Special and auxiliary historical disciplines and their role in historical research.

History as a science, subject and methods of study.

What is history? It can be considered both as a process of development of nature, society, man, and as a complex of social sciences that study the past of mankind in all its specificity and diversity (diagram

History is primarily an area human activity.

The value of history lies in the fact that thanks to it we learn what a person has done and, therefore, what he is like.

Historical sources are everything that reflects the historical process and gives us the opportunity to study the past of mankind. Several decades ago, historical science developed a classification system historical sources based on principle of information carrier. In our opinion, this traditional system gives the most complete picture of the whole variety of historical sources in service historical science(Scheme 2). Most authors identify six types of sources.

1. Written sources. It is generally accepted that the oldest type of writing was pictography, i.e. writings and drawings that were used by primitive people. It is from such drawings that hieroglyphic writing comes from. Writing, which denotes not objects of thought, phrases or words, but the sounds of language, also arose in ancient times. The Phoenicians, a people who lived on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, are considered the inventors of the first alphabet. Slavic alphabet was created in the 9th century. based on the Greek alphabet by Christian missionaries Cyril and Methodius. The first written monuments in the Old Russian language that have reached us date back to the 11th century. Written sources include ancient chronicles, memoirs, articles from newspapers and magazines, office documents, statistical materials, etc. An important source may even be fiction, because the works of writers and poets perfectly reflect the life, customs, and social sentiments of a particular era.

Scheme 2

2. Material sources. Such sources can include a tool of labor of a primitive man found by an archaeologist, a family set passed down from generation to generation, an ancient watch stored in a museum, or any other item that helps us study the history of mankind.

3. Ethnographic sources. These include cultural, religious, and everyday traditions of different peoples. The customs, norms of behavior, rituals, and holidays we inherited from our ancestors are component historical memory humanity.

4. Oral sources. Any of us who have ever listened to the memories of the experiences of our parents and grandparents have encountered this type of source. A lot has happened in the memory of living people: the Great Patriotic War, the short-term thaw of 1950-1960, perestroika, the collapse of the USSR. Some remained a passive observer of the events that took place, while others, by the will of fate, found themselves in the very thick of them. Eyewitness accounts can be a very valuable source and provide the basis for serious historical research.

5. Linguistic sources. The memory of the past is preserved not only by people, but also by the languages ​​they speak, therefore it is customary to distinguish linguistic sources as a separate type. For example, origin in Slavic languages words denoting the names of animals and plants allows scientists to draw conclusions about the location of the ancient ancestral home of the Slavs. We can say for sure that the ancient ancestors Slavic peoples lived in places where spruce and birch trees grew, but beeches did not grow, since their name in our language has an “alien” origin.

6. Audiovisual documents (photo, film and video documents, sound recordings). They reflect a significant period of new and modern history. As you know, photography appeared in the middle, and cinema - in the very late XIX V. In the 20th century photography became color, and cinema, in addition, became sound. Video recordings have appeared relatively recently. Materials captured on photo, film and videotape allow you to “stop” a moment and “revive” the irretrievably gone past.

The first phonograph was invented in 1877 by the American T. Edison. Since then, sound preservation techniques have been continuously improved. In less than a hundred years, gramophone records have replaced laser compact discs. Audio recordings store the sounds of bygone eras, the voices of long-dead people.

Researching historical sources requires special skills and knowledge. To obtain them, it is necessary to study special (auxiliary) historical disciplines that allow you to master the basic techniques of working with historical sources (see Table 1).

Table 1

Auxiliary historical disciplines

It is not always enough to simply read a historical source to obtain the necessary information. And sometimes it can be quite difficult to read. IN Ancient Rus', for example, the text was written together, without separating words; the writing of individual letters was very different from the modern one. Even the number of letter characters has changed over time. The type of handwriting also became different: charter, semi-charter, cursive. In order to learn how to read manuscripts of past centuries, historians study paleography - the science of external signs handwritten sources.

