Lyell's contribution to the scientific theory of biology. Mikhail EngelhardtCharles Lyell

Charles Lyell (1797-1875) - English naturalist, one of the founders of actualism in geology, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1871). In the main works. “Fundamentals of Geology” (vol. 1-3, 1830-33), as opposed to the theory of catastrophes, developed the doctrine of slow and continuous change earth's surface under the influence of constant geological factors. Adhered to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

Actualism is a comparative historical method in geology, according to which, by studying modern geological processes, one can judge similar processes in the distant past. It is used taking into account the course of development of the Earth and the changing geological situation. As a scientific principle, actualism was put forward in the 1st half. 19th century English geologist Charles Lyell.

When a new, startling truth is revealed, people first say: “This is not true,” then: “This is contrary to religion,” and finally: “This is an old truth.

Lyell Charles

The theory of Catastrophes (catastrophism) (from the Greek katastrophe - turn, revolution) is a geological concept according to which events periodically repeat in the history of the Earth, suddenly changing the primary horizontal occurrence of rocks, the topography of the earth's surface and destroying all living things. Proposed in 1812 by the French scientist Georges Cuvier to explain the change in faunas and floras observed in geological strata. By the end of the 19th century, catastrophe theory lost its significance.

Charles Lyell was born November 14, 1797 in the county of Forfar, Scotland, on his father's estate Kinnordy. He was the first-born in a large family consisting of three sons and seven daughters. Charles grew up in a wealthy family in enviable conditions, in material comfort, in an atmosphere of science and literature. His father, an inquisitive man and a great esthete, was familiar with many writers and scientists, studied botany with some success, and translated Dante Alighieri. Soon after Charles's birth, his father rented the Bartley Lodge estate in the New Forest, in southern England, where he moved with his entire family

In the fourth year of his life, Charles Lyell learned to read, and at the age of eight he entered Dr. Davis's school in the city of Ringwood. School activities progressed quite tolerably, although by no means brilliantly. In Ringwood. Lyell studied reading, writing and grammar, and in his ninth year he was transferred to Dr. Radcliffe's school in Salisbury, fashionable at the time, where the sons of local aces studied Latin. After studying for two years at Radcliffe School, Lyell was transferred to Dr. Baley's school in Midhurst. This school was sharply different from the previous ones - it did not have such a family, homely character

The cruel morals of the schoolchildren oppressed Charles, since at home he saw only affection and caring, he had a meek and peaceful character and did not have strong fists. What he had to experience at Bluebeard Radcliffe's school turned out to be a toy in comparison with the Spartan customs of the new school.

After leaving school, Charles Lyell entered Oxford University. At the university, he did not at all aim to become a naturalist, but dreamed of a literary career, and for the sake of earning a living, he chose the bar, deciding to study law at Oxford. But little by little, an instinctive love for nature begins to fill him more and more and eventually takes precedence over the artificially instilled love for the classics and literature. This happens outside of his consciousness, in spite of his efforts. He tries to focus his attention and interests on Oxford science and is surprised, even saddened, to see that this fails.

At Oxford, natural science played a very subordinate role, but was not completely abandoned. Among other things, lectures on geology were given here, and not by anyone, but by Buckland himself, the head of English geologists of that time. Bookland belonged to the old school of “catastrophists.” In history earth's crust he distinguished two main periods before and after the flood. There is nothing in common between them - before the flood some forces acted, after the flood - others. That was the past, and this is the present, and it is necessary to strictly distinguish between these concepts.

Gradually, geology took a dominant place in his studies. Charles Lyell began to undertake entire journeys for geological purposes. So, in 1817, he visited the island of Staffa, where he examined Fingal’s Cave, famous among aesthetes for the songs of Ossian, among geologists for its remarkable basalt pillars, a very curious geological phenomenon. The following year he traveled with his father, mother and two sisters to France, Switzerland and Italy.

The five or six years which followed the completion of his course at Oxford may be considered Lyell's true academic years. There are few lucky ones who managed to go through such good school. Constant trips around England and the mainland provided the opportunity to verify and consolidate with my own observations the information gleaned from books. Charles Lyell also learned a lot from his personal acquaintance with the most outstanding geologists of Europe. Finally, visiting collections and museums served as a good complement to the material gleaned from books, in the field, and in conversations with scientists.

In 1820, Charles Lyell's eye disease forced him to temporarily quit his legal studies and go with his father to Rome.

In 1822 Lyell made a trip to Winchelsea- an area very interesting geologically, since here he could observe a vast expanse of land that had relatively recently been freed from under the sea

In 1823, Charles Lyell was elected secretary of the Geological Society, and his first completely independent geological research dates back to the same year. He took an excursion to Sussex and the Isle of Wight, where he studied the relations of certain strata that had until then remained unclear. He reported his observations - purely special, devoid of general significance - to Mantel, who later published them in “Geology of the Isle of Wight”.

The year 1824 was devoted to geological excursions in England with Constant Prevost and in Scotland with Buckland, and the following year Lyell’s first printed works appeared on the serpentine layers in Forfarshire and on freshwater marl: factual, descriptive works, the first experiments of a novice scientist.

Some time later, his article appeared in one of the magazines, in which he sets out his credo, the main idea of ​​his further work. But Charles Lyell had not yet appreciated all the difficulties of the work ahead of him. He thought his role would be primarily that of a compiler. He decided to write a geology textbook, an ordinary compilation textbook, a brief summary of the materials accumulated in science, of course, differently covered than those of previous researchers. It turned out, however, that it was impossible to write a compilation, but something more could and should be done.

“I felt,” wrote Charles Lyell, “that a subject in which it is necessary to carry out so many reforms and alterations, in which you yourself acquire new ideas and develop new theories as you complete your task, in which you have to constantly refute and find arguments - that such a subject should be developed in a book that has nothing in common with a textbook. I had to not present ready-made truths to my students, but conduct a dialogue with my equals.”

In 1828, Lyell and his friend Murchison undertook a long geological excursion to France, Italy and Sicily. The main goal of this expedition was to become more familiar with the sediments of the Tertiary era. According to the existing theory, there was a gap, a break, between the Tertiary and modern eras. “The course of events has changed,” the old world perished, destroyed by some catastrophe, and a new one was erected.

