Natural zones of low latitudes of Eurasia. Geography: thorough preparation for heat and health conditions

Oymyakon is best known as one of the “Poles of Cold” on the planet; according to a number of parameters, the Oymyakon Valley is the most severe place on Earth where a permanent population lives. Oymyakon is located in the east of Yakutia, the population of the village is 472 people (2010). Oymyakon is located in high latitudes (but south of the Arctic Circle), day length varies from 3 hours in December to 21 hours in summer, in summer there are white nights and light all day long. The village is located at an altitude of 741 meters above sea level.

Officially, the lowest recorded temperature in Oymyakon is −67.7 °C, recorded in 1933, and in Verkhoyansk −67.8 °C, noted in 1892 (no observations were made in Oymyakon at this time). However, unofficially in 1924, academician Sergei Obruchev recorded a temperature of −71.2 °C in Oymyakon.

Cherrapunji is the wettest place on Earth.

According to the Guinness Book of Records, the record holder for the most annual rainfall is the city of Cherrapunji, located in northeastern India in the state of Meghalaya, bordering Bangladesh. Heavy rains, called monsoons, occur here from June to September. In winter, as a rule, there is no rain in this area, and then the local population suffers due to lack of water. The paradox of the wettest place in the world is explained by the fact that Cherrapunji is located at an altitude of 1313 meters above sea level and the precipitation that fell during the rainy season, do not have time to soak into the soil. The saving moisture flows down into the rivers, which carry their waters to Bangladesh. Cherrapunji has about 180 rainy days a year. The reason for this is high level precipitation is due to the fact that the air from the plains, rising to a high altitude, cools and leads to the formation of dense fog and clouds, contributing to the onset of the rainy season. No wonder the name of the state of Meghalaya is translated as “abode of clouds”.

The most big country world - Russia

Russia is easiest to find on a world map. This is the largest country. In size it is almost 50 times larger than Germany. Its area covers 17,075,400 square kilometers. (Over 17 million square kilometers!) That's twice the size of Canada, the second largest country in the world. The capital of Russia is Moscow, one of the largest cities in the world and the most significant city in Europe. About 12 million people live in Moscow

Asian elephant.

The Asian elephant is the second largest land animal after the savannah elephant. Indian elephants are smaller in size than African savannah elephants, but their size is also impressive - old individuals (males) reach a mass of 5.4 tons with a height of 2.5-3.5 meters. Females are smaller than males, weighing on average 2.7 tons.

Karl-Marx-Hough, Vienna, Austria - longest residential building on Earth (1 km, 1382 apartments)

Seoul (Korea) is the most populous city on Earth (20.7 million people)

Crow Cave (Georgia) - the deepest cave in the world (2140 meters deep)

Mera Peak (Nepal) the highest cliff in the world (6604 meters)

Vasyuganskoe - the largest swamp in the world (Russia) In the very center of the Siberian Federal District lies the Great Vasyugan Swamp. This name is not accidental: it is the most big swamp on the globe. Its area is 53 thousand km², which is 21% larger than the area of ​​Switzerland (41 thousand km²), and its length from west to east is 573 kilometers, from north to south - 320 kilometers. The Vasyugan swamp is located on the territory of the Tomsk, Omsk and Novosibirsk regions, between the large Siberian rivers Ob and Irtysh.

River Ob.

Ob is a river in Western Siberia. The river is formed in Altai by the confluence of the Biya and Katun rivers - the length of the Ob from their confluence is 3,650 km, and from the source of the Irtysh - 5,410 km. The Ob and Irtysh are the longest river in Russia and the fourth longest in Asia. In the north, the river flows into the Kara Sea, forming a bay (about 800 km long), which is called the Gulf of Ob.

Yenisei River.

One of the largest rivers in the world: the length of the river from the confluence of the Big Yenisei and the Small Yenisei is 3487 km, from the sources of the Small Yenisei - 4287 km, from the sources of the Big Yenisei - 4092 (4123) km. The length of the waterway: Ider - Selenga - Lake Baikal - Angara - Yenisei is 5075 km. In terms of basin area (2,580 thousand km²), the Yenisei ranks 2nd among the rivers of Russia (after the Ob) and 7th among the rivers of the world.

Volga river.

Volga is a river in the European part of Russia. A small part of the Volga delta, outside the main river bed, is located on the territory of Kazakhstan. One of the largest rivers on Earth and the largest in Europe. Length - 3,530 km (before the construction of reservoirs - 3,690 km), its drainage basin area - 1,361,000 km².

Caspian Sea

Caspian Sea (St. Izi, Turkm. Hazar deňzi, Pers. دریای خزر ‎ - Daryâ-ye Xazar, Azerbaijani. Xə zə r də nizi) is the largest closed lake on Earth, located at the junction of Europe and Asia, called a sea due to the fact that its bed is composed of oceanic-type earth crust. The water in the Caspian Sea is salty, from 0.05 ‰ near the mouth of the Volga to 11-13 ‰ in the southeast. The water level is subject to fluctuations, according to 2009 data it was 27.16 m below sea level. The area of ​​the Caspian Sea is currently approximately 371,000 km², the maximum depth is 1025 m.

Eurasia is the largest continent on Earth, consisting of two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. Together with the islands, Eurasia occupies an area of ​​about 53.4 million km2, of which the islands account for about 2.75 million km2. Extreme continental points of Eurasia:

in the north – Cape Chelyuskin (770 43’ N, 104018’ E);

in the south – Cape Piai (1°16’N, 103030’E);

in the west – Cape Roca (38048’ N, 90 31’ W);

in the east - Cape Dezhnev (660 05'N, 169°40" W)