Timekeeping is no less important for researchers. It is not difficult, for example, to guess that the ancient Greeks never wrote that they lived in the 5th century. BC. They began their reckoning from the beginning of the first Olympic Games. In pre-Petrine Rus', years were counted from the biblical “creation of the world.” By the way, New Year our ancestors met in the spring (March 1), and from the end of the 15th century. - in September. Over the long history of mankind, many calendars have been created. Lunar calendars come from Mesopotamia, and solar calendars come from Ancient Egypt. A calendar close to the one we use was created in Ancient Rome. In the 1st century G. Yu. Caesar introduced a calendar consisting of 365 days and 6 hours, called the Julian. According to this calendar, a leap year occurs once every four years. Once every 128 years, there was a difference of one day. By the 16th century it was ten days, so in 1582 Pope Gregory reformed the calendar. This is how the Gregorian calendar came into being. In our country, it (we also call it the “new style”) was adopted only in 1918. Russian divine services Orthodox Church still occur according to the ancient Julian calendar. Helps historians understand chronology systems and calendars of different times and peoples chronology.

For long history of humanity, not only the systems of counting time, but also the systems of measures changed. Metric system accepted in most countries of the world. But in the past, each nation had its own system of measures of length, area, volume, and weight. Deals with systems of measures in their historical development metrology.

As mentioned above, the memory of the past is preserved by the languages ​​of the peoples of the world. This is especially evident in the names of proper names. The history of their occurrence is studied onomastics. This discipline has several sections, the most important of which can be considered toponymy (the science of geographical names) and anthroponymy (the science of the origin of human names and surnames).

Great importance for the historian have numismatics, studying coins, and sphragistics - the science of seals. Some of the most interesting historical disciplines are genealogy - the science of genealogy and heraldry - the science of coats of arms.

Historical sources and the complex of disciplines considered allow us to get closer to the knowledge of historical truth.

Related information.

History translated from Greek means a story about the past, about what has been learned. History is the process of development of nature and society. History is also called a complex of social sciences (historical science) that study the past of mankind in all its specificity and diversity. History is part of the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

World (universal) history is a history that studies the period of humanity from the appearance of the first Homo sapiens to the present.

The history of homeland is a history that studies the history of individual countries and peoples (the history of Russia, the history of Germany).

The history is divided into the following sections chronologically:

the history of primitive society is a history that studies the period in human history before the invention of writing, after which the possibility of historical research based on the study of written sources becomes possible.

ancient history is history that studies the period of human history distinguished between the prehistoric period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

medieval history is history that studies the period of human history following Antiquity and preceding the Modern Age.

new history is a history that studies the period in human history located between the Middle Ages and Modern times.

modern history - history that studies the period of humanity since 1918

Branches of history:

economic history is a branch of history that studies phenomena and processes associated with the evolutionary development and interaction of those aspects of human activity that are in one way or another connected with the economy.

military history is a branch of history that studies wars that took place in a particular historical era; also the history of any one war or even a single campaign.

historical geography is a branch of history that studies history through the “prism” of geography, it is also the geography of any territory in a certain historical stage its development.

historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history (the accumulation of historical knowledge, the interpretation of historical phenomena, changes in methodological directions in historical science, etc.).

Organic parts of history as a complex of sciences:

archeology is a science that studies the history of society using the material remains of people’s lives and activities - material (archaeological) monuments.

ethnography (ethnology) is the science of ethnic groups (peoples), studying their origin and settlement, life and culture.

History is part of the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

Historical sources– all objects that directly reflect the historical process and make it possible to study the past of mankind.

Historical sources are conventionally divided into several groups:

by type of information recording:

written - epigraphic documents, birch bark letters, manuscripts, printed materials.

material - instruments of production and material goods created with their help: buildings, weapons, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity.

Unlike written ones, they do not contain a direct story about historical events and most often do not contain any inscriptions.

film and photo documents – documentary film, background and photographic materials.

Fine – icons, parsuns, paintings, posters, etc.

from the point of view of studying any science:

ethnographic - information that has survived to the present day: data on everyday life, morals, customs, which are often absent in written sources. Such information is collected, studied and processed by ethnography.

folklore - monuments of oral folk art, i.e. legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, etc. Such information is collected, studied and processed by folkloristics.

linguistic - information about the origin of geographical names, personal names, proper names of ships, vessels, proper names of gods and deities, etc. Such information is studied by linguistics.

Individual historical sources can only conditionally be assigned to one group or another. Thus, some ethnographic sources are studied by both archeology and ethnography; Anthropological sources stand on the border between natural science and history. The development of society constantly leads to a particularly rapid expansion of the varieties of written documents and the emergence of completely new types of historical sources. For example, the invention and use of sound recording cameras and films led to the formation of a special group of film, phono and photographic materials.

