese built and created a great nation, consistently and continuously passing on experience to the next and subsequent generations.

Early settlements and the Roman Empire

The history of ancient Portugal begins in the Paleolithic era, when settlements of the first people appeared on the territory of the modern state. From the second half of the 2nd century BC. e. until the first half of the 5th century AD. e. lands were part of the Roman Empire. In these areas lived about 30 Lusitanian tribes - the indigenous inhabitants of the country, fearlessly defending their possessions, native language and traditions. Modern Portuguese believe that the Lusitanians are their first ancestors.

Over time, the power of the Roman Empire weakened. From 5th to 7th centuries. AD the country was conquered by hordes of Visigoths and Suevi, but quickly lost the conquered territories. In the 7th-11th centuries, the Arabs reigned here, actively moving westward and introducing their culture. Muslim influence is strong to this day.

The Portuguese successfully adopted the Roman method of conquest without fighting. Like the representatives of the Empire, they assimilated their language through trade, the development of education in neighboring and overseas lands, and book publishing. This method was used in the process of colonization of Brazil, Angola, Morocco, Siam, and India. This approach allowed Portugal to significantly strengthen its position and dominate unhindered, trading diamonds, spices, silk and cotton, accumulating wealth.

The emergence of the state of Portugal

The history of Portugal is associated with military actions. The appearance of the Arabs in the Mediterranean upset the existing balance, so that the rulers of the independent principalities were forced to unite and together resist the spread of Arab culture. During this period, the influence of the Christian church increased. After the conclusion of an alliance between the Roman Emperor Charles V and the Pope at the beginning of the 11th century, a war of liberation began, the Arabs and Moors were driven out of Europe.

During the war, the state of Portugal was formed, which in 1143 declared its independence and Afonso Henriques named himself king. Almost four decades later, Pope Alexander III officially recognized the claims of the self-proclaimed ruler. On May 23, 1179, Portugal was officially declared a separate country.

Fight for the crown

In the 14th century, the state found itself engulfed in a battle for power. King Fernando I died without leaving an heir. The country remained to be ruled by Queen Regent Leonor Teles along with her lover Duke Andeiro. Both the aristocracy and the common people were unhappy with this state of affairs. The King of Castile, Juan I, married to the daughter of the deceased overlord, declared his rights to the Portuguese throne. However, parliament rejected these claims and declared Ferdnando's illegitimate brother, João, king, and Andeiro was executed. Juan I twice tried to take over Portugal by force, but both attempts were unsuccessful.

Stifled the young state. The development of technology, science and culture has almost completely stopped, the history of the development of Portugal has slowed down. To finance the army, the government was forced to raise taxes. Although the country had rich deposits of uranium, tungsten, and iron, the budget was still based on primitive cattle breeding and fishing.

Against the backdrop of internecine war and ongoing confrontation with the Arabs, the power of the Catholic Church is strengthening. The violence spread to anyone disliked by the Catholic clergy. Waves of plague swept across Europe one after another. In such difficult times, the formation of Portugal took place.

Henry the Navigator

The further history and culture of Portugal was determined by the flourishing of navigation. At the beginning of the 15th century, wars stopped and calm was restored in the country. Stability allowed the Portuguese to maintain the majestic title of a world power. The son of Juan I, known as the beginning of a new round of development. He organized many sea expeditions south along the coast of Africa and played a key role in the history of the country of Portugal. He opened an observatory and a navigation school, where the best mathematicians and cartographers taught future explorers of the seas.

Ship pines grew abundantly on the ocean coast. The Portuguese built a fleet and began maritime expansion. The ships set sail for unknown lands, carrying brave explorers and convicted criminals. Merchants generously financed dangerous ventures in the hope of discovering new lands and developing trade with India.

Discovery of new lands

The interests of Henry the Navigator were diverse: land colonization, geographical exploration, and the spread of the Christian religion. However, his main goal was to find a sea route to India. By order of the prince, the ships sailed to various parts of the world. It is these expeditions that have the honor of discovering Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic.

Development of navigation

At that period in Portuguese history, sailors still believed that the Earth was flat, that Africa was a continuous barren desert and stretched all the way to the South Pole, so that the Atlantic Ocean could not be connected with the Indian Ocean. From generation to generation, myths have been passed down that deadly monsters lurk in the ocean waters, the southern sun is so hot that it burns ships to the ground, and the water beyond the equator is not at all suitable for swimming. However, this did not stop Henry the Navigator. By his decree, expeditions were equipped one after another, setting off towards Africa. Each time moving further and further, the sailors brought home black slaves, as well as Guinean gold, enriching the state treasury.

Sea Route to India

This path was important for further development. Briefly summarizing the history of the country of Portugal, it should be clarified that its territory was located at a considerable distance from the main trade routes and the state could not lay claim to the role of a leader in world trade. The volume of exports was small, and the Portuguese were forced to purchase the most valuable imported goods, such as spices, at incredibly high prices.

Exhausted by the war, impoverished Portugal could not pay such a high price, so exploration ships were sent to sea one after another. The journey of the unsurpassed Vasca da Gama was also financed from the treasury of the Portuguese prince. The crew of the caravel, risking their lives, managed to overcome the stormy waves at the junction of the Indian and Atlantic oceans, sail along the coast of Africa and finally reach India.

Development of science and culture

Maritime trade and navigation played a key role in the development of science. In a brief history of Portugal, it is worth mentioning that the development of cartography and shipbuilding were closely influenced during this period. Masters of many specialties from various countries were invited to the country and generously paid for their work. During this period, new types of ships were invented that were capable of sailing against the wind, accelerating to record speeds and transporting unprecedented volumes of valuable goods. New technologies were gradually introduced into other areas of the economy.