A number of islands in southeastern Eurasia are located in the Southern Hemisphere. Eurasia is washed by oceans: in the west - the Atlantic, in the north - the Arctic, in the south - the Indian, in the east - the Pacific, and their marginal seas. In the southeast, the Australasian seas separate Eurasia from Australia, in the northeast, the Bering Strait from North America, in the southwest, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean and Red Seas from Africa, with which Eurasia is connected by the Suez Canal. Continuity of the land mass, modern tectonic consolidation of the continent, unity of many climatic processes, significant commonality of development organic world and other manifestations of natural historical unity, as well as the need to take into account the importance of territorial integrity for assessing socio-historical phenomena, gave rise to the need for a name that unites the entire continent. The concept of “Eurasia” introduced into geology and geography by E. Suess in 1883 turned out to be most convenient.
Eurasia is the arena of ancient civilizations. Thousands of years of agricultural culture have transformed the natural landscape of the low-lying plains of South and East Asia, the oases of Central, Central and Western Asia, and the southern coasts of Europe. The territory of most of Europe underwent radical transformations, and a significant part of Asia was developed. The modern cultural landscape dominates the territory of most of Europe, the plains of Great China, the Indo-Gangetic plains, the Indochina Peninsula, the islands of Java and the Japanese archipelago.
Eurasia is characterized by significant complexity of geological history and mosaic geological structure. The skeleton of Eurasia is fused from fragments of several ancient continents: in the north-west - Laurentia, the eastern part, which, after the Cenozoic subsidence in the Atlantic Ocean, separated from North America and formed the European ledge of Eurasia; in the northeast - the Angarides, which in the late Paleozoic was articulated with Laurentia by the folded structure of the Urals, resulting in the formation of Laurasia, which existed until the mid-Mesozoic; in the south - Gondwana, after the collapse of which the Arabian and Indian platforms were attached to Eurasia.
The structural plan of the modern relief of Eurasia was laid down in the Mesozoic, but the formation of the main features of the surface is due to the latest tectonic movements that swept Eurasia in the Neogene-Anthropocene, and these movements manifested themselves here more intensely than anywhere else on Earth. These were vertical movements of large scale - arch-block uplifts of mountains and highlands, lowering of depressions with partial restructuring of many structures. The uplifts covered not only the Alpine folded structures, but also rejuvenated and often revived the mountainous relief in older structures that experienced leveling in the Cenozoic. The intensity of recent movements has determined the predominance of mountains in Eurasia (the average height of the continent is 840 m) with the formation of the highest mountain systems (Himalayas, Karakorum, Hindu Kush, Tien Shan) with peaks exceeding 7-8 thousand m. The massive Western Asian highlands were raised to significant heights, Pamir, Tibet. These uplifts are associated with the revival of mountains in the vast belt from Gissar-Alai to Chukotka, the Kunlun, Scandinavian and many others. Rejuvenation during the latest uplifts was experienced by the middle mountains of the Urals, Central Europe, etc. and, to a lesser extent, by extensive plateaus and plateaus (Central Siberian Plateau , Dean, etc.). From the east, the continent is bordered by marginal uplifts (Koryak Highlands, Sikhote-Alin Mountains, etc.) and is accompanied by mountain-island arcs, among which there are East Asian and Malay arcs. Rift structures also play a major role in the relief of Eurasia - the Rhine graben, the Baikal basin, the Dead Sea, etc. Young folded belts and structures of revived mountains are characterized by particularly high seismicity - in intensity and frequency destructive earthquakes Only South America can compare with Eurasia. Volcanism often participated in the creation of the relief of young uplifts (lava sheets and volcanic cones of Iceland and the Armenian Highlands, active volcanoes of Italy, Kamchatka, island arcs in the east and southeast of Asia, extinct volcanoes of the Caucasus, Carpathians, Elbrus, etc.).
Recent subsidence has led to the flooding of many of the outskirts of the continent and the isolation of the archipelagos adjacent to Eurasia (the Far East, the British Isles, the Mediterranean Sea basin, etc.). The seas have repeatedly attacked different parts of Eurasia in the past. Their deposits formed the sea plains, which were subsequently dissected by glacial, river and lake waters. The most extensive plains of Eurasia are the East European (Russian), Central European, West Siberian, Turanian, Indo-Gangetic. In many areas of Eurasia, sloping and basement plains are common. Ancient glaciation had a significant impact on the relief of the northern and mountainous regions of Eurasia. Eurasia contains the world's largest area of ​​Pleistocene glacial and aquiglacial deposits. Modern glaciation is developed in many highlands of Asia (Himalayas, Karakoram, Tibet, Kunlun, Pamir, Tien Shan, etc.), in the Alps and Scandinavia, and is especially powerful on the Arctic islands and Iceland. In Eurasia, underground glaciation - permafrost and ice wedges - is more widespread than anywhere else in the world. In areas where limestone and gypsum occur, karst processes are developed. The arid regions of Asia are characterized by desert forms and types of relief.

1. The concept of natural areas and the reasons for their formation

Physical-geographical zones are natural land zones, large divisions of the geographical (landscape) shell of the Earth, naturally and in a certain order replacing each other depending on climatic factors, mainly on the ratio of heat and moisture. In this regard, a change of zones and belts occurs from the equator to the poles and from the oceans to the interior of the continents. They are usually elongated in the sublatitudinal direction and do not have clearly defined boundaries. Each zone has typical features of its constituent natural components and processes (climatic, hydrological, geochemical, geomorphological, soil nature, vegetation and fauna), its own type of historically established relationships between them and the dominant type of their combinations - zonal natural territorial complexes. Many physical-geographical zones are traditionally named according to the most striking indicator - the type of vegetation that reflects the most important features most natural components and processes (forest zones, steppe zones, savannah zones, etc.). The name of these zones is often assigned to individual components: tundra vegetation, tundra-gley soils, semi-desert and desert vegetation, desert soils, etc. Within the zones, which usually occupy vast strips, narrower divisions are distinguished - physical-geographical subzones. For example, the savannah zone as a whole is characterized by a seasonal rhythm of development of all natural components, determined by the seasonal supply of atmospheric precipitation. Depending on the amount of the latter and the duration of the rainy period, subzones of wet tall grass, typical dry and desert savannas are distinguished within the zone; in the steppe zone - dry and typical steppes; in the temperate forest zone - subzones of taiga (often considered an independent zone), mixed and deciduous forests, etc.

Natural areas, if they are formed in more or less similar geological and geomorphological (azonal) conditions, they are repeated in general outline on different continents with a similar geographical location (latitude, position in relation to the oceans, etc.). Therefore, zone types are distinguished, which are typological units of the territorial classification of the geographical envelope (for example, tropical western oceanic deserts). In the same time local peculiarities of a particular territory (relief, rock composition, paleogeographical development, etc.) give individual features to each zone, and therefore specific natural zones are considered as regional units (for example, the Atacama Desert, the Himalayas, the Namib Desert, the West Siberian Plain .). In the physical-geographical atlas of the world for 1964, the distinction of 13 geographical zones was adopted, based on the climatic classification of B. P. Alisov: an equatorial zone and two (for both hemispheres) subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subpolar and polar (supporters of the thermal factor, as the main one in the formation of zoning, are limited to identifying only five or even three zones). Inside the belts, it is possible to identify sub-belts or stripes.