Charles Lyell's previous excursions made him doubt the validity of these conclusions; Now he decided to test his doubts by studying Tertiary sediments all the way from France to Sicily. His research completely destroyed previous views. Comparing Tertiary fossils with modern ones, he concluded that they represent one inseparable whole: Tertiary sediments, climate, and population imperceptibly transform into modern ones. Nothing speaks in favor of enormous general catastrophes breaking the chain of phenomena; on the contrary, everything indicates a slow, continuous and homogeneous process of development.

It is clear what enormous significance these conclusions had for the theory of uniformitarianism. The catastrophists were losing their main support: proof of the existence of a sharp break between the present and the past.

The first volume of Lyell's Principles of Geology was published in 1830, the second in 1832, and the third in 1833.

It is difficult to define in a few words the meaning of this book. It does not fit into a brief formula, and is not expressed in bright discoveries that could be counted on one hand.

His whole book as a whole represents a discovery. In Charles Lyell's book the activity of modern forces of nature first appeared in its true light. He showed that, firstly, the work of these “weak” agents actually leads to colossal results, continuing for an indefinite time, and, secondly, that it actually continues for an indefinite time, imperceptibly merging with the past.

The first and second volumes of Fundamental Principles are devoted to the study of modern forces. Let us list the main categories of phenomena that are interpreted here. Lyell proved that enormous fluctuations in climate can occur due to changes in the outline of continents and seas, that such changes have actually occurred during geological history and are consistent with the revolutions in climate evidenced by the same history.

The activity of water as a geological agent was first elucidated by Charles Lyell in its true scope and significance. He established the concept of the destructive and creative work of rivers, sea currents, ebbs and flows; showed the enormous dimensions of these two parallel and correlative processes.

By studying the products of the activity of modern volcanoes and comparing them with ancient volcanic rocks, he showed that both are essentially homogeneous in nature and indicate the same process - local volcanic actions that took place with long intervals over long periods. On the contrary, nowhere, neither in ancient nor in new formations, are there signs of an action that is superior in energy and speed to modern phenomena.

Finally, Lyell studied no less fully and thoroughly the question of the role of organic agents in the history of the earth's crust. He debunked the previous opinion about breaks in history organic world, accompanied by the destruction and emergence of entire faunas and floras, proving (for the Tertiary era) that with more careful study we discover here a gradual development, in harmony with the gradual transformation of the inorganic environment.

Climatic theory, the laws of action of water and volcanic agents, the origin of volcanoes, the outline of a more correct theory of mountain formation, the role of organisms in the history of the earth's crust and the connection between the development of the organic and inorganic world - these are the main points in Lyell's work.

On this foundation Charles Lyell built historical geology- an outline of the changes experienced by the earth's crust from ancient times to the present. Subsequently published as a separate work, this essay represents the first sketch of historical geology as we study it today.

He personally is responsible for the study of the tertiary system in this area. This was the first detailed study and subdivision of a huge department in the history of our planet: the scheme established by Lyell (Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene) has survived to this day with changes only in details. Later, other researchers followed in Lyell's footsteps - Sedgwick, Murchison, McCulloch and others - they did for the most ancient systems, secondary and primary, the same thing that he did for the tertiary.

Regardless of this, his study of the tertiary system was of great philosophical importance, showing that the “modern order of things” had been going on for God knows how long and had led to a complete transformation of the earth's surface in terms of its structure, climate, flora and fauna.

Lyell's book was a huge success. The first and second volumes went into two editions before the third was published, so that in 1834 a third edition of the entire work was required. In England, Lyell's views spread most quickly and were recognized. For young, aspiring scientists, his book was a real revelation.

“When I set out on the Beagle,” said Darwin, “Professor Henslow, who, like all geologists of that era, believed in successive catastrophes, advised me to obtain and study the just published first volume of the Fundamental Principles, but not in Do not accept his theories under any circumstances. How the opinions of geologists have changed! I am proud that the very first place where I carried out geological research, Santiago on the island of Cape Verde, convinced me of the infinite superiority of Lyell’s views compared to those defended by geologists known to me until then.”

In 1832, the scientist married Mary Horner, who had long been considered Lyell's fiancée - the daughter of Lyell's acquaintance, the famous scientist Leonard Horner. Miss Horner was well-read, knew foreign languages, studied geology and subsequently helped her husband in his research, identified fossils for him, and so on. She was a calm, sensible woman, the same balanced nature as Lyell himself; They got along perfectly in character and lived for forty years in perfect harmony. The publication of "Fundamentals" was the most important event in Lyell's life. Until then, a little-known geologist, not entirely well-behaved, although a “promising” student of Bookland, he immediately became the head of science. True, the founding fathers were indignant at such a violation of subordination, but they could not help but see that they were dealing with the head of the school.

In London, Charles Lyell was offered to lecture on geology at the Royal College. He agreed - not quite willingly, however, because he was afraid that being a professor would interfere with independent research. Soon after his marriage, Lyell abandoned his professorship in order to devote himself entirely and exclusively to independent research.

Lyell said goodbye to the legal profession long ago; Now the last doubts about my career have disappeared. His entire subsequent life was devoted to science. She spent time on geological excursions and processing data collected during the excursions. Lyell traveled a lot in Europe and America: a good third of his life was spent “in the field,” as geologists put it. With the flourishing of new geology, the fame of its founder expanded, and with it came awards, honors, and distinctions from scientific institutions and governments.

In 1834, Charles Lyell received a gold medal from the Royal Society of London - the oldest and most famous of the scientific societies in England - for “The Fundamental Principles of Geology,” and 24 years later it honored him with its highest award. In 1848 he was knighted and from that moment on he became not just Charles Lyell, but “Sir” Charles Lyell; in 1864 he was created a baronet. It seems that he reacted rather indifferently to these titles; at least, in his letters, these events are mentioned only in passing and without any passion, which, however, is felt when he talks about his scientific significance, which, apparently, was very important to him. very flattering.

In 1854, Oxford University elected him an honorary Doctor of Laws, and in 1862, the Paris Academy, which had voted Lyell out five years earlier as a heretic and impious, changed its anger to mercy and accepted the geological reformer into its sanctuary as a corresponding member.

Around this time, his studies took a slightly different direction, focusing on the new science of prehistoric man, which had just emerged at that time, to which he devoted his last years. At the end of his life, Charles Lyell, who was still able to work, became interested in a completely new question for geologists - the appearance of man on Earth.