Auxiliary historical disciplines- these are subjects that study certain types or individual forms and contents of historical sources.

We can include the following sciences as auxiliary historical disciplines:

Paleography – an auxiliary historical discipline (a special historical and philological discipline) that studies the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing in order to read them, determine the author, time and place of creation. Paleography studies the evolution of the graphic forms of letters, written signs, the proportions of their constituent elements, the types and evolution of fonts, the system of abbreviations and their graphic designation, writing materials and tools. A special branch of paleography studies the graphics of secret writing systems (cryptography).

Diplomatics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies historical acts (legal documents). She examines ancient documents of a diplomatic and legal nature: charters, acts and similar texts and their originals. One of its tasks is to distinguish forged acts from real ones.

Genealogy - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the family relationships of people, the history of clans, the origin of individuals, the establishment of family ties, the compilation of generational lists and family trees. Genealogy is related to heraldry, diplomacy and many other historical disciplines. Since the beginning of the 21st century, due to scientific progress, genetic genealogy, using human DNA analysis, has been gaining popularity.

Heraldry - a special historical discipline that deals with the study of coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use. It is part of emblems - a group of interrelated disciplines that study emblems. The difference between coats of arms and other emblems is that their structure, use and legal status comply with special, historically established rules. Heraldry precisely determines what and how can be applied to the state coat of arms, family coat of arms, and so on, and explains the meaning of certain figures.

Sphragistics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials. Initially developed as a part of diplomacy, dealing with determining the authenticity of documents.

Historical metrology – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the measures used in the past - length, area, volume, weight - in their historical development. Often units of measurement did not form the metric system; they are classified as traditional measurement systems. Historical metrology studies the history of the genesis and development of various measurement systems, the names of individual measures, their quantitative relationships, and establishes their real values, that is, their correspondence to modern metric systems. Metrology is closely related to numismatics, since many peoples in the past had measures of weight that coincided with monetary units and had the same name.

Numismatics – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation. Social functions of numismatics: identification of numismatic cultural monuments; the study of characteristic facts, connections and processes that contribute to a more in-depth understanding of history and fill gaps in historical science.

Chronology – an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents; sequence of historical events in time; a list of any events in their time sequence.

Historical geography – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies history through the “prism” of geography; It is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

Archival studies – a scientific discipline that studies and develops theoretical, methodological and organizational issues of archival science and its history.

Archeology - a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources.

Ethnography - part of historical science that studies ethnic peoples and other ethnic formations, their origin (ethnogenesis), composition, settlement, cultural and everyday characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.

Historiography is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of historical science. Historiography checks how correctly it is applied scientific method when writing a historical work, focusing on the author, his sources, the separation of facts from interpretation, as well as on the style, author’s preferences and the audience for which he wrote this work in the field of history.

Historical computer science – an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the methods of using information technologies in the study of the historical process, the publication of historical research and the teaching of historical disciplines, as well as in archival and museum affairs.

CHRONOLOGY. TIME ACCOUNTING. JULIAN AND GRIGORIAN CALENDARS.

Chronology(from Greek χρόνος - time; λόγος - teaching):

an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents;

sequence of historical events in time;

a list of any events in their time sequence.

"Calendar"- from the Latin ‘Calendarium’ – “debt book”, and ‘Calendae’ – is the first day of each month in ancient Rome, into which interest on debts was supposed to be paid regularly; - hence the figurative meaning of this word as a time counting system.

When calculating time in history, two parameters are needed:

measures of time in relation to each other is a “calendar” in the narrow sense;

the distance from a conventionally chosen reference point is “chronology” or “era”.

Together, these two parameters make up the time keeping system or “calendar in the broadest sense.”

Calendars in the narrow sense are of three types:

solar - measures of time in them from the Sun - Earth relationship: DAY, YEAR and its derivatives - CENTURY (CENTURY) and MILLENNIUM.

lunar - measures of time in them from the ratio Moon - Earth - Sun - WEEK, MONTH

lunisolar - combine time measures of the 1st and 2nd types.