Each belt and each of its large longitudinal segments - sectors (oceanic, continental and transitional between them) are characterized by their own zonal systems - their own set, a certain sequence and extension of horizontal zones and subzones on the plains, their own set (spectrum) of high-altitude zones in the mountains. Thus, the forest-tundra zone is inherent only in the subpolar (subarctic) zone, the taiga subzone is characteristic of the temperate zone, the “Mediterranean” subzone is characteristic of the western oceanic sector of the subtropical zone, the monsoon mixed forest subzone is of its eastern oceanic sector, and forest-steppe zones exist only in the transition sectors. The forest-tundra spectrum of altitudinal zones is characteristic only of the temperate zone, and the hyleinoparamos spectrum is characteristic only of the equatorial zone. Depending on the position in a particular sector or on a particular morphostructural basis, smaller taxonomic units can be distinguished within zones and subzones - typological: Western-oceanic dark-coniferous taiga, continental light-coniferous taiga, etc., or regional: Western- Siberian taiga, Central Yakut taiga, West Siberian forest-steppe, etc.

Since natural zones are determined mainly by the ratio of heat and moisture, this ratio can be expressed quantitatively (the physical and quantitative basis of zonality was first formulated in 1956 by A. A. Grigoriev and M. I. Budyko). For this purpose, various hydrothermal indicators (most often moisture indicators) are used. The use of these indicators helps, first of all, to develop theoretical issues of zoning, identify general patterns, and objectively clarify the characteristics of zones and their boundaries. For example, with values ​​of the radiation index of Budyko dryness less than 1 (excessive moisture), humid zones of forests, forest-tundra and tundra dominate, with values ​​greater than 1 (insufficient moisture) - dry zones of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, with values ​​close to 1 (optimal moisture) , - zones and subzones of forest-steppes, deciduous and light forests and wet savannas. The definition and further refinement of quantitative indicators are also of great practical importance, for example, for the application of various agricultural activities in various sectors, zones, subzones. At the same time, it is very important to take into account not just the similarity of the final indicators, but also what exact quantities they are made up of under given conditions. Thus, establishing the “periodic law of zonality,” A. A. Grigoriev noted the periodic repetition of identical values ​​of the radiation index of dryness in zones of different zones (for example, in the tundra, subtropical hemihylea and equatorial forest swamps). However, despite the generality of the index, both the annual radiation balance and the annual amount of precipitation in these zones are sharply different, just as all natural processes and complexes as a whole are different.

Along with zonal factors, the formation and structure of zonal systems is greatly influenced by a number of azonal factors (in addition to the primary distribution of land and oceans, which largely determines circulation, currents and moisture transfer). First of all, there is a polar asymmetry of the landscape shell of the Earth, expressed not only in the greater oceanicity of the Southern Hemisphere, but also in the presence, for example, of the subtropical hemihyla subzone peculiar only to it and, on the contrary, in the absence of many zones and subzones of the Northern Hemisphere (tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, deciduous forests, etc.). In addition, the configuration and size of land area in certain latitudes play a significant role (for example, the widespread distribution of tropical deserts in North Africa and Arabia or Australia and their limited territory in the smaller tropical zones of North America or South Africa). The nature of large relief features also greatly influences. The high meridional ridges of the Cordillera and Andes enhance continentality and determine the presence of corresponding semi-desert and desert zones on the internal plateaus of the subtropical and tropical zones. The Himalayas contribute to the immediate proximity of the high-mountain deserts of Tibet and the moist forest zonal spectrum of the southern slopes, and the Patagonian Andes are even the root cause of the presence of semi-desert zones in the temperate zone in the east. But usually the influence of regional factors only strengthens or weakens general zonal patterns.

Of course, zonal systems underwent significant changes in the process of paleogeographical development. Belt and sector differences have already been established for the end of the Paleozoic. Later, changes occurred in the distribution of land and sea, macroforms of relief, and climatic conditions, and therefore, in the emerging zonal systems, some zones disappeared and were replaced by others, and the extent of the zones varied. Modern zones are of different ages; Due to the enormous role that Pleistocene glaciation played in their formation, the youngest zones are the high latitude zones. In addition, the increased temperature contrast between the poles and the equator in the Pleistocene increased the number of physiographic zones and significantly complicated their system. Human influence also had a great influence, in particular on the boundaries of zones.

The map in the appendix clearly shows the distribution of zones by zones and sectors and the differences in the manifestation of zonality in the high and middle latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. In the high latitude belts (polar, subpolar and northern part of the northern temperate zone - the boreal subbelt, absent on land in the Southern Hemisphere) relatively small changes in the ratios of heat and moisture and excess moisture are observed almost everywhere. Natural differentiation is associated mainly with changes in thermal conditions, that is, with an increase in the radiation balance with a decrease in latitude. Consequently, the zones of polar deserts, tundra, forest-tundra and taiga extend sublatitudinally, and sectoral differences are weakly expressed (ice deserts in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic are mainly due to regional characteristics). At the same time, the polar asymmetry of the zonal spectra, caused by contrasts in the distribution of land and oceans in different hemispheres, is most pronounced. In the subboreal subbelts, with an even greater increase in heat supply, the role of moisture also increases. Its increase is determined by the predominance of westerly winds, and in the east by extratropical monsoons. Humidity indices vary significantly both by latitude and longitude, which is associated with the diversity of zones and subzones and differences in their extent. The oceanic sectors are occupied by humid forests, the transitional ones - by forests, forest-steppes and steppes, the continental ones - mainly by semi-deserts and deserts. The most striking manifestation of these zonal features is observed in subtropical zones, within which latitudinal differences in radiation conditions are still large, and moisture comes from both the west (only in winter) and the east (mainly in summer). In low latitude belts (tropical, subequatorial and equatorial), the asymmetry of the hemispheres is smoothed out, the radiation balance reaches its maximum, and its differences by latitude are weakly expressed. The leading role in changes in the ratio of heat and moisture goes to the latter. In tropical (trade wind) zones, moisture enters only from the east. This explains the presence of relatively humid zones (tropical forests, savannas and woodlands) extending submeridionally in the eastern sectors, semi-deserts and deserts filling the continental and western sectors. Subequatorial belts receive moisture mainly from the equatorial monsoons, that is, its amount quickly decreases from the equator to the tropics.

1. Natural areas of the Eurasian continent
1. Location of natural zones on the Eurasian continent and their characteristics

Geographic zoning is a pattern of differentiation of the geographical (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change in geographical zones and zones, caused, first of all, by changes in the amount of radiant energy from the Sun falling on the surface of the Earth, depending on geographic latitude. Such zoning is inherent in most components and processes of natural territorial complexes - climatic, hydrological, geochemical and geomorphological processes, soil and plant cover and fauna, and partly the formation of sedimentary rocks. A decrease in the angle of incidence of solar rays from the equator to the poles causes the formation of latitudinal radiation belts - hot, two moderate and two cold. The formation of similar thermal and, even more so, climatic and geographical zones is already associated with the properties and circulation of the atmosphere, which is greatly influenced by the distribution of land and oceans (the reasons for the latter are azonal). The differentiation of natural zones on land itself depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, which varies not only by latitude, but also from the coasts inland (sector pattern), therefore we can talk about horizontal zoning, a particular manifestation of which is latitudinal zonation, well expressed on the territory of the Eurasian continent.

