Outstanding figures of Russian culture of the 16th century. The tangled history led to the emergence of a large number of impostors posing as the deceased heir. Verbal portrait of figures of the 16th century

Before the scientific revolution occurred in the 17th century, about 2.3 million years ago, our earliest ancestors began using the first primitive tool: a stone, which they used for cutting and scraping.

Over the next 1 million years, early humans gradually learned to make stone tools and use fire.

Modern humans first appeared about 200,000 years ago. About 50,000 years ago they (or should it be us?) began using language, symbols, and more complex communication tools.

This is how inventions and discoveries, especially since the 17th century, were added to each other in human civilization, this is how technology and science developed. The word "science" comes from the Latin word " scientia", which means "knowledge". Science is probably the most important and useful field of study for the human race.

The most famous scientists and inventors of the 17th century in history

The beginnings of science and the scientific method spread largely from the ancient Greek world, which covered the eastern Mediterranean.

The names of the great learned philosophers of the time, such as Pythagoras, Archimedes, Aristotle, Eratosthenes and Thales, are still known today, more than 2000 years later.

The era of modern science begins in the 17th century

Science entered a new era with the Renaissance, which began in Italy in the 14th century. From the 17th century onwards, the new era of science expanded and flourished across much of Europe.

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 brought large numbers of refugees to Europe, bringing with them Greek and Roman books unused for centuries. These books, as well as the invention of the printing press in 1450, accelerated the pace of learning in Europe during the Renaissance. However, in those days, most of the intelligentsia focused on artistic or humanistic disciplines.

But scientists of the 17th century carried out a rapid scientific revolution.

Chronology of the development of the scientific revolution:

• c 1600 - Galileo Galilei discovers the principle of inertia at the stage of representing rational motion.
• 1600-William Gilbert believes that the Earth has magnetic poles and acts like a huge magnet.
• 1600 - Galileo Galilei discovers that projectiles are moving along a parabolic trajectory.
• 1608 - Hans Liepershey invents the refractor, which Galileo Galilei put to use.
• 1609 - Galileo Galilei notes the moons of Jupiter, refuting the church dogma that all movement in the Universe is connected with the Earth.
• 1609 - Johannes Kepler publishes the first two laws of planetary motion, showing that the planets move in an elliptical orbit around the Sun.
• 1610 - John Napier publishes tables of logarithms, showing how they can be used to speed up calculations.
• 1619 - Johannes Kepler publishes his third law of planetary motion, taking into account the timing of the planets' rotation around the Sun.
• 1621 - Willebrord Snell discovers the law of refraction of light.
• 1628 -Johann Kepler publishes a planetary table, in the calculations of which Napier's logarithms are used.
• 1629 - Nicholas Cabeus finds the existence of two types of electric charge and notes the forces of attraction and repulsion.
• 1632 - William Oughtred invents the slide rule. Mathematics develops with the use of logarithms.
• 1632 - Galileo Galilei believes that the laws of motion are the same at all inertial reference points.
• 1637 - Rene Descartes invents the Cartesian coordinate system - i.e. x-y axis for graphics, allowing changes in quantities and time.
• 1645 - Blaise Pascal invents the Arithmometer.
• 1652-Thomas Bartholin discovers the human lymphatic system.
• 1662-Robert Boyle publishes his law of pressure and volume in gases.
• 1654 - Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat develop probability and statistics in mathematics.
• 1656-Christian Huygens discovers the rings of Saturn after creating a new telescope, the best in the world at that time.
• 1657-Pierre de Fermat uses the principle of least time in optics.
• 1658 - Jan Swammerdam discovers red blood cells.
• c 1660 – Otto von Guericke builds a rotating sphere from which sparks emanate. It was a machine for creating static electricity. It also demonstrates the force of electrostatic repulsion.
• c 1660 - Robert Hooke proves the force of tension, compression and bending, which is directly proportional to the force applied.
• 1661-Robert Boyle established the landmark gas law (Boyle–Mariotte law) and also writes a manifesto of chemistry, explaining the roles of elements and compounds.
• 1633 - James Gregory publishes a design for a reflecting telescope.
• 1664 - Robert Hooke uses a microscope to observe life.
• 1665-Isaac Newton invents the calculus of mechanics and astronomy, the law of universal gravitation, developed differential and integral calculus without which it is impossible to understand the modern world.
• 1666 - Isaac Newton discovers that light is made up of all the colors of the rainbow, which are refracted into different colors in a glass prism.
• 1667 – Isaac Newton builds the world's first reflector.
• 1668 - John Wallis discovers the principle of conservation of momentum - one of the foundations of modern physics.
• 1669 - Hennig Brand was the first to identify a new chemical element - phosphorus.
• 1674-Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms.
• 1675 - Robert Boyle shows that electrical repulsion and attraction also operate in a vacuum.
• 1676 - Olaf Christensen Römer measures the speed of light for the first time.
• 1676 - Christiaan Huygens finds that light can be refracted and diffracted and this should be considered as a wave phenomenon.
• 1684 - Gottfried Leibniz publishes the calculus he discovered independently of Isaac Newton in calculus: differential and integral calculus based on infinitesimal quantities.
• 1687 - Isaac Newton publishes one of the most important scientific books: “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.”