Calendars of the 3rd type are more widely used, and the first two are usually used in the sphere of religion. Calendars of the 3rd type are JULIAN and GREGORIAN, the use of which is typical for European and Russian history.

Julian calendar- a calendar developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigenes. The calendar was introduced by Julius Caesar from January 1, 45 BC. e. The year according to the Julian calendar begins on January 1, since it was on this day from 153 BC. e. The consuls elected by the comitia took office.

The Julian calendar replaced the old Roman calendar and was based on the astronomical culture of Hellenistic Egypt. In Kievan Rus, the calendar was known as the “Peacemaking Circle”, “Church Circle”, Indiction and “Great Indiction”. The Julian calendar in modern Russia is usually called the old style.

Gregorian calendar- a time calculation system based on the cyclic revolution of the Earth around the Sun; the length of the year is taken to be 365.2425 days; contains 97 leap years per 400 years.

The Gregorian calendar was first introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in Catholic countries on October 4, 1582, replacing the previous Julian calendar: the next day after Thursday, October 4, became Friday, October 15.

PRINCIPLE OF HISTORICISM. PARADIGMS OF HISTORICAL SCIENCE. GENERAL HISTORICAL PERIODIZATION.

Historicism- scientific method, the principle of considering the world, natural and socio-cultural phenomena in the dynamics of their change, formation over time, in a natural historical development, involving the analysis of objects of research in connection with the specific historical conditions of their existence.

Periodization of history- a special kind of systematization, which consists in the conditional division of the historical process into certain chronological periods. These periods have certain distinctive features, which are determined depending on the chosen basis (criterion) for periodization.

PERIODIZATION OF THE HISTORY OF PRIMITIVE SOCIETY. MONUMENTS OF PRIMITIVE CULTURE ON THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIA.

Stone Age:

Stone Age- the oldest period in human history, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture).

Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:

The Lower Paleolithic is the period of the emergence of the most ancient species of people and the widespread spread of Homo erectus.

Middle Paleolithic - the period of displacement of erecti by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern man. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.

Upper Paleolithic - the period of dominance of the modern species of people throughout the territory globe during the last glaciation.

Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on the extent to which the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of glacier melting. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general human culture. There is no ceramics.

Neolithic is the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age:

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic(Greek χαλκός “copper” + Greek λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic (Latin aeneus “copper” + Greek λίθος “stone”)) is a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Chalcolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

Bronze Age:

Bronze Age- a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but they differ among different cultures. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost synchronous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., known as the Bronze Collapse, while in western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age dragged on for several more centuries and ended with the emergence of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Iron Age:

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age.

THE LARGEST GREEK POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CENTERS IN THE NORTHERN BLACK SEA REGION. SCYTHIANS.

Ancient Greek colonies of the Northern Black Sea region:

Borysthenes (on the island of Berezan at the mouth of the Dnieper) - the first Greek colony in the Northern Black Sea region, later its center moved north to Olbia; founded approx. 647 BC e.

Tire (now Belgorod-Dniester, founded c. 502 BC); UNESCO is included in the list of the 10 oldest cities in the world, the oldest city (existing) in Ukraine.

Olbia (region of Ochakov, founded in the first quarter of the 6th century BC, one of the largest policies in the region);

Kerkinitida (now Evpatoria, founded around 550 BC by the Ionians. In the 4th - 2nd centuries BC it was under the rule of Chersonese, then captured and practically destroyed by the Scythians.);

Chersonesos Tauride (now in its place is Sevastopol; founded by the Heracleans around 528 BC) is the most important city in southwestern Taurida; weakened by the struggle with the steppe nomads and the Bosporus, it became dependent on Rome, and later became the possession of Byzantium. His successor was the Principality of Theodoro.

Kalos-Limen (near the town of Chernomorskoye) - founded in the 4th century BC. e. by the Ionians. At the end of the 4th century BC. e. was captured by the Chersonesos; became the arena of confrontation between the Greeks and the steppe peoples - the Scythians and Sarmatians. Destroyed by the Sarmatians in the 1st century AD. e.