It has long been known that along with the bones of mammoths there were some strange, as if artificially chipped, pieces of flint. It has been suggested that these pieces of stone represent stone axes of prehistoric people. But learned professors and members of academies laughed at these “ridiculous” assumptions. Some geologists, including Lyell, took notice of these findings.

Charles Lyell traveled to France, Germany, and Italy in search of traces of Ancient Man and wrote a sensational book about the results of his research, “Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man.”

Love for nature pushed Lyell onto the path of a geologist; pride drove him along this path. Self-esteem generally played an important role in his life. As a child, awards and distinctions forced him to cram Latin grammar; in adulthood, the thirst for fame strengthened and incited his natural inclination towards natural science. But he did not have the pride of small great people who need to be approached with censers and signs of allegiance... Likewise, pride never forced him to belittle other people’s merits or fear competition.

“Of all scientists,” says Darwin, “no one can compare with Lyell in friendliness and benevolence. I have seen him many times and am inclined to like him greatly. You can’t imagine how involved he was in my plans.”

Charles Lyell died on February 22, 1875. in the seventy-eighth year of life. He was buried in Westminster Abbey with honors.

Charles Lyell (Lyell) (eng. Sir Charles Lyell; November 14, 1797 - February 22, 1875) - the founder of modern geology.

He came from a wealthy family, whose fortune was provided by his grandfather. He, having entered the Royal Navy as a sailor, managed to become a treasurer on large ships. In 1778, during the American Revolutionary War, he was secretary to the commander of the British Navy, John Byron, and purser of the flagship HMS Princess Royal. The position allowed him, after retirement, to acquire 5,000 acres of land in Scotland, including Kinnordy House and Inverquarity Castle near Kirriemuir. Charles's father inherited the Scottish possessions. He married Frances Smith.

Charles was their first child, born on the family estate of Kinnordy in Forfairshire (now Angus). A year later, the family moved to their home in the south of England, in Hampshire. In his fourth year, Charles learned to read, and in his eighth year he entered school. Spending the summer in the village, he became addicted to collecting insects, identifying them from an atlas stolen from some library, which contributed to the development of the habit of observation and classification. In 1816, nineteen-year-old Charles accidentally discovered R. Bakewell's Introduction to Geology in his father's library - this book later became Lyell's reference book.

Upon entering Oxford University, he studied classics, but did not leave his studies natural sciences. At the lectures of William Backland, he became more familiar with geology and became friends with many outstanding naturalists. A trip in 1818 to France, Italy and Switzerland, during which he diligently became acquainted with collections in museums and observed such grandiose natural phenomena as glaciers and volcanoes, significantly expanded his scientific horizons. Nevertheless, having received a bachelor's degree in 1819, he moved to London, where he studied legal sciences specifically. For several more years, Lyell did not leave his legal practice, making annual geological excursions throughout England and Scotland, and trips abroad.

In 1825, his first printed works appeared, devoted to the description of the latest geological formations of some areas of England and Scotland. Lyell draws attention to the sad state of geology - from Cuvier's catastrophe hypothesis it was concluded that the study of modern geological movements cannot provide any help in restoring the history of the Earth in long-ago times, and to explain the observed facts it was necessary to resort to completely arbitrary and fantastic assumptions. Diligently studying recent and modern geological deposits, Lyell soon came to the conclusion that Cuvier's view of the difference between the extent of geological activity in past eras and in modern times does not correspond to reality.

A young little-known scientist, in the eyes of most an amateur, was not afraid to enter into a fight with the greatest authorities of his time. Only after several years of hard work, in 1830-33, Lyell’s classic work “Principles of Geology” appeared (in editions), which constituted an era in science. In this work, with the help of enormous erudition, an accurate presentation of facts and a brilliantly witty explanation of them, he irrevocably proved that “from ancient times to the present day, no other reasons have acted except those that are now operating, that their action has always manifested itself with the same energy that they exhibit now” and that, consequently, the study of modern phenomena can provide a reliable key to the analysis of more ancient geological monuments.

Lyell's application of the new method to the study and classification of Tertiary deposits gave such brilliant results that the enormous scientific significance of the method was beyond doubt. Lyell's bold ideas initially aroused fierce attacks from the most authoritative representatives of the old views, but already in the 1840s in England, and by the early 1860s. all over the world the old geological theories were relegated to the realm of history. In the 1st edition of "Fundamentals" a solid foundation was laid for the new geology, but much remained to be done, and all scientific activity Layel's work, which ended only with his death, was devoted to presenting the history of the Earth on new principles.

Surrounded by honor and recognized as the head of the geologists of his fatherland, Lyell remained a private man all his life, shirking any official position, with great reluctance and for a short time even accepting the title of President of the Geological Society of London, not wanting to take time away from his scientific studies. Lyell spent almost a third of his life traveling around Europe and North America, interrupting excursions only to process the collected material. During his scientific career, he published over sixty scientific articles and notes covering many details of geology, including four voluminous volumes of travel in North America.

In the 1860s. The scientist’s health began to noticeably weaken, but excursions and travel continued as usual. In 1875, his wife died, for 40 years his constant assistant. scientific works; Shocked by her death, the half-blind old man sought peace in the pursuit of his favorite science. At the age of seventy-seven, a few months before his death, he undertook a journey to study the ancient and new igneous rocks of his homeland, Forfairshire. In his last letter, written shortly before his death, discussing this trip, Lyell once again points out the identity of ancient and new volcanic formations, confirming the views to which he devoted his life. He soon died and was solemnly buried in Westminster Abbey, next to his friend, the famous astronomer John Herschel.

In 1848 he was created a knight (Sir), in 1864 - a baronet (1st Baronet).

In 1935, the International Astronomical Union assigned the name Lyell to a crater on the visible side of the Moon.

Works and views

The largest result of Lyell’s scientific activity remains “Fundamentals of Geology” (The full title of the book in literal translation (according to A.I. Ravikovich): “Principles of Geology, which is an attempt to explain past changes in the Earth’s surface by relating them to currently operating causes”) in three volumes ( 1830-1833). In England, these books were published 11 times during the author’s lifetime and were constantly updated; the 12th edition was posthumous. The 9th (pre-Darwinian) edition, which was published in 1866, was translated into Russian.