Each geographical zone and sector has its own set (spectrum) of zones and their sequence. The distribution of natural zones is also manifested in the natural change of altitudinal zones, or belts, in the mountains, which is also initially determined by the azonal factor - relief, however, certain spectra of altitudinal zones are characteristic of certain belts and sectors. Zoning in Eurasia is characterized for the most part as horizontal, with the following zones identified (their name comes from the predominant type of vegetation cover):

- Arctic desert zone;

— zone of tundra and forest-tundra;

— taiga zone;

— zone of mixed and deciduous forests;

- zone of forest-steppes and steppes;

— zone of semi-deserts and deserts;

- zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (the so-called

"Mediterranean" zone);

— zone of variable-humid (including monsoon) forests;

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On the territory of Eurasia there are all types of natural areas of the Earth. The sublatitudinal extent of the zones is disrupted only in the oceanic sectors and mountainous regions.

Most of the Arctic islands and a narrow strip of coastline lie in Arctic desert zone, there are also cover glaciers (Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, New Earth and Severnaya Zemlya).

Located further south tundra and forest-tundra, which from a narrow coastal strip in Europe gradually expand in the Asian part of the mainland. Moss-lichen covers, shrubs and shrubby forms of willow and birch on tundra-gley permafrost soils, numerous lakes and swamps and adapted to harsh conditions are widespread here. northern conditions animals (lemmings, hares, arctic foxes, reindeer and many waterfowl).

South of 69°N.

in the west and 65° N. in the east within the temperate zone dominate coniferous forests(taiga). Up to the Urals, the main tree species are pine and spruce; in Western Siberia, fir and Siberian cedar (cedar pine) are added to them; in Eastern Siberia, larch already dominates - only it has been able to adapt to permafrost. Coniferous species are often mixed with small-leaved trees - birch, aspen, alder, especially in areas affected by forest fires and logging sites.

Under conditions of acidic pine litter and leaching regime, podzolic soils are formed, poor in humus, with a peculiar whitish horizon. The fauna of the taiga is rich and diverse - the number of species is dominated by rodents, there are many fur-bearing animals: sables, beavers, stoats, foxes, squirrels, martens, hares, which are of commercial importance; The most common large animals are moose, brown bears, and lynxes and wolverines.

Most birds feed on seeds, buds, young shoots of plants (grouse grouse, hazel grouse, crossbills, nutcrackers, etc.), there are insectivores (finches, woodpeckers) and predator birds(owls).

In Europe and East Asia, the taiga zone changes to the south zone of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests.

Thanks to leaf litter and grass cover, organic matter accumulates in the surface layer of soil in these forests and a humus (turf) horizon is formed. That is why such soils are called soddy-podzolic. In the mixed forests of Western Siberia, the place of broad-leaved species is taken by small-leaved species - aspen and birch.

In Europe, south of the taiga is located deciduous forest zone, which wedges out near the Ural Mountains.

In Western Europe, in conditions of sufficient heat and precipitation, beech forests predominate on brown forest soils, in Eastern Europe they are replaced by oak and linden on gray forest soils, since these species tolerate summer heat and dryness better.

The main tree species in this zone include hornbeam, elm, elm in the west, maple and ash in the east. The grass cover of these forests consists of plants with wide leaves - broad grasses (wort grass, capitula, hoofweed, lily of the valley, lungwort, ferns).

Foliage and grass, rotting, form a dark and rather powerful humus horizon. Indigenous broad-leaved forests in most areas have been replaced by birch and aspen.

In the Asian part of the mainland, broad-leaved forests are preserved only in the east, in the mountainous regions. They are very diverse in composition with a large number of conifers and relict species, vines, ferns and a dense shrub layer.

Mixed and deciduous forests are home to many animals characteristic of both the taiga (hares, foxes, squirrels, etc.) and more southern latitudes: roe deer, wild boars, red deer; A small population of tigers remains in the Amur basin.

In the continental part of the continent south of the forest zone they are common forest-steppe and steppe.

In the forest-steppe, herbaceous vegetation is combined with areas of broad-leaved (up to the Urals) or small-leaved (in Siberia) forests.

Steppes are treeless spaces where grasses with a dense and dense root system thrive. Under them, the most fertile chernozem soils in the world are formed, the powerful humus horizon of which is formed due to conservation organic matter during the summer dry period. This is the most human-transformed natural zone in the interior of the continent.

Due to the exceptional fertility of chernozems, steppes and forest-steppes are almost completely plowed. Their flora and fauna (herds of ungulates) have been preserved only in the territories of several reserves.

Numerous rodents have adapted well to the new living conditions on agricultural lands: ground squirrels, marmots and field mice. Inland regions with continental and sharply continental climates are dominated by dry steppes with sparse vegetation and chestnut soils. In the central regions of Eurasia, semi-deserts and deserts are located in the internal basins.

They are characterized by cold winters with frosts, so there are no succulents here, but wormwood, solyanka, and saxaul grow. In general, the vegetation does not form a continuous cover, as do the brown and gray-brown soils that develop under them, which are saline.

The ungulates of the Asian semi-deserts and deserts (wild donkeys, wild Przewalski's horses, camels) have been almost completely exterminated, and rodents, which mostly hibernate in winter, and reptiles dominate among the animals.

The south of the oceanic sectors of the continent is located in subtropical and tropical forest zones.

In the west, in the Mediterranean, the indigenous vegetation is represented by hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs, the plants of which have adapted to hot and dry conditions. Beneath these forests, fertile brown soils formed. Typical woody plants are evergreen oaks, wild olive, noble laurel, southern pine - pine, cypress. Few wild animals remain. Rodents can be found, including wild rabbit, goats, mountain sheep and a peculiar predator - the genet.

As elsewhere in arid conditions, there are a lot of reptiles: snakes, lizards, chameleons. Among the birds there are birds of prey - vultures, eagles and rare species such as the blue magpie and the Spanish sparrow.

In the east of Eurasia, the subtropical climate has a different character: precipitation falls mainly in the hot summer.

Once upon a time in East Asia, forests occupied vast areas; now they are preserved only near temples and in inaccessible gorges. The forests are diverse in species, very dense, with a large number of vines. Among the trees there are both evergreen species: magnolias, camellias, camphor laurel, tung tree, and deciduous ones: oak, beech, hornbeam.

Southern coniferous species play a major role in these forests: pines and cypresses. Under these forests, fairly fertile red and yellow soils have formed, which are almost completely plowed. Various subtropical crops are grown on them. Deforestation radically affected the composition of the animal world. Wild animals are preserved only in the mountains.