Feodosia - founded in the middle of the 6th century BC. e., from 355 BC. e. - captured by the Bosporan kingdom. After the Hun invasion - an Alan, then a Khazar settlement, which gradually became deserted. The revival began in 1267, when this place was bought from the Tatars by the Genoese as a trading post and where the city was revived under the name Kafa;

Panticapaeum (later the center of the Bosporus Kingdom (now Kerch, founded at the very end of the 5th century BC or the first quarter of the 5th century BC) with adjacent policies and settlements that were also part of the Bosporan kingdom:

• Tiritaka

  Mirmekiy

• Cimmerick

  Zenonov Chersonesos

  Heraclius

• Parthenius

On the Asian side of the Cimmerian Bosporus:

Hermonassa - founded by the Milesians in the first quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Kepi ​​- founded by the Milesians in the 580s - 570s BC. e.

Corcondama

Patraeus - founded no later than the third quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Phanagoria - founded shortly after 543 BC. e., the largest city on the Asian side of the Kerch Strait;

Detailed solution paragraph Introduction to history for 10th grade students, authors V.I. Ukolova, A.V. Revyakin Profile level 2012

• Gdz testing and measuring materials on History for grade 10 can be found

Define the concepts and give examples of their use in historical science:

civilization is a stable socio-cultural community, consisting of a culturally and linguistically united group of countries at a certain stage of development;

historical anthropology - the concept of historical development and method of knowledge based on the awareness of the unity of material and spiritual culture, as well as through cross-cultural research, with the focus of research being on primitive societies;

modernization is the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

1. In what senses is the concept “history” used?

On the one hand, history is the totality of past events. By default, what happened to humanity, but there is also the history of the planet Earth itself (geology studies it), the history of the Universe (astronomy tries to understand it), etc.

On the other hand, history is our idea of ​​this very past, its awareness and analysis. Such a picture is precisely created by the science of history.

The historian studies not the past itself, but the evidence about that past. As a rule, these are written sources that were written by someone, that is, events and phenomena are passed through the prism of the author’s perception. Material evidence is more objective, but it carries much less information; usually, the same written sources are still needed to interpret it.

Not all written sources created and not all material evidence reach us. Time usually makes subjective selection itself, although there are exceptions. Thus, the Spanish colonialists purposefully destroyed the books of the Aztecs, hoping that having lost the heritage of their pagan ancestors, they would more easily accept Christianity. From ancient sources, we have come down mainly to those that were copied in the Middle Ages, and then texts were specially selected according to certain criteria, so we largely see the picture created as a result of this selection.

The historian analyzes the data obtained based on existing methods. In history, as in any science, they develop: researchers of the past did not have the tools that they have today. This also applies to help natural sciences(radiocarbon dating, methods for recreating a face from a skull, etc.), and directly analyzing the text, which has been increasingly improved over generations of scientists.

In addition, any historian analyzes the past through the prism of his time. The most striking example is the ideological influence on history that many political regimes have tried to exert in recent centuries. But there are also less obvious examples. Often the result depends on the personal preferences of the researcher, his gender and other conditions.



4. List the types of historical sources. What is their feature? Illustrate your answer with examples.

Historical sources.

1. Material. These are usually finds during archaeological excavations. They are the most objective, but without the help of written sources they are sometimes difficult to interpret. This is why, for example, we know so little about the Cretan (Minoan) culture - there is a lot of material evidence left from it, but the writing of that people has not been deciphered, the language is not understood.

2. Written.

a) Works of art. They rather reflect the author’s idea, but the author lives in certain historical conditions, which he involuntarily reflects in the work. Therefore, in the absence of other sources works of art can be of great help to scientists. For example, numerous studies are based on the poems of Homer, although they most often study the era of the creation of the poems, and not the Trojan War.

b) Religious texts. It is difficult to extract information from them, but some contain it. So the Bible is the main source for studying the past Jewish people. However, one should take into account the specifics of the source and understand that the presentation of events in such texts was not the main goal.

c) Memoirs. They tell directly about historical events. However, nothing prevents the author from distorting reality in order to whitewash himself or for any other purposes. It should also be taken into account that memoirs are usually written many years after the events described, and human memory is a complex thing that is only just beginning to be understood. An example is the memoirs of Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov: with the discovery of archival funds dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, more and more places are emerging where the marshal, to put it mildly, distorted reality, posing as a great strategist who knew and predicted everything in advance.