In 1836 they were divided into two separate books: “Elements of Geology - History of the Earth's Crust” and “Fundamentals of Geology - Activities of Modern Geological Agents” (dynamic geology). The first work went through 6 editions (until 1865). The 6th edition was translated into Russian 2 times under the title “Guide to Geology” (1866, 1878), and the second - 11 editions, each of which represents a thorough revision of the previous one based on new observations, and the most important of these observations were personally verified by Lyell. These books reflected two of Lyell's favorite theories - actualism and uniformitarianism (the principle of uniformity of natural forces over time)

In his work “Fundamentals of Geology,” Lyell developed the doctrine of slow and continuous changes in the earth’s surface under the influence of constant geological factors. He transferred the normative principles of biology to geology, building here a theoretical concept that subsequently influenced biology. In other words, he transferred (reduced) the principles of the highest form to cognition lower forms. However, the Earth for Lyell does not develop in a certain direction, it simply changes in a random, incoherent way. Moreover, for him, change is only gradual quantitative changes, without a jump, without breaks of gradualness, without qualitative changes.

The extent to which Lyell closely followed new phenomena in science is shown by his attitude towards Darwinism and the question of prehistoric man. Recognizing great importance Darwin's views, Lyell, together with Hooker, convinced him to publish his famous work, “The Origin of Species.” Having recognized the soundness of his arguments, despite his 60 years, Lyell fully, although not without doubts and hesitations, sided with the teachings of Darwin, abandoning many of the views that had guided him throughout his scientific career.

Lyell was 60 years old when he became acquainted with the remains of an “antediluvian” man discovered by Boucher de Pert in the Somme Valley (he would later be called a Neanderthal). Despite the fact that these discoveries were met with general distrust, Lyell, having convinced himself on the spot of their reliability, not only supported Boucher de Perth with his authority, but, becoming generally interested in the question of ancient man, traveled around all the areas interesting in this regard Western Europe. The result was Lyell's last major work, The Antiquity of Man, a collection of all the accumulated fragmentary data on prehistoric man, brilliantly illuminated and re-verified. Lyell's work attracted the attention of scientists and gave impetus to further research in this direction, thanks to which a branch of science subsequently emerged - prehistoric archaeology.

Translations into Russian

• Lyell Ch. The foundations of geology or the changes that once occurred with the earth and its inhabitants / Transl. from the 5th ed.: In 2 vols. M.: typ. E. Barfknecht and Co., 1859: T. 1. 96 p.; T. 2., 96-177 p.
• Lyell Ch. Geological evidence of human antiquity, with some comments on theories of the origin of species / Transl. from 3 English ed. IN. Kovalevsky. SPb.: type. HE. Baksta, 1864. XII, 512 p.
• Lyell Ch. The basic principles of geology or the latest changes in the earth and its inhabitants / Transl. from English A. Min: In 2 vols. M.: ed. A. Glazunova, 1866. T. 2. 462 p.
• Lyell Ch. A Guide to Geology, or Ancient Changes of the Earth and Its Inhabitants, According to the Evidence of Geological Monuments / Trans. N. A. Golovkinsky. From 6th English ed., 1865, value. additional: In 2 volumes: T. 1. 1st half. SPb.: type. N. Tiblen and Co. (N. Neklyudova), 1866. , II, 496, VI p.; T. 2. St. Petersburg: type. or T. A.E. Landau, 1878. , IV, 281 p.
• Lyell Ch. Guide to Geology Vol. 1 (Ancient changes of the earth and its inhabitants, according to the evidence of geological monuments). Per. N. A. Golovkinsky, 1867.
• Lyell Ch. Guide to Geology. T. 2 / Per. from 6th ed. Ed. V. O. Kovalevsky. SPb.: type. or T. A. E. Landau, 1878. , IV, 563 p.

Surrounded by honor, recognized as the head of the geologists of his fatherland, Lyell remained a private man all his life, shunned any official position, with great reluctance and for a short time even accepted the title of President of the Geological Society of London, not wanting to take time away from his scientific studies. Lyell spent almost a third of his life traveling around Europe and North America, interrupting excursions only to process the collected material. During his scientific career, he published over sixty scientific articles and notes, covering many particulars of geology, including four voluminous volumes of travel in North America.

In the 1860s. The scientist’s health began to noticeably weaken, but excursions and travel continued as usual. In 1875, his wife, a constant assistant in his scientific works for 40 years, died; Shocked by her death, the half-blind old man sought peace in the pursuit of his favorite science. At the age of seventy-seven, a few months before his death, he undertook a journey to study the ancient and new igneous rocks of his homeland, Forfairshire. In his last letter, written shortly before his death, discussing this trip, Lyell once again points out the identity of ancient and new volcanic formations, confirming the views to which he devoted his life. Soon, on February 10, 1875, Lyell died and was solemnly buried in Westminster Abbey, next to his friend, the famous astronomer John Herschel.

Works and views

The largest result of Lyell’s scientific activity remains “Fundamentals”, which he later divided into two separate books: “Elements of Geology - History of the Earth’s Crust” and “Fundamentals of Geology - Activities of Modern Geological Agents” (dynamic geology). The first work went through 8, and the second - 11 editions during the author’s lifetime, each of which represents a thorough revision of the previous one based on new observations, and the most important of these observations were personally verified by Lyell. These books reflected two of Lyell's favorite theories - actualism and uniformitarianism.

In his work “Fundamentals of Geology” in three volumes (1830-1833), Lyell developed the doctrine of slow and continuous changes in the earth’s surface under the influence of constant geological factors. He transferred the normative principles of biology to geology, building here a theoretical concept that subsequently influenced biology. In other words, he transferred (reduced) the principles of the highest form to the knowledge of lower forms. However, the Earth for Lyell does not develop in a certain direction, it simply changes in a random, incoherent way. Moreover, for him, change is only gradual quantitative changes, without a jump, without breaks of gradualness, without qualitative changes.

The extent to which Lyell closely followed new phenomena in science is shown by his attitude towards Darwinism and the question of prehistoric man. Recognizing the great importance of Darwin's views, Lyell, together with Hooker, convinced him to publish his famous work, “The Origin of Species.” Having recognized the soundness of his arguments, despite his 60 years, Lyell fully, although not without doubts and hesitations, sided with the teachings of Darwin, abandoning many of the views that had guided him throughout his scientific career.