The explorers used subtle diplomacy regarding the lands they discovered. Unlike Spain, Portugal's history is not rich in wars. The Portuguese proclaimed that they were “bringing civilization” and were not conquerors. On each ship there were priests who instilled the Christian faith in the natives, taught them their language and other sciences. This policy of assimilation, adopted from the ancient Romans, made it possible to do almost without violence.

Development of culture, architecture, art

A brief history of Portugal includes the development of culture. Medieval art combined the influence of Eastern and Western traditions, especially French. The role of Arab and Moorish invaders is also felt, but is less pronounced than in neighboring Spain. The most famous architectural structure is the cathedral in Évora, built in 1185-1204 from gray granite. At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, when the state reached a high level, art continued to actively develop.

Conquest of Portugal by Spain

In the brief history of Portugal and its relations with neighboring Spain, there is another chapter related to military actions. In 1578, Sebastian I died tragically while traveling. The king, who was a distant relative of the deceased ruler, referred to blood ties, sent generous gifts to representatives of the Portuguese aristocracy and laid claim to the throne. A small group of Portuguese tried to put up a weak resistance, but their attempt was a failure, Spanish troops quickly occupied Portugal and Philip II was proclaimed king. The state remained under Spanish rule until 1640.

A series of new wars and revolutions

At the beginning of the 18th century, Portuguese troops entered the War of the Spanish Succession, but failed. As a result, an enslaving peace treaty was signed with Great Britain and Portugal came under the influence of a new ally. Britain literally strangled the Portuguese economy, preventing it from developing. In 1807, the Napoleonic army invaded the territory of the state, but was soon expelled by the British and Portuguese patriots.

In the 19th century, two revolutions swept across the country, the Portuguese in 1820 and the September Revolution in 1836, the monarchy fell, and the royal family was expelled. Civil wars followed one after another. In the second half of the century, the state was declared a republic, and the socialist movement intensified. Throughout almost the entire 20th century, the country was ruled by the dictatorship of Salazar, overthrown in 1974 as a result of a bloodless revolution. Since then, there has been stability in the history of Portugal, the country has adopted a democratic vector of development.

Currently, the state ranks 5th in the ranking of the safest countries in the world. The brief history of Portugal ends here. Convenient geographical location, excellent climate, highly developed economy make it a comfortable place to live.

In the Neolithic, dolmens were widespread in Portugal (similar dolmens existed in Atlantic Europe - Spain, France and Britain).

In the Bronze Age, crafts flourished in Portugal. In 1 thousand BC. e. in the south of Portugal and Spain there was the Tartessian civilization, which traded with Carthage; the depletion of the mines led to the economic crisis of Tartessos and its subsequent conquest.

In the second half of 1 thousand BC. e. the north of Portugal is inhabited by the Celts, the south by the Lusitanians; there may also be remnants of the Tartessian population (Konii). All these peoples were conquered and assimilated by the Romans during the era of the first emperors.

Carthage

The Phoenicians were the first documented colonists on the Iberian Peninsula. From 237 BC. e. Carthage extended its power to Iberia, from where Hasdrubal the Handsome began to threaten the Roman Republic, and then signed a border treaty, according to which Spain went to Carthage.

As part of the Roman Empire

Lusitania Map

In Roman times, the history of modern Portugal is difficult to separate from the history of Spain.

County of Portugal as part of León

Portuguese counts took an active part in the Reconquista and in revolts against royal power. The county reached its highest influence under Menendo II Gonzalez, who became regent under King Alfonso V; later the county fell into decline and was transferred to Galicia.

The county was restored in 1093 by Alfonso VI of Castile as a fief for his son-in-law Henry of Burgundy, this territory included the County of Coimbra, part of the territory of the province of Traz-os-Montes and Alto Douro and southern Galicia.

The rise and strengthening of Portugal

Culture developed in the country. Lisbon has become one of the main scientific and cultural capitals of Europe. The University of Coimbra was established.

The situation in the country worsened during the reign of Dinis's son, Afonso IV - a civil war broke out in the country, there was a terrible earthquake, then the plague claimed the lives of a third of the population, and then the king's war against the rebellious son Pedro I, who, however, after the death of Afonso was able to take the throne.

Pedro I ruled for 10 years and died early, leaving the country in a flourishing state. Fernando I became king, who got involved in several conflicts. He declared his claims to the throne of Castile, entered into an alliance with Aragon and Muslim Granada, but suffered several defeats. In and he again entered into unsuccessful wars with Castile, also concluding an alliance with England, which was then at war with France. Portugal was devastated and ruined.

In 1383, Fernando made peace with John I of Castile at Salvaterra, abandoning his English allies, who responded by devastating part of his territory. According to the agreement, Salvaterra Beatriz married John I of Castile.

Great geographical discoveries

Existing as a state since the city, and remaining almost always within the same borders since the 13th century, Portugal has always been facing the sea. Since ancient times, the most important industries were fishing and merchant shipping. However, the country, located away from the main trade routes of the time, could not participate in world trade with great benefit. Exports were small, and the Portuguese had to buy valuable goods from the East, such as spices, at very high prices, while the country, after the Reconquista and the wars with Castile, was poor and did not have the financial capacity for this.