d) Letters. Unlike memoirs, they are usually written immediately after the event. But the question of the author’s sincerity remains. Examples are the letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero (the texts of many of them have survived): they are not used to reconstruct an event if the information reported is not confirmed in parallel sources, but they contain a lot of valuable information about the life and morals of the Romans of the 1st century BC .

d) Press. Many of their contemporaries learned about the events from publications in newspapers and magazines, and historians can also use them. However, the “objectivity” of the press is well known: it is most concerned with either circulation or the opinion of the authorities, depending on the type of state in which the publication is published. In addition, the publication often appears before all the details of the event become known. As an example, we can mention the differences in the coverage of the events in Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 by US and Chinese newspapers, and not only the assessments, but the published “veils” were different.

f) Chronicles, chronicles, etc. Contrary to popular belief, the authors had reasons not to distort what they knew. However, the question arises about their awareness. Typical example- “History” by Herodotus. When the author describes events close to his time, he conveys them quite accurately, but when describing the first centuries of the Greco-Persian conflict (which he traces back to the beginning of history itself), he uses overt mythology.

g) Official documents. They usually reflect reality objectively, because they are compiled for practical purposes, and not for transmitting information to descendants. However, they have their own specifics and individually usually contain little information. Thus, it makes sense to study the tablets from the economic archives of Sumerian temples only in their significant complex. From a separate entry that says, for example, how much grain a particular person contributed as a tax, little can be understood.

There are many other types of written sources.

3. Folklore. It should be remembered that events in folklore are described through the prism of folk memory. In addition, these works went through a long journey of oral transmission before they were written down. For example, it would be strange to study the reign of Vladimir the Saint according to the description of Vladimir the Red Sun in Russian epics. However, they provide valuable information about people’s perception of certain events, about the worldview of the people.

4. Photos.

a) Artistic photos. They help in studying the history of culture, as well as life and material objects. For example, in the pre-war period, even artistic photographs buildings that were later destroyed during the fighting are visible, and fashion magazines of past decades are the best source for studying this very fashion.

b) Documentary photos. Typically, they are objective, but require interpretation based on other types of sources. For example, photographs of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin during public speaking help us understand what kind of expression he had, why he led so many people. But if we did not know from other sources who the speaker was and what his role in history was, we would not be able to understand the value of these frames.

5. Cinema and phono sources.

a) Artistic. This type includes feature films, recordings of musical compositions, etc. From them you can study the history of culture, as well as life and even worldview, and also obtain other valuable information. For example, shortly after the Russian Revolution, most of the horse stunts in Hollywood films were performed by emigrated Cossacks. Therefore, there you can see examples of horse riding that are described in written sources, but rarely caught on film.

b) Archival records. This type mainly includes recordings of television and radio programs. They are also useful for learning about both culture and worldview. For example, in such recordings we can see interviews with politicians of past years, analyze their demeanor, style of speech, etc.

c) Documentary films and programs. In such films we see authentic footage. Sometimes they are preserved only in this form - the originals are lost. But in this case, you need to understand that the material passed through the prism of the perception of the film’s author. He did not edit the footage and audio fragments, but selected those that seemed most interesting to him and best reflected his idea.

d) Documentary footage and audio recordings. These are recordings made during the events, not processed by anyone. They are the most objective, but require patience, because in order to find the one most informative minute, sometimes you need to look through the clock. An example is the numerous materials from the Great Patriotic wars, made by operators directly during combat operations, directly in the thick of things.

5. Can a historian be objective? Confirm your opinion.

The historian usually strives for this, but cannot be completely objective. If only because human perception of even what he directly sees and hears is not completely objective. And the scientist understands historical events with the help of sources that have an author with his own biased perception. Information passes through the prism of perception of several people. Moreover, these people differ in their worldview, which is why they often understand the same things differently. In addition, we must not forget about the censorship of time - not everything created in a certain period has reached us, many sources died for a variety of reasons. Therefore, our knowledge is largely mosaic.

6. Write an argument on the topic “Three reasons why people study history, and what studying history will do for me personally.”

Historical science in its primitive form arose in Ancient Greece. It has existed as a mature science at least since the 18th century. Areas of knowledge that are not needed by humanity are measured out over such a period of time. Suffice it to recall phrenology - a science that tried to understand a person’s character, intelligence and mental state by the protrusions of his skull (which supposedly indicated the greater or lesser development of certain parts of the brain). Phrenology was quite popular at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, but eventually died out. Nothing like this happened in history.