Lyell was 60 years old when he became acquainted with the remains of an “antediluvian” man discovered by Boucher de Pert in the Somme Valley (he would later be called a Neanderthal). Despite the fact that these discoveries were met with general distrust, Lyell, having convinced himself on the spot of their reliability, not only supported Boucher de Perth with his authority, but, becoming generally interested in the question of ancient man, traveled around all the interesting areas of Western Europe in this regard. The result was Lyell's last major work, The Antiquity of Man, a collection of all the accumulated fragmentary data on prehistoric man, brilliantly illuminated and re-verified. Lyell's work attracted the attention of scientists and gave impetus to further research in this direction, thanks to which a branch of science subsequently emerged - prehistoric archaeology.

LYELL, CHARLES(Lyell, Charles) (1797–1875), English geologist. Born in Kinnordy (Scotland) on November 14, 1797. He studied in 1816–1819 at Exeter College, Oxford University, where he received a bachelor's degree. At Oxford he became interested in geology and attended lectures by professor of geology and mineralogy William Buckland (1784–1856). At his father's request, he studied jurisprudence. Since 1823, Lyell has been secretary of the Geological Society. In 1824 he made geological trips with Professor Louis-Constant Prevost (1787–1856) to Bristol and Land's End and with Buckland to Scotland. In 1825 he resumed his studies in law at Lincoln's Inn and began practicing as a lawyer. In 1826 Lyell was elected a member of the Royal Society. Two years later he devoted himself entirely to geology. In 1830–1833 his three-volume work was published Basics of Geology (Principles of Geology), which went through 12 editions. In 1832 Lyell was appointed professor of geology at King's College, University of London, and in 1834 elected president of the Geological Society in London. The scientist conducted geological surveys in Switzerland, Germany and Scotland, and visited North America four times in 1841–1842. In Boston, he gave the first series of lectures on geology. In 1842 and 1852, together with J. Dawson, he conducted field research in Nova Scotia (Canada), during which an epoch-making discovery of fossil remains of organisms from the Carboniferous period was made.

IN Basics of Geology Lyell showed that modern geological processes are essentially no different from those that occurred on Earth in the past (the principle of actualism). The book had a profound influence on biological ideas; Charles Darwin's early observations were based on the ideas of Lyell, who later actively supported Darwin. Lyell proposed the term "paleontology" to denote the science of fossil organisms, and divided the Tertiary system into three divisions, which he called the Pliocene, Miocene and Eocene. The basis of modern geology was the doctrine of uniformitarianism, created by J. Getton (Hutton). In 1864 Lyell became president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Society. He was a corresponding member of the Institute of France, as well as a member of many academies and scientific societies. Among Lyell's main works are Introduction to Geology (Elements of Geology, 1838); Travel and geological observations in North America (Travels in North America, with Geological Observations, 1845); Second trip to the USA(A Second Visit to the United States, 1849); Introduction to Geology for Students (Student's Elements of Geology, 1871); Geological evidence of human antiquity (The Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man, 1836).

Charles Lyell. His life and scientific activities Engelhardt Mikhail Alexandrovich

Chapter V. Lyell's mature years

Chapter V. Lyell's mature years

Lyell's life after the publication of the Fundamental Principles. – Excursion to the Pyrenees. – Lyell's professorship. – The Rise of Sweden. – Trips to America. - Opinion about slavery. – Further excursions. – A brief outline of their results. – Lyell's social activities. – His attitude to politics. – The struggle for the independence of science. – Lyell's literary tastes. - The society in which he moved. – Honors and awards .

The publication of "Fundamentals" was the most important event in Lyell's life. Until then, a little-known geologist, not entirely well-behaved, although a “promising” student of Bookland, he immediately became the head of science. True, the father-commanders were indignant at such a violation of subordination, but they could not help but see that they were dealing with the head of the school.

In general, his book made a stunning impression, like all similar works that turn science in a new direction. They knew that he intended to speak out in defense of uniformitarianism, but no one expected that this would result in a transformation of science. The idea itself was old and well known: we named scientists who tried to apply it to the history of the Earth. But these attempts only seemed to reveal her powerlessness; so the vast majority of geologists decided that nothing could be done with this tool. We have already seen what Lyell did to him.

He said goodbye to the legal profession long ago; Now the last doubts about my career have disappeared. His entire subsequent life was devoted to science. All of it took place in geological excursions and in processing the data collected during the excursions. Ungrateful material for a biographer! Life without adventures! Life without events, monotonous and prosaic, a chapter from a learned treatise! That is, this life had its own adventures, its own events: the discovery of some iguanadon, the establishment of a connection between two formations, etc., etc., but who, except a specialist, can appreciate the deep and dramatic interest of such events?

Lyell traveled a lot in Europe and America: a good third of his life was spent "in field", as geologists say. But these excursions took place within civilized countries and do not represent a dramatic element: clashes with savages, fierce beasts, etc. The adventures and hardships that Lyell had to endure were of a more everyday nature: he happened to get wet in the rain; sitting in the mud on the road due to a broken wheel; spend the night in some shack on an empty stomach, without getting either eggs or milk for dinner, because the owners, due to poverty, do not keep any domestic animals except fleas; had to fight with customs officials or with the police, who pestered the traveler with the incredulous: who? Where? where? For what? by whose permission?

In a life devoted to spiritual interests, events of an ideological nature are natural milestones that divide it into certain periods. Thus, in Lyell’s life we ​​can distinguish the period of childhood when his still instinctive love for natural science first awakened; academic years when the gymnasium temporarily turned him away from his true calling; a return to science, culminating in the publication of the Fundamental Principles; the thirty years that followed, devoted to the processing of the new geology; The last years of his life, marked by an important turning point in his views and a new direction in his studies, since, without leaving geology, he became interested in the science of prehistoric man.

We have reached the publication of “Fundamentals”; Now let's give a quick sketch of the era that followed them - the most active and fruitful in Lyell's life.

Having published the first volume of his book, he undertook a geological excursion to Southern France and the Pyrenees, with some Captain Cook. Captain Cook was interested mainly in “the knowledge of all kinds of places”; Lyell studied the geological structure of the Pyrenees and extinct volcanoes in Catalonia. Both were harassed by suspicious Spanish police, who did not want to believe that an English naval officer and his mysterious companion were traveling to collect stones and herbs (Captain Cook, among other things, was engaged in botany). Some alcalde finally “guessed” that these strange people were emissaries of a secret society founded in London with the aim of spreading liberal principles in the monarchical states of Europe. The “guess” threatened our travelers with the most unforeseen adventures; fortunately, they had stocked up on a safe-conduct from the governor; the wise alcalde, fuming and declaring that “the governor is not his decree, because he, the alcalde, receives orders from the king himself,” eventually calmed down.