Portuguese colonial empire (-).
Red: colonial territories.
Pink color: territorial claims.
Yellow: sphere of influence.
Blue color: critical sea routes and penetration areas.
Brown: coasts explored but not colonized by the Portuguese

In continental Asia, the first trading posts were established by Cabral at Cochin and Calcutta (); more important, however, were Albuquerque's conquest of Goa (1510) and Malacca (1511) and the capture of Diu (1535) by Martin Afonso de Souza. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent Duarte Fernandes as a diplomatic representative to Thailand (1511), and sent two expeditions to the Moluccas (1512, 1514).

Fernão Pires de Andrade visited Canton in the city and opened trade relations with China, where the Portuguese were allowed to occupy Macau. Japan, discovered by chance by three Portuguese merchants, soon attracted a large number of merchants and missionaries. In the city, one of the ships of Fernando Magellan, a Portuguese who was in the service of Spain, made the first trip around the world.

Settlement of Brazil

Following its greatest flowering as a world power in the 16th centuries. Portugal loses much of its wealth and power with the destruction of Lisbon in a giant earthquake in 1755.

Reforms of Pombal

The Prime Minister of Portugal, Marquis de Pombal, ruled the country for a long time. He led the reconstruction of Portugal after the earthquake. The Marquis de Pombal carried out a series of thoughtful reforms that led to the restoration and strengthening of Portugal. Pombal forced non-Christians (Muslims, Hindus, Jews) to convert to Christianity, while he established equal civil rights for all residents of Portugal and the colonies.

Napoleonic invasions

Serious opposition to Salazar first emerged in the 1958 presidential election, when Admiral América Tomas, supported by Salazar, won, but General Humbert Delgado, who led the opposition, managed to get a quarter of all the votes. As a result, in 1959, direct presidential elections were abolished, and the right to choose the president was transferred to the electoral college.

In 1961, the Portuguese territories of Goa, Daman and Diu in India were occupied by Indian troops and annexed to India. In the 1960s, anti-colonial uprisings began in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea, which belonged to Portugal. As a result, Portugal sent a significant part of the army to these colonies and spent large amounts of money fighting the rebels. One of the consequences of the colonial wars was the emigration of 1.6 million Portuguese who did not want to serve in the army and went to different countries in search of work.

In September 1968, Salazar retired from political activity as a result of illness. The new head of government was Marcelo Caetano, who made a slight softening of the political course.

Red Carnation Revolution

On April 25, 1974, officers belonging to the Armed Forces Movement (AFM) carried out a military coup and overthrew the Caetano regime. The junta, led by General António de Spinola, restored democratic freedoms and called for an end to hostilities in the African colonies. On May 15, a provisional government was formed headed by Spinola, the cabinet included representatives of the Socialist Party and the Portuguese Communist Party. However, Spinola himself opposed the DVS plans to grant independence to the colonies and implement radical reforms, and was replaced by General Francisco da Costa Gomes in September.

In March 1975, following an attempt by a group of right-wing officers to stage a coup d'état, the new body of the DVS, the Portuguese Revolutionary Council, led by prime minister Vasco Gonçalves, which was dominated by the far left, nationalized many of the industries and most of the country's banks.

In April 1975, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held. The Socialists received 38% of the vote, the People's Democratic Union - 26%, and the Communists - 12%. In July 1975, the Socialists left the Gonçalves government after he authorized the transfer of their newspaper La Repubblica to the left. In August 1975, following a wave of anti-communist demonstrations in the north of the country, Gonçalves was removed from his post and a new cabinet was formed, dominated by socialists and their allies. After this, Western countries provided Portugal with loans that were denied during the rule of the pro-communist DVS. In November 1975, leftist military officers carried out an unsuccessful coup attempt. By the end of 1975, all of Portugal's colonies gained independence.

In April 1976, the country's new constitution came into force. It declared the nationalization of enterprises and expropriation of land carried out in 1974–1975 irreversible. In the elections to the Assembly of the Republic, the Socialists won a majority of seats. In June 1976, General António Ramalho Eanês was elected president, and Socialist leader Mário Soares became prime minister, leading a coalition government.

In the elections of December 1979 and October 1980, the alliance of the moderate Social Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Center received a slight majority of votes.

Transition to civilian rule

In 1982, the Revolutionary Council of Officers, which since 1976 had been an advisory body to the president of the country, was dissolved and replaced by a civilian council.

Against the backdrop of the economic crisis, parliamentary elections were held in April 1983, which were won by the Socialists, who formed a coalition government with the Social Democrats, while Mario Soares retained the post of Prime Minister.

In 1985, the Social Democrats refused to support the Soares government and received a majority of votes in the elections. Anibal Cavacu Silva became prime minister of a coalition government with the participation of the Christian Democrats. The presidential election in 1986 was won by Mário Soares, who became Portugal's first civilian president in 60 years.

Within the European Union

In 1987, the Social Democrats received an overwhelming majority of votes in the parliamentary elections. With the support of the socialists, they amended the country's constitution in 1989, changing the Marxist phraseology of 1976. State ownership was limited, and government regulation of investment activities was abolished. In 1991, Soares was re-elected as president.

The country's accession to the EU and the policies of the Social Democratic government led to an increase in foreign investment. During the period 1986–1991, production growth annually ranged from 3 to 5%, and the unemployment rate fell from 8% to 4%. But in the first half of the 1990s, the unemployment rate increased. In 1993, another economic crisis occurred. The government's moves to cut social spending sparked protests.