These are the Himalayan black bear, the bamboo bear - panda, leopards, monkeys - macaques and gibbons. Among the feathered population there are many large and colorful species: parrots, pheasants, ducks.

The subequatorial belt is characterized by savannas and variable-humid forests. Many plants here shed their leaves during the dry and hot winter. Such forests are well developed in the monsoon region of Hindustan, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. They are relatively simple in structure, the upper tree layer is often formed by one species, but these forests amaze with the variety of vines and ferns.

In the extreme south of South and Southeast Asia they are common equatorial rainforests.

They are distinguished by a large number of types of palm trees (up to 300 species), bamboo, many of them play big role in the life of the population: they provide food, construction material, raw materials for some types of industry.

In Eurasia, large areas are occupied areas with altitudinal zones. The structure of altitudinal zones is extremely diverse and depends on the geographical location of the mountains, slope exposure, and height. Conditions are unique on the high plains of the Pamirs, Central Asia, and the Western Asian highlands.

A textbook example of altitudinal zones are the world's greatest mountains, the Himalayas - almost all altitudinal zones are represented here.

Lecture added 03/07/2014 at 14:48:58

Natural areas of Russia.

* Geographical position.

* Vegetable world.

* Animal world.

* Rare and endangered animals.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION:

* The taiga zone is the largest natural zone in Russia.

It stretches in a wide continuous strip from the western borders almost to the Pacific coast. The zone reaches its greatest width in Central Siberia (more than 2000 km). Here the flat taiga meets the mountain taiga of the Sayan and Cis-Baikal regions. The Russian taiga could cover almost all of Europe - an entire part of the world.

CLIMATE:

The taiga is characterized by moderately warm summers and cold winters with snow cover, especially harsh in Siberia.

In Central Yakutia, even the average January temperature drops below - 40. The average July temperature varies from + 13 in the north to +19 in the south. The sum of temperatures during the warm period also increases in the same direction.

Taiga is characterized by sufficient and excessive moisture. There are many swamps, including upland swamps, and lakes. Surface runoff in the taiga is higher than in other natural zones.

The river network is very dense. Snow melt water plays an important role in feeding rivers. Due to this, spring floods are observed.

THE SOIL.

* Taiga is coniferous forests of uniform composition. Under them, to the west of the Yenisei, podzolic and sod-podzolic soils are formed, and to the east, permafrost-taiga soils.

VEGETABLE WORLD.

* Taiga forests are usually formed by one layer of trees, under which there is a moss carpet with lingonberry and blueberry bushes and rare herbs.

Sometimes the second tree layer forms the young generation of the forest. Young fir trees and fir trees in the forest feel like their mother, and the pines feel like their stepmother. In order not to die, they must fight all their lives for a place in the sun, and not only with their sisters, but also with their parents. After all, pine is a light-loving species. In lighter forests, in some places, shrubs - elderberry, brittle buckthorn, honeysuckle, rose hips, wild rosemary, juniper - can form their own layer.

ANIMAL
WORLD.

The animals inhabiting it are well adapted to life in the taiga.

Common in the taiga are brown bear, elk, squirrel, chipmunk, mountain hare, typical taiga birds: wood grouse, hazel grouse, various woodpeckers, nutcracker, crossbill. Predators are also typical for the taiga: wolf, lynx, wolverine, sable, marten, ermine, fox.

Rare and endangered
animals.

The Central Forest Biosphere State Reserve was formed in 1931 to preserve the southern border of the taiga, located in the Tver region, 50 kilometers north of the city of Nelidovo.

Conclusion.

* The dominance of evergreen coniferous trees in the taiga zone is the plant’s response to the duration of the frosty winter. The needles reduce evaporation, the diversity of animals is associated with varied and fairly plentiful food, and plenty of shelters.

Materials used.

We used the booklet: “Central Forest Reserve,” a geography textbook. Electronic encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius.

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Steppes are common on all continents except Antarctica; in Eurasia, the largest areas of steppes are located in the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Mongolia. In the mountains it forms an altitudinal belt (mountain steppe); on the plains - a natural zone located between the forest-steppe zone in the north and the semi-desert zone in the south.

Atmospheric precipitation is from 250 to 450 mm per year.

The climate of steppe regions typically ranges from temperate continental to continental and is characterized by very hot summers and cold winters.

A significant part of the steppe territories is plowed.

A characteristic feature of the steppe is the treelessness of vast plains covered with rich grassy vegetation. Herbs that form a closed or almost closed carpet: feather grass, fescue, tonkonogo, bluegrass, sheep grass, etc.

Both in terms of species composition and some ecological features, the animal world of the steppe has much in common with the animal world of the desert.

Of the ungulates, typical species are distinguished by acute vision and the ability to run quickly and for a long time (for example, antelopes); of rodents - those that build complex burrows (gophers, marmots, mole rats) and jumping species (jerboas, kangaroo rats). Most birds fly away for the winter. Common: steppe eagle, bustard, steppe harrier, steppe kestrel, larks. Reptiles and insects are numerous.

Forest-tundra and tundra.

Forest-tundra- a subarctic type of landscape, in which, in the interfluves, oppressed light forests alternate with shrubby or typical tundra.

Average air temperatures in July are 10-12°C, and in January, depending on the increasing continentality of the climate, from −10° to −40°C.

With the exception of rare taliks, the soils are everywhere permafrost.

Soils are peaty-gley, peat-bog

Shrub tundras and open forests change due to longitudinal zonation. In the eastern part of the North American forest-tundra, black and white spruce grow along with dwarf birches and polar willows, and in the west, balsam fir

Lemmings also dominate the forest-tundra fauna different types in different longitudinal zones, reindeer, arctic foxes, white and tundra partridges, polar owls and a wide variety of migratory, waterfowl and small bush-dwelling birds.

Forest-tundra is a valuable reindeer pasture and hunting grounds.

Tundra- a type of natural zones lying beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, spaces with permafrost soil that is not flooded by sea or river waters.

The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. The nature of the surface of the tundra is swampy, peaty, rocky. The southern border of the tundra is taken to be the beginning of the Arctic.

The tundra has a very harsh climate (the climate is subarctic), only those plants and animals that can withstand the cold live here. The winter is long (5-6 months) and cold (up to −50 ° C).

Summer is also relatively cold, the average temperature in June is about 12°C, and with the arrival of summer all the vegetation comes to life. The summer and autumn tundra is rich in mushrooms and berries.

Tundra vegetation consists primarily of lichens and mosses; The angiosperms found are low grasses (especially from the Poaceae family), shrubs and dwarf shrubs.