People study history for the following reasons.

1) This is interesting. Any science begins with interest, otherwise there is no point in doing it.

2) The opportunity to avoid past mistakes. Lately The phrase “History teaches only that it teaches nothing” is becoming more and more widespread, but still, after the horrors of World War II, humanity learned not to divide people into full-fledged and inferior on any grounds, after the end of colonialism it realized the importance of the independent life of everyone from nations, etc.

3) Formation of one’s own historical memory. The common past plays big role in the formation of a nation, patriotic feeling and much more.

Personally, what attracts me to history is the ability to literally immerse myself in other eras. It's like living another life and then returning to yours. Immersion in history without knowing it is like bad Hollywood movies - only the weapon changes, while the musket is held like a modern rifle. But a different era means not only a different city around and people in different costumes, but also a different behavior, a different picture of the world in their heads, different interests, expectations and aspirations. All this is very interesting.

1. Highlight social functions stories. What role does history play in politics? Give examples of the ideologization of history.

Social features:

Cognitive function;

Predictive function (although the failures of such forecasts throughout the twentieth century shook the position of this function);

Self-identification of nations and civilizations;

Educational function.

History was used in a distorted form by many regimes. Thus, in the Soviet Union, the formational approach dominated, according to which the highest form of historical development was communism, in the previous one - socialism. Based on this concept, the USSR, like the rest of the countries of the socialist camp, was declared more developed than the “decaying West.”

Hitler's Germany focused on civilizations that developed rapidly, and then began to degrade, after which they disappeared. Nazi scientists argued that development was ensured by the Aryan ethnic element, and degradation began when Semites began to dominate the civilization.

Using history for ideological purposes inevitably distorts history because the reality of the past is too complex to illustrate simple political ideas. Mixing ideology and history always harms historical science.

2. Name modern concepts historical development. Make a summary of the 3rd paragraph of the paragraph in the most rational form.

1. Civilization concepts.

a) Concepts of French enlighteners.

b) Civilization as a stage of development of society.

c) Civilization as a cultural and historical community.

d) Linear-stage theories of civilization.

e) A. Toynbee’s concept and its development.

2. Historical (cultural) anthropology.

a) Study of primitive societies.

b) School of “Annals”.

c) New sections: history of mentality, everyday life, etc.

d) Comparativeness in history.

3. Theories of modernization.

a) Understanding modernization as accelerating development.

b) Understanding modernization as a transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era.

c) Understanding modernization as a transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

d) The second and third echelons of modernization.

3. Think about why there is no single definition of the concept of “civilization.”

Because this word with a Latin root originally had a very broad and relatively vague meaning, and in everyday life it has retained it to this day. However, it was very popular. In science, a definition must unambiguously imply one specific meaning. Each author of the concept took one aspect of the everyday meaning of the word “civilization” and included it in his constructions. There are many civilizational concepts, and therefore there are many definitions of the concept “civilization”.

4. Explain the concept of “modernization”. In what historical situations is it appropriate to use this concept, and in what is it not? Give examples.

It is easiest to use this concept in the narrowest sense of the word. Modernization is the path from a traditional society to an industrial one. In this sense, the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 is a significant step towards modernization.

The concept of modernization as a transition from the Dark Ages to our time is much broader. In this sense, modernization also means reforming the Western Christian Church (meaning the Reformation, where the restructuring of the Catholic Church during the struggle with the Protestant Church). In the same sense, the transition of an already industrial society to a post-industrial one (in which the main part of GDP is the service sector and the majority of the employed work in this sector) is also modernization.

Modernization as accelerated development is associated with the concept of progress. This is the introduction of steam engines and the invention firearms, and much more.



Today there are about 2.5 thousand different sciences in the world. Most of them can be divided into two categories: natural (studying the laws of nature) and humanitarian (studying human society). Some sciences originated in ancient times, others appeared relatively recently. History is a humanitarian discipline that dates back more than 2 millennia. Her father is considered to be Herodotus, a scientist who lived in Ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. He is the author of the treatise "History", which describes the events of the Greco-Persian wars and the customs of the people who lived in those times. The work of Herodotus is the oldest piece of literature containing reliable information about the development of society.