In the general elections on October 1, 1995, the Social Democratic Party suffered a heavy defeat, and the Socialists won. The new government, consisting of socialists and non-party members, was headed by the leader of the socialists

The great history of Portugal was created by great navigators. Over the three centuries, since the emergence of an independent state in 1095, the country has managed to defend its sovereignty and raise a special breed of people ready to sail into unknown spaces for the sake of new lands and fabulous riches. Portugal's maritime expansion is largely explained by the fact that it had no other ways to expand its territories - Portugal's only neighbor was huge Spain.
The inspirer of this expansion is considered to be the Portuguese infante Henry, nicknamed the Navigator (1394-1460). It was Henry who organized many sea expeditions and founded an observatory and a navigation school, where the best mathematicians and cartographers of that time trained future world conquerors. The expeditions of Henry the Navigator discovered a number of islands off the western coast of Africa (Madeira Island), the Azores, the Cape Verde Islands, rounded Cape Bojador, Cape Cabo Blanco, and explored the mouths of the Senegal and Gambia rivers. The maps compiled by Portuguese navigators were subject to special storage and were considered a state secret.
But the era of great geographical discoveries itself began under Manuel I the Happy (1469-1521). This period proved to be the most successful for Portugal's colonial ambitions. Vasco da Gama not only opened the route to India around the coast of Africa (1498), but also annexed the Moluccas to Portugal and created the opportunity for the emergence of many Portuguese trading posts.
Many states on the East African coast became subjects or allies of Portugal. Brazil, Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, Macau, Japan - many lands previously inaccessible to Europeans became sources of wealth for Portugal. The slave trade, trade in spices, gold, precious stones, valuable wood, ivory, etc. brought huge profits to Portugal, which compensated for any losses in the dangerous business of developing distant territories.
But in 1578, the young Portuguese king Sebastian died in North Africa during an unsuccessful military expedition, and in 1580, the Spanish king Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to Portugal to seize the Portuguese throne. Although Philip was eventually elected King of Portugal on the condition that the Kingdom of Portugal and its overseas territories would not become Spanish territories, and ruled Portugal under the name Philip I, Portuguese independence came to an end. When Portugal regained sovereignty in 1640, many pieces of the colonial pie were lost forever.

The Portuguese Republic is a country of seafarers

The proximity of the Atlantic Ocean and the long coastline create ideal conditions for the development of navigation. At first, the ships did not go far from the shores. Later, during the times of great geographical discoveries, navigators began to undertake long-distance expeditions, which allowed Portugal to become one of the first colonial powers.
Portugal occupies the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, and the length of its coastline is 832 km.
The small country of Portugal amazes with an abundance of both natural and historical attractions. The period, called by historians “the dictatorship of Salazar-Caetano” (1926-1974), seemed to permanently remove Portugal from the life of the rest of Europe and close its enormous cultural heritage to the world. But the country has successfully re-entered the community of European states, and today the beauty of Portugal delights millions of tourists.
Portugal has managed to preserve its natural landscapes and clean air. The sandy beaches in the southern part of the country are in no way inferior to the beaches of Italy or Spain, and the cliffs of the north of the country blown by the cold Atlantic winds attract romantic travelers.
In the northernmost part of Portugal is the Peneda-Gerês National Park. The attractions of these places are burials III-I! centuries BC BC, stone Roman road signs, ruins of Romanesque churches.
In the center of the northern part of the country, where the highest mountain range in Portugal, the Serra da Estrela, is located, there is a ski resort. To the west of the Serra da Estrela grows the “magical forest” “Bukaçu” with many rare species of animals and plants. This forest park has been protected by monks for centuries. And in the protected area near the border with Spain, where the San Mamede ridge is located, wild bears are still found.
In every region of Portugal there are ancient castles, beautiful palaces, monasteries, churches, cathedrals, museums. And of course, the palm belongs to the two largest cities in Portugal - Lisbon and Porto. There is a Portuguese proverb: “Braga offers prayers to the Lord, Coimbra sings, has fun, and works hard.”
This is explained simply - in Braga there are many cathedrals and churches, in Coimbra there is an ancient university, where there are many students who really love fado, the Portuguese urban romance. As for Lisbon, the nearby resorts of Estoril and Cascais are where the fun really reigns.
The city, which is already 20 centuries old (it was founded by the Phoenicians), can probably afford a cheerful disposition. Although heavily damaged after the famous earthquake, Lisbon still retained many monuments, such as the Castle of St. George, the Jeronimos Monastery, the Cathedral, the Belem Tower (a striking example of the Manueline architectural style (1515-1520)), which in the Middle Ages served as a harbor for Portuguese sailors. A huge statue of Jesus Christ (200 m), created in 1959 on the model of the monument in Rio de Janeiro, looks at the city from the high bank of the Tagus River. There are many museums here, including the Museum of Henry the Navigator.
Porto, a “working city,” gave its name not only to the famous wine, but to the entire country. By the way, it is in Porto that the port wine storage is located. And a bridge built according to the design of Gustav Eiffel leads to it.

general information

Official name: Portuguese Republic.
Territorial and administrative division: The territory of mainland Portugal is divided into 18 districts ("distritu"), which are divided into 308 municipal districts ("conseilho"), consisting of parishes ("fregesia"). Island territories (and) have the status of autonomous regions.
State structure: parliamentary republic.
Capital: Lisbon, 509,751 people. (2006).
Language: Portuguese.
Currency: euro.
Religion: About 94% of the population is Catholic.
Autonomous regions: Madeira Island, Azores.
Largest rivers: Guadiana.
The most important ports: Lisbon, Porto, Setubal, Faro.
Airports: Portela Airport (Lisbon); Pedras Rubras Airport (Porto); airport in Faro; Funchal, or Santa Catarina, is the airport of Madeira island; international airports of the Azores - on the islands of Santa Maria, Sao Miguel, Terceira.