Wild deer, foxes, bighorn sheep, wolves, lemmings and brown hares are typical inhabitants of the Russian tundra. But there are not so many birds: Lapland plantain, white-winged plover, red-breasted pipit, plover, snow bunting, snowy owl and ptarmigan.

There are no reptiles in the tundra, but a very large number of blood-sucking insects.

Rivers and lakes are rich in fish (nelma, whitefish, omul, vendace, etc.).

Antarctic ice desert zone.

The Antarctic belt is the southern natural geographical zone of the Earth, including Antarctica with the adjacent islands and the ocean waters washing it.

Typically, the boundary of the Antarctic belt is drawn along the 5 degree isotherm from the warmest month (January or February).

The Antarctic belt is characterized by:
— negative or low positive values ​​of the radiation balance;
— Antarctic climate with low air temperatures;
- long polar night;
— the predominance of ice deserts on land;
— significant ocean ice cover.

Zoning and azonality.

The most important geographical pattern is zoning– a natural change in components or complexes from the equator to the poles due to a change in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays.

The main reasons for zonation are the shape of the Earth and the position of the Earth relative to the Sun, and the prerequisite is the incidence of sunlight on the Earth's surface at an angle that gradually decreases on both sides of the equator.

The founder of the doctrine of zonation was the Russian soil scientist and geographer V.V.

Dokuchaev, who believed that zonation is a universal law of nature. Geographers share the concepts of component and complex zoning. Scientists distinguish horizontal, latitudinal and meridional zoning.

Due to the zonal distribution of solar radiant energy on Earth, the following are zonal: air, water and soil temperatures; evaporation and cloudiness; atmospheric precipitation, baric relief and wind systems, VM properties, climates; the nature of the hydrographic network and hydrological processes; features of geochemical processes and soil formation; types of vegetation and life forms of plants and animals; sculptural relief forms, to a certain extent types of sedimentary rocks, and finally, geographical landscapes, united in this regard into a system of natural zones.

The zones do not form continuous stripes everywhere.

The boundaries of many zones deviate from parallels, and great contrasts in nature are observed within the same zones. Therefore, along with zonality, another geographical pattern is distinguished - azonality. Azonality– changes in components and complexes associated with the manifestation of endogenous processes.

The reason for azonality is heterogeneity earth's surface, the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on the continents, the uniqueness of local factors: rock composition, relief, moisture conditions, etc. Endogenous relief is azonal, i.e. placement of volcanoes and tectonic mountains, structure of continents and oceans.

There are two main forms of manifestation of azonality - sectorality geographical zones and altitudinal zone.

Within geographic zones, three sectors are distinguished: continental and two oceanic. The sectorality is expressed most clearly in the temperate and subtropical geographical zones, and weakest in the equatorial and subarctic.

Altitudinal zonation is a natural change in zones from the foot to the top of a mountain.

Altitudinal zones are not copies, but analogues of latitudinal zones; their identification is based on a decrease in temperature with height, and not on a change in the angle of incidence of sunlight.

However, altitudinal zonality has much in common with horizontal zonality: the change of zones when ascending mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles.

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All natural zones of the Northern Hemisphere are represented in Eurasia. In the western part of the continent, the dominant influence of the Atlantic Ocean led to changes natural areas from northwest to southeast. In the eastern part of Eurasia, natural zones should be plotted meridionally, which is a consequence of the massive mass transfer of monsoons in the Pripihochanovsk region. Natural areas of the continent's interior vary in width due to changes in temperature and humidity from north to south.

Arctic desert with very harsh natural and climatic conditions occupies the Arctic islands.

There is no continuous floor covering, and poor vegetation is a heat-resistant species that survives in constant cold conditions. Here are the common animals, polar bears, wet ones, seals, reindeer.

Due to the moderating influence of the North Atlantic flow, tundra and forest-tundra differ in their western and eastern regions.

Near the European coast of the continent, the climate is moderately cold, and the tundra extends to the north as anywhere on the planet. As you move eastward, natural and climatic conditions become more severe, and tundra and forest tundra occupy large areas. In the highlands of Siberia, tundra vegetation extends far to the south.

Among the plants, mosses and lichens predominate, which grow on the tundra and see the ground. Due to long-term frost, the humidity does not deepen, so there are a lot of swamps. Main animals: reindeer, arctic fox, some bird species

There is land to the south of the forested tundra. In warmer and more humid climates, huge areas of coniferous trees were created on podzolic soils from spruce, pine and larch (the only conifers, the needles settle in winter.

The latter predominate in the Asian Taiga, in a coldly harsh continental climate. In places where the taiga is very rich, there are many peat bogs and swamps.

The animal kingdom here is extremely diverse (brown bear, moose, black grouse, wolf, wood grouse).

Areas of mixed and deciduous forests are most common in western Eurasia. Here, under conditions of significant moisture, spruce-podzolic soil grows spruce-oak and pine oak forests of Western Siberia - coniferous and unpaved forests.

In addition to the east, mixed forests disappear and reappear only on the Pacific coast. Broad forests consist mainly of oak and beech, as well as hornbeam, maple, and lime

For the forest-steppe and steppe region, there are certain differences in ozone distance caused by significant climate changes progressing from west to east of the continent.

In conditions of a warm climate and inadequate moisture, fertile black soils, as well as gray forest soil, were created south of the Russian Plain. The vegetation here contains small areas of forest (oak, birch, linden, maple). In the eastern part of the continent, if there is a temperature range and a dry climate increase, soil is often a physiological solution.

Here the flora is poorer and is mainly represented by grass and shrubs. The most typical representatives of the animal world are steppe and forest-steppe wolves, foxes, civet squirrels, voles, shrimp and steppe birds. Forested steppes and steppes are almost completely nourished, and natural vegetation is maintained only in protected areas and places that are not suitable for plowing

In large areas of the central and southwestern parts of the continent they occupy half of the desert and desert.

The desert zone extends into three geographical zones. The common denominator for all deserts is low rainfall, poor soil, and vegetation well adapted to difficult conditions.

Deserts on the Arabian Peninsula are characterized by high temperatures throughout the year, low (up to 100 mm per year) precipitation and mostly flat surfaces. Deserts of subtropical plants (Iranian plateau, Central Asia, part of the Gobi Desert) are characterized by large temperature differences, richer vegetation, and a significant number of species. Covered with sand or rocks, the desert of the temperate Karakum zone, Taklamakan, part of the Gobi is characterized by very hot summers and severe frosts in winter

Basically, the natural zones of Eurasia vary by latitude. But there are two factors that determine the change in zoning in the vertical direction:

• heterogeneous terrain;
• influence of the World Ocean in coastal areas.

Let's consider the main natural zones that are located on the mainland in the direction from north to south.

Rice. 1. Map of natural areas of Eurasia

Table “Natural zones of Eurasia”

Almost all natural zones, with the exception of humid equatorial and tropical forests, are located on the mainland.