Returning from this excursion, Lyell stopped in Paris to talk with the scientists there, but, as we have already mentioned, they were too busy with the political catastrophe (the July Revolution) to think about geology.

In London, he was offered to lecture in geology at the Royal College. He agreed - not quite willingly, however, because he was afraid that being a professor would interfere with independent research. At the same time, doubts arose about his orthodoxy: the clergy who had a voice in the appointment of professors found Lyell’s teachings not entirely pious, not entirely in agreement with traditional cosmogony... However, in the end, they condescended and declared that Lyell’s strange doctrines were based on the study of facts , - perhaps misunderstood, - but do not stem from a hostile feeling towards revelation. So, he became a professor and retained this position for two years. It did not particularly interfere with his independent research: during this time he managed to make three geological excursions - to the Eifel volcanic region, between the Rhine and Moselle, to Switzerland and Tyrol; in addition, he processed and published the second and third volumes of “Basic Principles,” which included the results of the mentioned excursions.

Among his acquaintances was the famous scientist, Leonard Horner. His daughter, Mary, had long been considered Lyell's bride, and in 1832 they got married. Miss Horner was well read, knew foreign languages, studied geology and subsequently helped her husband in his research, identified fossils for him, and so on. She was a calm, sensible woman, the same balanced nature as Lyell himself; They got along perfectly in character and lived for forty years in perfect harmony.

Soon after this, Lyell resigned his professorship in order to devote himself entirely and exclusively to independent research. He was somewhat confused by the money side of the issue, but he expected to receive income from his books.

“If I could be sure that my work would bring me a fair income,” he wrote to his wife, “I would feel free from all responsibility, burning my ships in relation to the Royal College. Don't think that I look at science from a mercantile point of view. But I would like to ensure that I have the opportunity to freely have time to work for science and for fame, realizing at the same time that I do not forget about the interests of my family and get for it something more significant than fame.”

Having published the third and final volume of “Fundamentals,” he undertook a large geological excursion to Denmark, Sweden and Norway to resolve the issue of continental uplift. Even in the last century, Celsius argued that the Scandinavian Peninsula was slowly and continuously moving out of the sea (Celsius attributed this phenomenon to the retreat of the ocean). Leonard von Buch later confirmed Celsius' opinion. Marks made on coastal rocks, on the upper tide line, eventually turn out to be above this line; cliffs that were once hidden under the water protrude above its level; buildings built on the shore retreat inland.

In the first edition of his book, Lyell expressed doubts about the accuracy of these data, and to finally resolve the issue he went to Sweden himself. Having checked previous indications and collected many new ones (regarding sediments containing sea shells and rising high above sea level), he eliminated all doubts about the “great northern phenomenon,” as this slow uplift of the Scandinavian Peninsula was called, and was even able to calculate its average value (0.9-1.2 meters per year). The significance of this phenomenon for the theory of uniformitarianism is clear. No matter how slowly this rise occurs, if it continues for a thousand years, the current coastal area will be at an altitude of 4-5 fathoms above sea level, in a hundred thousand years - at an altitude of 400-500 fathoms, and so on. These slow rises and falls are noticed at different points globe. The earth's crust never remains motionless; it is always agitated, rising in one place and falling in another. These movements are extremely slow, barely observable, although their result far exceeds the most devastating earthquakes, the most colossal eruptions. Once we are convinced of the existence of such movements, we begin to understand how modern continents were formed. All of them consist mainly of sedimentary rocks, all were formed under water, all were once the bottom of the sea. Wandering across the plain, climbing the highest peaks, descending into the deepest gorges, we almost always and everywhere remain at the bottom of the ancient dry sea. How did this former bottom end up at such a height? Secular movements of the earth's crust, such as the one currently taking place in the area covering the Scandinavian Peninsula and Northern Russia, explain this transformation of sea into land.

It is clear that Lyell, having finished publishing his book, wished to verify the existence of this phenomenon before any further research. “I see now,” he wrote to his wife from Stockholm, “that I was right when, while processing the last edition of my book, I thought that I should not write anything more without first knowing the truth regarding the “great northern phenomenon.” You will see how important it is, how it will influence my opinions and how much it will advance the theory that sees in action modern reasons the key to explaining geological phenomena."

During next years he undertook a number of excursions to Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Normandy and Touraine. The fruit of these trips was a number of memoirs, which we will not list and present due to their specialty.

In 1841 he went to America, where he traveled for more than a year, and upon his return he outlined the results of his trip in the book “Travel to North America,” published in 1845 in two volumes and several special articles and notes.

“Journey to North America” cannot be called a popular book, although it is written in a clear, simple, sensible style, characteristic of English writers, and concerns not only geology, but also public life, political life, public education in North America. Scientifically it represents an important contribution to the geology of the United States and a number of new illustrations of the system of uniformitarianism. In terms of political views, what is most striking in it is Lyell's Manila views on slavery. Planters, according to him, are sweet and virtuous people, burdened and almost oppressed with slaves who need to be watered, fed, taught, treated, punished - in a word, nurtured in every possible way. If in this way the planters are worthy of pity, then the slaves can only be congratulated: they live like Christ in the bosom, work little, have a lot of fun; fed, shod, clothed - what else is needed for human well-being?

These strange - for such a free-thinking, humane man as Lyell - deserve more detailed analysis; we'll talk about them in the next chapter.

On his return from America he toured England, Scotland and Ireland; in 1845 he again visited the United States, where he remained for about nine months. The fruit of this trip was A new book: "Second Visit to the United States, 1849."

This was followed by a series of excursions to Germany, America, the Canary Islands, Saxony, Bohemia, Tyrol, Italy and Sicily, which provided a lot of material on a wide variety of issues of historical and physical geology. Thus year after year passed in tireless and continuous work. About 60 special memoirs, articles, notes, 9 editions of “Fundamentals”, 5 editions of “Elements” of geology, and 4 impressive volumes of travel around North America - these are the scientific results of this period of Lyell’s life.