Numbers

Area: 92,391 km2.
Population: 10,707,924 people (2009).
Population density: 115.8 people/km 2 .
Population growth: 0.305% per annum.
Largest cities: Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra, Faro, Setubal.
Highest points: Estrela (1993 m), volcanic island of Pico (Azores) - (2351 m).
Border length: 1215 km (with Spain).
Coast: 832 km.

Climate and weather

Humid subtropical in the north and Mediterranean in the south.
Winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean significantly influence the climate of Portugal (most of all in the west and north).
Average annual temperature: +9°С, +20°С in Porto, +11°С...+22°С in Lisbon, + 12°С...+24°С in Faro.

Economy

Portugal's GDP in 2008 was US$245 billion.
At purchasing power parity, GDP per capita (according to IMF estimates) in 2008 was $22,264.
Three quarters of Portugal's total production capacity is concentrated in the Lisbon-Setúbal and Porto Braga-Aveiro regions. These are oil refining, chemical, steel, automotive, electronics, pulp and paper and food industries, production of building materials and electronic equipment. As well as the production of textiles, footwear, clothing, furniture, wine, pulp and paper products and a variety of consumer goods.
Portugal has large mines and produces tungsten, tin, chromium, and uranium. Tungsten is exported in significant volumes.
43% of the country's territory is used for agricultural needs. They cultivate grapes, figs, peaches, almonds, wheat, corn, potatoes, legumes, oats, rye, barley and rice, and also keep cattle. Portugal is one of the leading Western European wine exporting countries. Particularly in demand are Portuguese dessert wines, port and muscat, as well as rose table wines. Fishery is developed.
Successful forestry - a third of the country's territory is covered with forests. Portugal ranks first in the world in the production of cork oak, providing half of the world's demand for it.
Tourism is developed. At the end of 2008, tourism generated a profit of 7 billion 520 million euros.
In 2009, an increase of 20% (according to preliminary results).

Attractions

■ Lisbon(Jerónimos Monastery and Belem Tower, Baroque churches, Royal Palace of Ajuda and Alfama and Bayro Alto quarters);
■ Palacio da Pena in Sintra;
■ Monasteries in Alcobaza, Batalha, Tomar;
■ Obidos(city fortress);
■ Coimbra(Church of Santa Cruz, Cathedral of Se Vella. ancient university);
■ Conimbriga(remains of an ancient Roman city);
■ Shrine of Our Lady of Fatima in Fatima.

Curious facts

■ In 1493, the papacy mediated the division of the future colonial world between Spain and Portugal. And with a special bull he gave everything to the west of the Cape Verde Islands to Spain, and everything to the east to Portugal.
■ The very life of Luis Camões (1524-1580), the author of the world-famous poem “The Lusiads,” which tells about the historical events and achievements of Portugal and the discovery of India by the navigator Vasco da Gama, is a vivid testimony to the history of the country. A poet, warrior, sailor, duelist, Camões lost one eye when he fought in Morocco, participated in a naval expedition to India, became rich in trade and lost his entire fortune during a shipwreck. The poet received a tiny pension from King Sebastian, to whom he dedicated his poem, and died in poverty.


■ The town of Fatima, where in 1917 there was a miraculous apparition of the Mother of God, who was seen by three small children, is famous as a center of worship of the Virgin Mary. Thousands of pilgrims come here every year. The Lusiads,” telling about the historical events and achievements of Portugal and the discovery of India by the navigator Vasco da Gama, are a vivid testimony to the history of the country. A poet, warrior, sailor, duelist, Camões lost one eye when he fought in Morocco, participated in a naval expedition to India, became rich in trade and lost his entire fortune during a shipwreck. The poet received a tiny pension from King Sebastian, to whom he dedicated his poem, and died in poverty.
■ The Lisbon earthquake of November 1, 1755 was one of the most tragic events of the 18th century. The city was almost immediately wiped off the face of the earth; thousands of people who were in the temples at that moment were buried under their ruins. The disaster was completed by a tsunami and fires. The most valuable historical documents disappeared in the fire - a manuscript written by King Charles V and dedicated to the history of Portugal, numerous medieval maps of the world, handwritten books of the Enlightenment and the first Portuguese printed books,
■ Fado - an urban romance performed to the accompaniment of a twelve-string guitar - is a truly Portuguese genre. Usually this is a song about tragic love, drawn-out and expressive. Professional Fado performers - Fadisto - are now popular all over the world.
■ The town of Fatima, where in 1917 there was a miraculous apparition of the Mother of God, who was seen by three small children, is famous as a center of worship of the Virgin Mary. Thousands of pilgrims come here every year.

In 1297, after the completion of the Reconquista in Portugal, King Dinis I turned his attention to foreign trade and in 1317 entered into an agreement with the Genoese merchant Manuel Pessagno, appointing him first admiral of the Portuguese fleet, the purpose of which was to protect the country from raids Muslim pirates. The outbreak of the bubonic plague epidemic led to a decrease in the country's population in the second half of the 14th century, which contributed to the increased importance of the sea coast, where most of the population was engaged in fishing and trade. In 1325-1357, Afonso IV of Portugal patronized maritime trade and sent the first expeditions to the Atlantic Ocean. The Canary Islands, already known to the Genoese, were declared officially discovered by a Portuguese expedition in 1336, but in 1344 the Castilians challenged Portugal's rights to them, increasing their influence on the sea.