The importance of auxiliary historical disciplines

The subject of historical science is the study of the past of human society and the determination of the patterns of its development. Modern scientists examine past times from various angles: they study everyday life, the domestic and foreign policies of states, their culture, diplomatic and financial relations, the activities of political and public figures, and so on. Auxiliary historical disciplines facilitate the study of the human past. These include archaeology, numismatics, heraldry, sphragistics, paleography, metrology, chronology, etc. A lot of interesting information was obtained thanks to historical geography. Without a thorough study of the listed sciences, it is difficult to understand the past of mankind.

Ancient excavations

Archeology is a science that studies the history of ancient people using preserved monuments (cemeteries, sites, settlements, weapons, household items, jewelry). To search for objects, scientists first conduct field research, then it is the turn of excavations. Found archaeological sites are carefully studied in laboratory conditions: they are classified, their age and scope of application are determined. Objects recovered from excavations are of great scientific importance as they help shed light on the origins and development of human society.



The concept of paleography

Paleography is a discipline whose object of study is ancient writing and everything connected with it. Ancient texts written on papyri, parchment and paper are the most important sources of information containing descriptions of real events centuries ago. However, not a single ancient handwritten material will be of interest to historical science if it is not deciphered. Paleographers study the text, determine its author, the date of writing, as well as the age and authenticity of the document itself.



With the development of this auxiliary discipline, scientists were able to study history much deeper and more detailed. Ancient world. For example, about the social revolution in Egypt that occurred in 1750 BC. e., was learned from a manuscript found at the end of the 19th century in the Saqqara necropolis. A detailed study of the document showed that it dates back to the 18th century. BC e. and describes real historical events.

Heraldry and sphragistics, their connection

The science of coats of arms is called heraldry. In ancient times, all noble persons and families had their own emblems. Later they began to appear in cities and states. The shape of the coats of arms, the drawings and inscriptions applied to them had their own deep meaning, corresponding to the established foundations of society. It is enough for a specialist to look at the sign offered to him in order to determine which clan or state it belonged to and what its evidence indicates. appearance. Ancient manuscripts were often decorated with coats of arms, so deciphering them requires knowledge not only of paleography, but also of heraldry.



The science of coats of arms has a close relationship with sphragistics, a discipline that studies seals and their display on different surfaces. Sometimes it is also called sigillography. Initially, it was an integral part of diplomacy, which deals with determining the authenticity of historical documents, but gradually separated from it and became an independent discipline. Close connection between heraldry and sphragistics is that the same images were used in the manufacture of coats of arms and seals.

Numismatics and metrology

When studying auxiliary historical disciplines, you must definitely pay attention to numismatics - the science of coins and their circulation. The study of ancient money can convey to modern people information about destroyed cities that have not survived to this day, important historical events and great people of past eras. When minting old coins, the same symbols were used as on seals and coats of arms, so here too there is a connection between individual historical disciplines.



Metrology is the study of measures of weight, area, volume and distance used in the past. It helps to analyze the features economic development states in different eras. Since the names of measures of weight and money counting in ancient times often coincided, metrology should be studied together with numismatics.

Historical chronology and geography

Determine the location of occurrence ancient civilizations, directions of migration of peoples, borders of countries and cities, change climatic conditions and their influence on human settlement will be helped by historical geography. Old maps that have survived to this day allow us to more deeply understand the atmosphere and events of ancient eras.



Among the auxiliary historical disciplines it is also worth mentioning chronology - a science whose subject of study is time calculation systems and ancient calendars of different peoples. It also determines the dates of events that occurred and the sequence in which they occurred.

The above sciences are studied in detail in the history departments of universities. In higher educational institutions a course is taught in auxiliary disciplines, archeology, historical geography and other sciences are taught separately. A large amount of literature on the topic is published today for students. There are textbooks and methodological manuals, and monographs. G. A. Leontyeva, “Auxiliary Historical Disciplines” is the most popular book among history students. This textbook consists of several parts, each of which is devoted to a separate science. In it you can find information about heraldry, chronology, paleography, metrology and other sciences. Thanks to the easy presentation of the material, students can comprehensively study auxiliary historical disciplines. The textbook is considered the most modern today; it allows you to gain in-depth knowledge of the subject, which will subsequently help a person carefully examine all materials and objects.