From this mass of research, observations, discoveries, large and small, we note two memoirs about the slow rise of Scandinavia, having finally resolved this important issue; research on Mississippi Delta, for the formation of which, according to Lyell’s calculations, it took at least 100,000 years - and over retreat Niagara, lasting, according to his calculations, about 35,000 years. Such calculations are Lyell's specialty and strength. They are of great importance, revealing to us in the present light the so-called "modern" era, its almost endless antiquity, the energy and modes of action of its agents - and giving a certain scale for judging previous geological processes. He made similar calculations on volcanoes, trying to determine the time required for the formation of a volcanic cone from the layers of lava and ash deposited during the historical era. A series of studies devoted to this subject culminated in 1859 with an important memoir "On the hardening of lava and volcanoes" finally establishing in science the “theory of accumulation”, for which Lyell and his predecessor on this issue, Paulet Scrope, stood. According to this theory, a volcano represents a pile of lava, ash and slag, accumulated little by little through countless eruptions, while the opposite “uplift theory” explained the origin of volcanoes by swelling of the earth’s crust under the pressure of a fiery liquid mass.

Further, in this body of work we find many studies on historical geology, dedicated to the Silurian, Carboniferous, Tertiary and other systems in various countries of Europe and America. Regardless of their importance for geological classification, they present many observations of the transitions from one formation to another, fill up many gaps between different epochs, and often throw light on the processes of sedimentation in ancient eras. In this last respect Lyell's observations are particularly interesting. In his research, he always paid attention to the details of the structure of ancient layers. These very details - small, thin layers, imprints of raindrops, traces of water ripples and similar signs - often make it possible to restore to the smallest detail the conditions of formation of sediment that was deposited millions of years ago, and indicate the identity of the ancient and new order of things.

All these studies were constantly processed into one whole, put in connection with the discoveries of other geologists and published in the “Fundamentals” in the form of a coherent system.

The nature and direction of these works were determined by the first edition of the Elements. They represent a further development of the principles established therein. Among them there are large studies like the above-mentioned memoir about the hardening of lava, there are also small ones - like the works “On the Imprints of Rain in the Carboniferous Seams”, but there is not a single random. This is not a pile of materials trained by a hardworking worker, but a slender building erected by a skillful architect. But he laid the foundations of this building back in 1830-1833. A number of issues that he touched upon in the first edition of his book, he continued to develop throughout his life. Those categories of phenomena that he illuminated then occupied him subsequently. Among his later works there is not a single one that would bring to life new department Sciences. True, those that he created in the first edition of the Elements were enough to absorb all human activity.

Wanting to concentrate his energies on his beloved science, Lyell avoided social and pedagogical activities whenever possible, but could not always get away from them.

Various institutions invited him to lecture; Thus, in 1833, 1849, 1850 he gave several public lectures at the Royal Institution of London, and in 1841 and 1851 in Boston. The Geological Society twice elected him president, and he did not consider himself entitled to refuse this position, although the troubles associated with it were not to his heart.

"Don't accept any official academic position, he writes to Darwin (1836), “if you can avoid it; and don’t tell anyone that I gave you such advice, otherwise they will attack me as a preacher of anti-patriotic principles. I fought off the disaster of being chairman as long as I could... I often ask myself whether the time spent by learned societies on various “affaires administratives” is rewarded by the benefits they bring. Imagine Herschel not at the Cape, but as president of the Royal Society! But he barely escaped this appointment, and I, a sinful man, voted for him! In general, work, as I worked, exclusively for yourself and for science, without chasing honor and the boredom of official positions. There will always be a lot of hunters for these places who wouldn’t otherwise work.”

He wrote to Herschel about the same subject:

“In general, I really regret the time that I have to spend on these reports (annual reports on the activities of the Geological Society) and on official duties. There are people who like these duties, but I don’t like them, because they take a lot of time and break up thoughts... My friends are angry with me when I congratulate them, as friends of science, on the fact that we failed to elect you president of the Royal society... Now, at least, your time is not spent on appointing officials, writing laudatory speeches, presiding over councils and similar things that a person of ordinary ability can do.”

Sometimes he had to carry out official assignments from the government: for example, in 1844, he and Faraday investigated the causes of the explosion in the Gaswell coal mines; in 1851 he participated in the commission for organizing the exhibition in Hyde Park; in 1853 he traveled as a commissioner to the international exhibition in New York.

They offered him more important places and positions, but here he resolutely reared up and fought back with his hands and feet: he did not even want to accept the deputy title, despising the enviable right to attribute the letters “M.R.” to his last name. (Member of Parliament, member of parliament), which, in fact, exhausts the activities of many deputies. He did not want to betray science, and therefore shunned politics. “Thank God, it looks like we won’t have to deal with politics!” - he exclaims in one letter... “If you want to live a long time and earn a lot... most of all, avoid political fuss”... “I have long since stopped being involved in public affairs; We, who have set ourselves the task of developing science, have no need to get confused in them.”

Be that as it may, it was necessary to get confused in public affairs, although rarely. In these cases, Lyell was guided by the principles of broad free-thinking and, as they say, “held high the banner of science,” trying to free it from all extraneous influences. Thus, he spoke out against the Anglican Church, which at that time looked very askance at “secular” science, not wanting to recognize its right to free research. Science should serve as a commentary on the Bible, the theologians of that time thought.

In England the clergy exercised enormous influence; educational establishments, from universities to rural schools, were under his supervision; secular teachers were subordinate to the church. Lyell was a strong opponent of this system.

“The influence of the Church of England, which replaces real popular education with apparent education, can lead to despair,” he writes to Ticknor. “Even the most liberal representatives of our clergy claim that the working classes will be unhappy if they receive an education.” On this basis, they try to limit public education to simple literacy training and pay school teachers three hundred rubles a year - a salary that their servants, who live on everything ready-made, would not be satisfied with. It would be good if the people or the laity took this matter into their own hands, as you have (in America); I just don’t hope so.”

“No, I will not have to live to see the time when a class of secular teachers arises in England, just as wealthy, just as independent, just as established in society as the clergy!.. The people want education - so here it is (the clergy) and replaces it with what is apparent, and in this manner avoids what he fears more than a sharp knife, that is, that the people will become capable of thinking and reasoning.”

He expressed these views publicly; not in such harsh language, it is true, but with sufficient frankness. Thus, in his American journey, he devoted an entire chapter to English universities, pointing out the subordinate position of science and the harmful consequences of this system. He said the same thing at the congresses of the British Association, and at every opportunity when it came to education.