In 1415, Ceuta was captured by Portugal, which sought to gain control of navigation off the African coast. Infante Enrique (Henry), later nicknamed the Navigator because he devoted his life to organizing exploratory sea expeditions (although he himself did not participate in these expeditions), was well aware of the profitability and prospects of the Trans-Saharan trade. For centuries, the trade routes that transported slaves and gold and connected West Africa to the Mediterranean through the Western Sahara were controlled by the Muslim states of North Africa hostile to Portugal.

Enrique wanted to know how far the Muslim possessions extended into southern Africa, hoping to go around it and establish maritime trade with West Africa, finding allies in the legendary Christian states to the south, in particular the lost Christian kingdom of Prester John, and also wanted to find out if it was possible to get into distant India, a source of precious spices, by sea. He financed maritime expeditions south of Mauritania, attracting merchants, shipowners and other people interested in opening new trade routes. Soon Madeira (1419) and the Azores (1427) were discovered in the Atlantic Ocean.

At that time, the Europeans did not know what was beyond Cape Noun on the coast of modern Morocco, and turned their ships around as soon as they reached it. Ancient sea myths called this cape the limit for navigation, warned about ocean monsters, an unseaworthy sea and a scorching sun that would destroy any ship that dared to sail beyond this cape, but the sailors of Prince Enrique neglected them: starting in 1421, they regularly sailed beyond him, and in 1434 one of Enrique’s captains, Gil Eanesh, rounded Cape Bojador.

A big technological leap was the appearance in the mid-15th century of the caravel, a small ship capable of sailing further than other European ships of the time. A development of Portuguese fishing vessels, she became the first ship that was able to go beyond the boundaries of the usual coastal voyages and safely sail into the open ocean. The Portuguese used ephemeris for navigation; this method underwent significant development in the 15th century. These tables revolutionized navigation by allowing latitude to be calculated. However, accurate calculation of longitude was not available to sailors for several centuries. Regular voyages on caravels became increasingly farther, on average, sailors moved south by one degree per year. The coast of Senegal and Cape Verde were reached in 1445 by Dinis Dias, and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandes reached almost the shores of modern Sierra Leone.

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the city's coming under the control of the Ottoman Empire was a severe blow to the Christian world, and trade routes to the East were closed for Europe. In 1455, Pope Nicholas V issued a bull Romanus Pontifex, which supported the previous bull Dum Diversas (English)Russian(1452), and transferred all the lands and seas discovered beyond Cape Bojador to the possession of the Portuguese king Afonso V and his heirs, as well as trade and conquests from Muslims and pagans, which became the beginning of the policy mare clause in the Atlantic. The king, who learned from the Genoese about the sea route to India, ordered a map of the world from Fra Mauro, which arrived in Lisbon in 1459.

In 1456, Diogo Gomes reached the shores of the Cape Verde archipelago. In the following decade, several captains in the service of Prince Enrique, including the Genoese Antonio da Noli and the Venetian Aloysius Cada Mosto, discovered the remaining islands, which had been developed in the 15th century. In the 1460s, the Portuguese discovered the Gulf of Guinea coast, rich in gold and ivory.

In 1461-1462, Pedro de Sintra reached the shores of Sierra Leone and gave names to many geographical features. Prince Henrique died in November 1460, after which funding for expeditions ceased until, in 1469, the Lisbon merchant Fernão Gomes received a monopoly on trade with the Gulf of Guinea in exchange for a commitment to explore 100 miles south each year for five years. With his funding, the navigators Joao de Santarem, Peru Eshcobar, Lupo Gonzalves, Fernand de Pau and Pedro de Sintra did even more than he promised. They reached the southern hemisphere and the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including Sao Tome and Principe in 1471. In the southern hemisphere, they used the Southern Cross constellation for navigation.

In this area, trade in alluvial gold began with Arab and Berber merchants, and in 1481, Juan II, who ascended the throne, decided to build the trading post of São Jorge da Mina on the Gold Coast. In 1482, Diogo Can discovered the mouth of the Congo River, and in 1486 he reached Cape Cross (modern Namibia).

In 1488, the expedition of Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southernmost cape of Africa, which he called the “Cape of Storms” (Cabo das Tormentas), and anchored in Mossel Bay. and then headed east to the mouth of the Great Fish, entering the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic. At the same time, Peru da Covilha, secretly sent by the king overland in search of Prester John and the “spice lands,” reached India and Ethiopia, where he collected important information about the Red Sea and the coast of Kenya and found out that a sea route to the East Indies was possible. Soon, the Cape of Storms was renamed by John II as the "Cape of Good Hope" (Cabo da Boa Esperança), since the possibility of a sea route to India opened up optimistic prospects for trade, and also refuted the idea that had existed since the time of Ptolemy that the Indian Ocean was surrounded by land.

Discovery of America

Portugal's neighbor on the Iberian Peninsula, Castile, laid claim to the Canary Islands off the west coast of Africa in 1402, but then became bogged down in internal Iberian politics and repelling Muslim invasions that continued throughout the 15th century. Only at the end of the century, after the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon and the completion reconquista, the time has come to search for new sea trade routes. The Kingdom of Aragon was the most important Mediterranean maritime power, under its control were the territories of eastern Spain, southwestern France, large islands such as Sicily, Malta and Sardinia, as well as the Kingdom of Naples, whose mainland possessions extended to Greece. In 1492, the Catholic kings seized the Emirate of Granada, which supplied Castile with African goods through the payment of tribute, and decided to finance the expedition of Christopher Columbus in the hope of breaking the Portuguese monopoly on the West African trade routes in the "Indies" (east and south Asia) by sailing west. Before this, twice, in 1485 and 1488, Columbus unsuccessfully proposed the implementation of this project to the Portuguese King João II.