Characteristics of zones

The high latitude zone is characterized by a harsh cold climate with long winters and short summers. There is little vegetation and poor fauna. Northern latitudes from approximately 71° are considered the Arctic zone. A little lower are the tundra and forest-tundra. They are best expressed in Russia. There is also little vegetation and a cold climate on the island of Iceland.

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The taiga originates on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Thanks to the maritime climate, winters here are milder and there are no piercing winds, as in the continental part. Up to the Ural Mountains, this zone is dominated by pine and spruce trees. In the central part they are joined by fir and cedar. Larch grows in Eastern Siberia. Taiga is a huge forest with great potential. An important part of the industry is hunting for fur-bearing animals.

Most of Europe and a little of near Asia are covered with broadleaf forests. This temperate region is considered the most favorable for life not only of plants and animals, but also of people. It's comfortable here in winter and not too hot in summer. There is an average amount of precipitation throughout the year.

Rice. 2. Steppe in Europe

The position just below the forests is occupied by the forest-steppe and steppe zone. This is the territory of rich fertile lands - black soils. The largest farmlands are concentrated in the European part. To the east, deeper into the continent, the situation changes slightly. There, the steppe area is located near the mountains and has a very arid climate.

Central Eurasia is covered with desert areas. Their location is similar to internal basins: around mountains, far from the ocean. This affects the level of evaporation, which is very high here, and precipitation is insignificant. The vegetation is represented mainly by succulents, and the unique animal world has been practically exterminated. Deserts are inhabited by insects, rodents and reptiles.

The desert occupies the largest area of ​​the Eurasian continent. In addition, it is also the largest natural area in the World. It accounts for 1/5 of the planet's total land mass.

Tropical rainforests are located in the subtropical climate zone. In Europe, this belt is called rigid-leaved. Present on the northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. There are very good fertile soils here, allowing you to grow heat-loving fruits and vegetables.

Eastern Eurasia and the Pacific coast have a slightly different type of subtropical climate. There is a lot of precipitation here, but only in summer. Once upon a time, vast Asian territories were covered with green forests. But now the overpopulation of this region has led to the fact that the forests have been cut down and the land has been built up with buildings. The unique world of plants and animals has been preserved only in protected areas near temples and gorges.

Nature of the lower latitudes

The peninsulas of Hindustan and Malacca, Burma are located in the savannah zone. Nature is represented by many types of drought-resistant tall trees with vines.

The low latitudes of the equatorial belt are moist equatorial forests. Palms and fruit trees are harvested several times a year. This includes warm island countries with good tourism potential.

It is worth highlighting areas with altitudinal zones. They have their own climate, vegetation and fauna. Mountains encircle the entire continent and run in a strip from West to East. The highest mountain system in Eurasia is the Himalayas.

What have we learned?

Eurasia is the largest continent in the world, containing all existing natural areas. If you're wondering which is the biggest, it's the desert. The most favorable regions for living are in the temperate climate zone. The forests are dominated by taiga forests.

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Eurasia is the largest and most colorful planet, uniting all existing natural zones and stripes. Numerous arctic and tropical islands gracefully complement this natural tandem, adding diversity to the flora and fauna. In the west of the continent and nature is determined Atlantic Ocean, and in the east monsoonal Pacific conditions prevail. In the center of the continent, the change occurs from north to south and depends on temperature conditions and humidity.

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Map "Natural zones of Eurasia"/Source: uclg.ru

Arctic deserts of Eurasia, turning into tundras

These two natural belts always go inseparably from each other. The Arctic covers all the islands of the Arctic Ocean and is represented by icy, rocky soils. And the forest-tundra is located in the north of the continent, covering Europe, part of Iceland, and the upper belt of Russia. As you move east, the tundra expands.

Fact! The zone of arctic deserts and tundra is located in a narrow strip across the entire continent in the north.

Both of these zones are characterized by minimal species diversity of both animals and plants. The harsh climate of the Arctic does not allow anything to grow here except mosses, lichens, and algae. Low-growing grasses and, in some places, shrubs appear in the tundra. However, the soils here are covered by permafrost, which begins 1-2 m from the surface.

Animals of the Arctic and tundra are well adapted to cold conditions: they have a large layer of fat, like polar bears, or dense fur, like reindeer. There are also many birds here, including waterfowl. In tundra areas, many swamps form due to permafrost.

And the tundra is characterized by difficult climatic conditions: in summer it rarely gets warmer than +5-8 degrees, while frosts in winter reach -60.

Taiga zone

Occupies most of Russia, as well as the Scandinavian Peninsula. Taiga forests are found in northern Japan, on the west coast. The Russian taiga is dominated by sedge and peat bogs, while the European taiga is dominated by pine and spruce trees. In zones below 60 degrees C. w. Mixed forests begin, and species such as ash and oak appear. But in the Asian region there are fir and cedar trees, as well as larch.

The fauna of this natural zone has the same species diversity as the tropical worlds. Hundreds of herbivorous and predatory species live here, including such representatives as the largest bear in the world - the brown Kamchatka bear, as well as charming lynxes and red deer. There are also many animals here whose fur is valued for its beauty and warmth: minks, foxes, wolves, sable.

The species diversity of birds is also impressive. Large predators such as owls, small partridges, as well as wood grouse and woodpeckers can be found here. The temperature in the taiga is harsh, even in summer at +30 in the pine thickets it remains cool, and in winter it stays -30 for a long time.

Broadleaf and mixed forests

The mixed zone predominates in the region of the East European Plain, which occupies part of the Russian Federation and is also located in Europe (the Baltic states). Broad-leaved forests are also found in Europe and on the coast on the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean.

The broad-leaved area is distinguished by a large number of grasses and several tiers of forests. The soils here are mostly soddy-podzolic, and swampy areas are almost never found. Oaks and beeches, as well as some other species, grow on them. Completely broad-leaved forests also consist of maples and lindens.

The animal diversity is amazing: deciduous forests are characterized by all those species that live in the taiga, as well as more heat-loving red deer, wild boars, and brown bears are found in some parts of Europe.

The amount of precipitation here increases to 1-2 thousand mm, while the climate becomes warmer than in the taiga. Rarely does the thermometer show below -16.

Steppes and forest-steppes

The zones are located throughout most of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and are also found in the Black Sea region and Siberia. Few animals live here, small species of rodents predominate, and the vegetation is represented mainly by low-growing shrubs, cereals and other herbs. The soils are mostly gray forest soils.

The climate of the steppes can be different - from confidently cold in the Siberian part to temperate and arid in Mongolia.