In the same way, he strove to free science from noble patrons. In the old days, when science was in a corner, its representatives, willy-nilly, had to huddle around rich and noble patrons of the arts. An astronomer compiled horoscopes for some royal person, an alchemist found a philosopher's stone for her, a doctor prepared elixirs to maintain her health, and so on. Later, when science acquired an independent position, the pursuit of high patrons became unnecessary, but was preserved due to “experience”, expressed in the desire of learned societies and institutions to elect the brightest, most illustrious, most excellent patrons, presidents and honorary members... Lyell rebelled against this custom, finding its incompatible with the dignity of science. Thus, in 1848, he wrote to his sister regarding one of the meetings of the council of the Royal Society: “I pointed out that of the forty-eight members of the Upper House who attribute to their names “F.R.S.” (Fellow Royal Society - Member of the Royal Society) and representing that part of our aristocracy which cares most for science, no one has ever published a single message in the journal of the society, with the exception of Lord Broome - and even then thirty-three years before his election to the peerage... I said that I had the greatest respect for the talents of our peers, but these talents further highlight their disdain for science..."

The desire to avoid social activities does not mean in this case narrow specialization or indifference to the development of mankind. Lyell was by no means one of those scientists who are deaf and blind to everything except their specialty. On the contrary, he was a man with broad interests, with aesthetic inclinations, who inherited from his father a love of poetry, music, painting... He did not want work in the sphere of public activity, finding that the area which he has demarcated for himself is wide enough to absorb all his forces. But that didn't stop him track behind what was happening in other areas.

Leafing through his book, you are surprised not only by the enormous and versatile erudition of the author, but also by his literary education. We don’t know if there is another scholarly treatise that would give such a place to poetry. Rarely is a chapter complete without a quotation: Lyell quotes from Virgil, Ovid, Lucretius, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Dante, and so on. In his youth, he himself tried to “strum the inspired lyre”; We find one of these rattlings in his letters - a poem dedicated to the island of Staffa, not so much poetic as geological, in which he speaks with great pathos about the volcanic forces that gave rise to the basalt pillars of Fingal's Cave. Then he tried to write about geology in prose; it turned out much better, and he said goodbye to the muse. Nevertheless, he retained his love for poetry. Lyell's youth coincided with a great event in English and world literature: Byron appeared. But the great poet’s frenzied muse seems to have frightened the calm and reasonable geologist a little: at least, Byron is hardly mentioned in his letters, although poetry and literature in general are discussed quite often. Apparently, he preferred the peace-loving poetry of Wordsworth, Gray and others, who sang of roses, dreams, tears, nightingales and other things that are supposed to be sung according to the rules of pure art. He also loved the novels and ballads of Walter Scott, whom he knew personally, and admired the works of Madame Stahl.

“Tell your mother,” he writes to the bride, “that if she gets sad, I advise you to read the chapter from Ms. Stahl about the benefits of studying in such a mood. This is from the essay “On the Influence of Passions on the Happiness of Nations and Individuals” - one of the most brilliant works of our century... This is the creation of a soul that was overwhelmed by almost all passions, which felt strongly and therefore found eloquent expression for its feelings; its rules and instructions often do not fit in with everyday life and are inaccessible to vulgar souls; but this is a magnificent work... In my opinion, it represents an exceptional phenomenon and is almost equal to the greatest people of his era. Her imagination was lively and poetic, but tempered by reason; she had a philosophical mind. If she wrote poetry in the same way as prose, she would prove that the best ability of the human soul is inherent not only in men, but also in women, who, however, already possess many virtues inaccessible to our sex.”

In addition to fine literature, Lyell was interested in painting, and the arts in general, and in his continuous wanderings throughout Europe, he did not miss the opportunity to get acquainted with wonderful works of painting, sculpture, architecture, etc. In his letters we find reviews of Giotto's frescoes, Raphael's paintings, statues and buildings - revealing, if not an expert, then at least an amateur. He also followed outstanding works of historical literature, read Macaulay, Prescott, Motley, Ticknor, Buckle and others. In a word, he lived a full spiritual life, enviable in terms of richness and variety of impressions, moving, moreover, in the company of outstanding representatives of science and literature. In this regard, he was lucky from a young age: his father knew many writers and scientists, whom his son also met. His closest friends were: geologists Murchison, Mantel and others; J. Hooker, one of the best botanists of our century; Darwin; Mrs. Sommerville, famous for her work on physical geography; Ticknor, an American historian, author of a very famous history of Spanish literature, with whom Lyell became acquainted during his trip to the United States and subsequently corresponded constantly; J. Herschel, famous astronomer, and others. Traveling around the mainland, he became acquainted with the luminaries of European science: Cuvier, Humboldt, Arago, Laplace, Berzelius; later Bunsen, Liebig, Haeckel, Dubois-Reymond - this is the society in which he moved. There was a place to gain intelligence, even if you didn’t have enough of your own.

As Lyell's fame grew and he became an adornment to his fatherland, the mighty of the world began to honor him with their attention. Among his later acquaintances we meet Robert Peel; Danish Prince Christian, philanthropist and lover of science in general, and geology in particular; some German princess, very intelligently, according to Lyell, talking about Darwinism and the like. He met these people mainly at dinner parties and evenings, so there were no particularly close relationships here. However, one of them, Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, who did not reign, but served as the queen’s husband, saw Lyell quite often and, apparently, sympathized with him. At least Lyell speaks of him with sincere feeling.

With the flourishing of new geology, the fame of its founder expanded, and with it came awards, honors, and distinctions from scientific institutions and governments.

In 1834, Lyell received a gold medal from the Royal Society of London, the oldest and most famous of the learned societies in England, for “The Fundamental Principles of Geology,” and 24 years later it honored him with its highest award, the Copley Medal. In 1848 he was knighted (“knight”) and from that moment on he became not just Charles Lyell, but “Sir” Charles Lyell; in 1864 he was created a baronet. He seems to have taken these titles rather indifferently; at least, in his letters, these events are mentioned only in passing and without any passion, which, however, is felt when he talks about his scientific significance, the awareness of which, apparently, was very, very flattering to him.

In 1854, Oxford University elected him an honorary Doctor of Laws, and in 1862, the Paris Academy, which had voted Lyell out five years earlier as a heretic and impious, changed its anger to mercy and accepted the geological reformer into its sanctuary as a corresponding member.

Around this time, his studies took a slightly different direction, focusing on the new science of prehistoric man, which had just emerged at that time, to which he devoted his last years. But before we talk about this, let us dwell on his character and mental makeup.