On the evening of August 3, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships; one big karakka, Santa Maria, which was called La Gallega(Galician), and two smaller caravels, Pinte And Santa Clara, which went down in history as Niña. Columbus first sailed to the Canary Islands, where he resupplied for a five-week voyage across the ocean, and then crossed the Atlantic to what is known today as the Sargasso Sea.

On October 12, 1492, land was discovered and Columbus named the discovered island (in the Bahamas archipelago) San Salvador he believed he had reached the "West Indies". Columbus also discovered the northeastern coast of Cuba (where he landed on October 28) and the northern coast of Hispaniola (December 5). He met with the local cacique Gakanagari (Spanish) Russian, who allowed him to leave several people on the island.
Columbus left 39 people and founded a settlement La Navidad on the territory of the modern Republic of Haiti. Before returning to Spain, he took with him from ten to twenty-five natives. Only seven or eight Indians sailed to Spain alive, but they also made a great impression in Seville.

On the way back, a storm forced the ships to dock in Lisbon on March 4, 1493. After spending a week in Portugal, the expedition returned to Spain, entering Palos harbor on March 15, 1493. The news of the discovery of new lands soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus and other Spanish explorers were initially disappointed by their discoveries: unlike Africa and Asia, the inhabitants of the Caribbean islands conducted very sluggish trade with Spanish ships. Therefore, the need arose to colonize the islands. The Spaniards were able to find the riches they were counting on only after exploring the continent.

The pioneers of the Great Geographical Discoveries were Spain and Portugal, which arose during the Reconquista in the territories of the Iberian Peninsula conquered from the Moors. Since the Reconquista was coming to an end (the Moors held out only in the south - in Granada), the energy of the poor warlike nobility (Spanish hidalgos and Portuguese fidalgus) required a new application. In Portugal, the idea of ​​the conquest was born - the conquest of Africa, the purpose of which was the search for gold. However, starting in 1415, the land conquest fizzled out as the knightly cavalry found itself helpless in the African sands. The Portuguese prince Enrique, nicknamed the Navigator (1394-1460), decided to try a sea route along the coast of Africa. For many years, he collected a secret archive in which Italian and Arab maps and directions were accumulated, hoping to circumnavigate Africa, enter the Indian Ocean basin and reach India. Expeditions equipped by Enrique explored the western coast of Africa - the Cape Verde Islands, modern Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ghana, discovering here not only gold, but also an abundance of ivory, as well as African slaves. The Portuguese became the first suppliers of live goods in the 16th century. In 1586, Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa, calling it the Cape of Good Hope, since a passage from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean was found. The Portuguese began to prepare for an expedition to India.

Simultaneously with Portugal, the search for this route began in Spain, whose kings - Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon - the Genoese Christopher Columbus proposed an original plan: to reach India, moving not to the east, but to the west. Columbus relied on a world map compiled by the famous physicist P. Toscanelli. The Spanish rulers were attracted by the Genoese's promise to open sources of gold for them in India and China; they signed an agreement with Columbus, according to which he was appointed viceroy of all discovered lands that came under the rule of the Spanish crown. On August 3, 1492, on the ships Santa Maria, Pinta and Niña, he set off on his first voyage in the open ocean, which lasted more than two months.

On October 12, the sailors saw land and landed on the island, calling it San Salvador (Guanahani Island), and then discovered and explored the larger Cuba and Haiti (the latter island was named Hispaniola - Little Spain). Columbus was confident that he had found his way to Southeast Asia. A certain amount of gold discovered among local residents convinced him that India was close and he needed to look for the mainland not far from the islands.

This was the goal of Columbus's second expedition in 1493. Columbus explored Cuba, Haiti and discovered Jamaica. In the III expedition, he came closest to the mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco River, but interrupted the journey due to lack of water and food. Since he never found the promised gold, he was arrested based on libel and taken to Spain in chains. The discontent of the “Catholic kings” was also fueled by the fact that in 1498 the Portuguese Vasco da Gama reached India, circumnavigating Africa. Columbus nevertheless received the right to organize the IV voyage, but was never able to discover the treasures of “India”. In 1506 he died in poverty, until his last days being confident that he had opened the way to India.

After Columbus's discoveries, many Spanish and Portuguese expeditions rushed to the West Indies; A participant in one of them, the Italian Amerigo Vespucci, was the first to express the idea that the continent discovered south of the Caribbean Sea was not India, but a certain New World, later named America in his honor.

Meanwhile, the Portuguese began to actively consolidate their successes in the Indian Ocean. Once in India, they set themselves the task of finding a way to the “Spice Islands” and establishing their control over this profitable trade. As a result, the path was found, the Portuguese arrived at the main port of the Moluccas - Malacca (1511). From that time on, they became the main suppliers of spices to Europe, receiving up to 800% of profits. The Portuguese crown maintained a monopoly on the import of spices, preventing them from lowering prices. Moving further east, the Portuguese reached India and China.

The rivalry between Spain and Portugal on the sea routes led to the first division of the world in history. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, a treaty was concluded in Tordesillas, according to which a conventional meridian (“papal meridian”) was drawn along the Atlantic Ocean west of the Azores along the 30th meridian: all the newly discovered lands and seas that lay to the west of it , were declared dominions of Spain, to the east - of Portugal. This distinction was made only along the Atlantic Ocean. On the other side of the globe, such a division was not made, so as the Pacific Ocean was being explored, a clash occurred here when the Portuguese, moving from the west, and the Spaniards from the east, met on the Moluccas.