Hardleaf subtropical forests

The territory is found mainly in the south of the European part of the world, in the Mediterranean. A favorable, relatively dry and hot summer climate with abundant rainfall prevails here. In winter it is also warm, the soils are chestnut.

There are many trees growing in the Mediterranean, including cork oaks and even cypress trees. But on the banks the forests were almost completely destroyed. Such forests are partially found in southern China and Japan.

Deserts and semi-deserts (temperate zone)

The temperate region is a unique phenomenon, unlike the hot Sahara or the South American regions near the Andes. Temperate deserts occupy the region from Central Asia to the Caspian lowland. The soils here are not red, but brown and gray-brown desert.

The air in them remains dry, and there is little precipitation; in some places there are clayey soils. There is almost no vegetation, but in sandy areas there are grasses such as wormwood. At night the temperature can drop to -50 (as in winter), and in summer and during the day it rises to +50.

Subtropical deserts are located inland, the brightest zone being the Arabian Peninsula. In summer it is very dry here, the temperature fluctuates between 30-35 degrees, and there is practically no rain. There are oases in which acacias and palm trees grow. A lot of rodents. Continental deserts are also common in the countries of the Caspian basin and in China.

Savannas and woodlands

The subequatorial region, as well as the savannas, are located in the Southeast of India. Palms and teak trees grow here, as well as many other trees, but they are located in small groups. The fauna is represented by ungulates, tropical birds, monkeys, and leopards. Wild elephants are found in places.

Equatorial rainforests

They occupy most of the Pacific Ocean from the Southeast, as well as Hindustan. These are regions very rich in vegetation with fertile soils - even there are more than 3 hundred species of palm trees here! Coconut palms and bamboos of all kinds also grow here.

Permanent moist equatorial forests are located on the islands of the Indian Ocean; evergreen vines, ferns, and many southern flowers grow here. The fauna of the regions is also rich in monkeys, wild cats, and elephants.

Altitudinal zonation of the continent

There are a lot of mountains in Eurasia, and some of them - the Tibetan Himalayas - are among the highest complex in the world. There is a pronounced altitudinal zone here. Species diversity is also present in the European Alps.

Other well-known altitude zones include the Urals, characterized by an indistinct belt change, and the Sayans, connecting to the Himalayas. The altitudinal zonation is most interesting in the last series of mountains:

• at an altitude of up to 1000 m, variable-humid forests;
• from 1000 m – subequatorial and evergreen oak and pine zones;
• from 4000 m alpine and subalpine latitudes with low-growing plants and flowers begin;
• above 5000 m – territory eternal ice and snow.

Eurasia is one of the most amazing continents, combining the dizzying beauty of the high Himalayas and mysterious Tibet, as well as the fierce severity of the Arctic deserts. But there are also real paradise forests here, located in the equatorial zone of the islands belonging to Eurasia.

Table of natural zones of Eurasia

Questions and tasks

1. How is the law of natural zonation manifested in the territory of Eurasia?

In the change of geographical components and complexes from north to south, when changing natural zones.

2. It is known that more plant mass is formed in forests than in steppes, but chernozem soils are much more fertile than podzolic soils. How can we explain this?

Soils are formed due to climatic features and flora. In the forests, podzolic and gray forest soils were formed, and in the steppes, grass and a small amount of precipitation, dissolved substances remained in the upper layers of the soil, thus forming chernozems - the most fertile soils in the world.

3. Which natural zones of the temperate zone are most developed by humans? What contributed to their development?

In the temperate zone, the natural zones of steppes and forest-steppes are the most developed, due to the richest soil. It was easier to cultivate the land in these territories; grain crops have been cultivated here since ancient times.

4. On which continent do tropical deserts occupy the largest areas? Indicate the reasons for their spread.

The largest area of ​​deserts is in Africa (Sahara, Kalahari, Namib), in Eurasia (Rub al-Khali, Thar). The reasons for the spread are high temperature and little precipitation. Poor flora and fauna.

5. Using the example of one of the natural zones of Eurasia, show the connections between the components of its nature.

The natural zone of the steppes has a temperate climate, with predominantly grass vegetation and chernozem soil. Animals in this area are mainly rodents. Also inhabited by ungulates, predators, and many birds. Predators hunt artiodactyls and rodents.

6. Compare the natural zones of Eurasia and North America at 40° N. w. What are the reasons for the similarities and differences in their alternation?

Natural zones of northern America from west to east: taiga, deserts and semi-deserts, steppes, forest-steppe, mixed and deciduous forests. Eurasia: hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs, deserts, semi-deserts, variable-humid (monsoon forests). The desert and semi-desert zone in Eurasia is larger due to its greater extent from west to east. Natural areas of the continents are influenced by westerly winds, but in North America they have less influence due to the Cordillera mountains. In North America, natural zones of steppes and forest-steppes are located in the meridional direction; in Eurasia, all natural zones are located in the latitudinal direction.

7. The peoples of which language groups inhabit Eurasia?

Indo-European language family. ( Language groups: peoples). Slavic: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Bulgarians. Germanic: Germans, English, Swedes, Norwegians. Baltic: Latvians, Lithuanians. Romance: French, Italians, Portuguese, Spaniards. Celtic: Irish. Greek: Greeks. Iranian: Tajiks, Afghans, Ossetians. Indo-Aryan: Hindustani, Nepalese. Armenian: Armenians.

Kartvelian language family. Georgians.

Afroasiatic language family. (Language groups: peoples). Semitic: Jews, Arabs. Ural-Yukaghir language family. (Language groups: peoples). Finno-Ugric: Finns, Estonians, Hungarians.

Altai language family. (Language groups: peoples). Turkic: Turks, Turkmen, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs. Mongolian: Mongols, Buryats. Japanese: Japanese. Korean: Koreans.

Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese, Burmese.

North Caucasian language family. (Language groups: peoples). Abkhaz-Adyghe: Abkhaz, Adyghe. Nakh-Dagestan: Chechens, Lezgins, Ingush.

8. Show on the map the most populated parts of the continent.

Western and central Europe, South and Southeast Asia.

9. Which areas are sparsely populated? Why?

Low population density in Eurasia in the Far North, in the interior of Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, in the highlands of the Himalayas, Tibet, and Tien Shan. Population density is influenced by the following factors: natural conditions, duration of development, level economic development.

10. By what criteria can the countries of Eurasia be grouped?

By area, population. By geographical location: coastal (France, Russia), peninsular (Italy, India), island (Sri Lanka, Malta), archipelagic countries (Japan, Philippines), landlocked (Mongolia, Czech Republic, Austria). According to government structure: federal (Russia, Switzerland), unitary (France, Italy). By level of economic development: developed countries (Germany, France, Italy, England, South Korea), countries with an average level of development (Spain, Portugal), developing countries (Afghanistan, Pakistan).