The realization that Columbus's West Indies was a new continent did not dampen the navigators' desire to find a western route to India by circumnavigating America. After Vasco Nunez Balboa's detachment crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, it became known that beyond it stretches the Pacific Ocean, which he called the South Sea. The idea of ​​finding a passage to the South Sea was hatched by the experienced Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan, who entered the service of the Spanish king. In 1519, his squadron set off on the longest and most tragic voyage in history: they crossed the Atlantic and began to descend south along the coast of America in search of a passage to the Pacific Ocean, but were forced to stop for the winter in Antarctic latitudes, not ready for the cold and meeting with icebergs. Continuing their journey, they discovered an extremely complex system of straits between the American continent and Tierra del Fuego, in which they searched for three weeks for a passage named after Magellan. In November 1520, the ships entered the Pacific Ocean, the size of which no one could imagine; while sailing across it, most of the crew died from hunger and thirst. The rest reached the Philippine Islands, where they received everything they needed. In gratitude for the reception, Magellan supported the local rajah in his feuds with the inhabitants of the island of Matan, but died in a skirmish from a spear. His team managed to reach the Moluccas and take on board a cargo of spices.

Magellan's circumnavigation of the world was of great scientific importance, proving that the Earth is a ball. In addition, the ship's log showed that by constantly sailing west, in 3 years the sailors “saved” 1 day, and this proved that the Earth rotates around its axis. The political consequence of the first circumnavigation was the Treaty of Saragossa in 1529, which delimited the zones of influence of Spain and Portugal in the Pacific Ocean.

The development of Central and South America by the Spaniards and Portuguese, who received Brazil under the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, took the form of a conquest - conquest. The few detachments of conquistador nobles had an advantage over the Indians thanks to firearms and horses, which they saw for the first time. The conquistadors' goal was to search for gold-rich areas.

On the Yucatan Peninsula, the conquistadors E. de Cordoba and J. Guijalva encountered the highly developed culture of the Mayan people, who managed to conquer thanks to internal strife of the local city-states. Further stretched the lands of the Aztecs, conquered by the detachment of E. Cortez. The conquest of Mexico lasted for several years; the last stronghold of resistance fell only at the end of the 17th century.

In search of gold and the mythical country of the Golden Man - Eldorado, the conquistadors rushed south from the Isthmus of Panama. In the 30s. XV century F. Pizarro's detachment invaded Peru and defeated the Great Inca, the leader of the powerful Inca state. At the same time, D. Almagro’s detachment conquered the territory of modern Chile and Paraguay. In Peru, Bolivia and Chile, the conquistadors found rich deposits of gold and silver; in the middle of the 16th century. these mines already provided 1/2 of the world's production of precious metals.

Simultaneously with the conquest, the resettlement of Spanish and Portuguese colonists to the New World began, to whom their sovereigns, considered the supreme owners of the captured lands, transferred the right to exploit Indian communities, collect taxes, and organize forced labor.

In addition to the mines, the Spaniards and Portuguese established vast plantations in the New World, where slaves cultivated sugar cane, maize, tobacco and cotton. Coffee was brought here from Africa and soon began to be produced in large quantities and exported to Europe.

The kings of Spain and Portugal jealously guarded their new possessions. Colonists were prohibited from trading with foreign merchants. All goods from the New World arrived in Seville and Lisbon, and only there other Europeans could purchase them.

Europeans also tried to find a way to India and China in the northwest direction: in search of it, the British explored the coast of North America and discovered rich fisheries there in the Newfoundland area, the French were the first to discover Canada and, together with the British, explored Florida.

North America became the object of discoveries a little later. And in addition to the Spaniards and Portuguese, the French also took part in this. Already in May 1947. Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) reached an unknown land, probably Fr. Labrador. The French navigators J. Verrazano (1524), J. Cartier (1534-1535) discovered the eastern coast of North America and the St. Lawrence River in Canada, and the Spanish travelers E. Soto and F. Coronado discovered the Southern Appalachians and the Young Rocky Mountains, the basins of the lower flows of the Colorado and Mississippi rivers. The nature of the development of North America by the colonists differed from the Spanish and Portuguese conquest. Settlers from England and France were engaged in agriculture, hunting, and fishing here. Their relations with the Indians were more peaceful than those of the Spaniards; North America did not experience mass bloody massacres in the 16th century. The displacement of Indians from their lands into specially designated “reservations” began later as the number of colonists increased.

For the next hundred years, the Spaniards and Portuguese were busy developing the occupied territories and lost the palm in discoveries to the Dutch and British. Dutch navigator Barents in 1594 walked around the western coast of Novaya Zemlya and in 1596. - Spitsbergen. The English in 1576-1631 walked around the western coast of Greenland, discovered Baffin Island and, rounding the Labrador Peninsula, the shores of Hudson Bay (M. Frobisher, J. Davis, G. Hudson, W. Baffin, etc.). Spaniard L. Torres in 1606 circumnavigated the southern coast of New Guinea (Torres Strait), and the Dutch Janszoon, Tasman and others in 1606-1644. discovered the northern, western and southern coasts of Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.

The discovery of the New World caused an unprecedented rise in piracy in the Atlantic Ocean. Not wanting to put up with the Spanish monopoly in the New World, English, Dutch and French merchants went there with their goods at their own peril and risk. The Spaniards arrested merchant ships and confiscated cargo; the indignant victims turned to their sovereigns and received letters from them, allowing them to seize Spanish cargo in return to compensate for the losses. Officially sanctioned piracy was called privateering.