It was a significant century in which science moved from a state of knowledge that was in many ways, paving the way for the Industrial Revolution of the 1700s and for the discoveries and inventions of many other famous scientists.

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Alexey Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676) - Russian Tsar from the Romanov dynasty. A supporter of church reform and the establishment of an absolute monarchy in the country, his transformations in the country's political system are connected with this.

Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) - the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty, elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor. Basically restored the country economically after the Time of Troubles.

Fedor Alekseevich (1676 - 1682) - Russian Tsar, the eldest son of Alexei Mikhailovich and Maria Miloslavskaya, who continued the main directions of his father’s policies.

Filaret (Romanov Fedor Nikitich) - boyar, Russian patriarch, father of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and the de facto ruler under him.

Nikon - the son of a peasant, took monastic vows. For a long time he was a monk in the northern monasteries, then became a metropolitan in the city of Novgorod, from where he was elected patriarch. He carried out a church reform to unify rituals, which resulted in a split in the Russian Church. He was removed from the patriarchal throne.

Avvakum Petrovich - head of the Old Believers and ideologist of the schism in the Orthodox Church, archpriest and writer. In 1646 - 1647 one of the members of the “Circle of Zealots of Piety.” He opposed Nikon's reforms. He was exiled with his family to Tobolsk, then to Dauria. After the Council of 1667 sent to an earthen prison, where he spent 15 years. Was burned.

Opdin-Nashchokin A.L. (1605 - 1680) - Russian diplomat, major statesman, negotiated the results of the wars with Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Treaties of Valiesar and Andrusovo). Headed the embassy department. Retired in 1671.

Morozov B.I. - boyar, educator of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, de facto head of government in 1645 - 1648. The financial reforms he carried out sparked popular uprisings. After which he retained political influence without official positions.

Miloslavsky I.B. - one of the close boyars, then the father-in-law of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a supporter of Western reforms in Russia.

Gustav II Adolf (1594 - 1632) - King of Sweden from 1611. He waged wars with Denmark, Russia, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, capturing vast territories. Depression during the Thirty Years' War.

Sigismund III (1566 - 1632) - king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587, of Sweden in 1592 - 1599. One of the organizers of the intervention in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century.

Vladislav IV Vasa - son of Sigismund III, in his youth he was invited to the Russian throne during the Time of Troubles, king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1632. He continued his father's policies.

Bohdan Khmelnytsky - Orthodox nobleman of Russian origin, was chosen as Cossack ataman and hetman. One of the organizers of the Pereyaslav Rada, which spoke out for reunification with Russia.

Shein M.B. - boyar, governor. He headed the defense of Smolensk in 1609 - 1611. Since 1619 confidant of Patriarch Filaret and head of a number of orders. He commanded the army that besieged the city of Smolensk in the war of the same name. After the surrender he was executed.

Sheremetyev F.I. - boyar, associate of the tsars Mikhail Fedorovich (under whom he actually headed the government in 1643 - 1645) and Alexei Mikhailovich.

Stepan Razin (1630 - 1671) - Don Cossack, leader of the peasant-Cossack movement, which grew into the Peasant War. He was handed over to the government of Alexei Mikhailovich and publicly executed.

Erofey Khabarov (1610 - 1667) - Russian explorer, sailed along the rivers of Siberia. In 1649 - 1653 gt. made a number of campaigns in the Amur region, compiled a “Drawing of the Amur River”.

Jan Casimir (1648 - 1668) - the last Polish king from the Swedish Vasa dynasty, known for continuous wars with Sweden and Russia. Due to military failures, he was forced to abdicate the throne.

The science of the past, the science that people create. Great artists, generals, kings and revolutionaries - all these people devoted their lives to great ideas in order to one day go down in history and remain in its annals.

It is not easy to compile a list of outstanding personalities, if only because the sources about the early stages of the development of Ancient Rus' and other countries are poorly preserved (especially for the period before the 14th century). It is also difficult to create a balanced and logical list in which there would be a place for every truly significant person who left their mark on history. While statehood was just emerging in Ancient Rus', and the Rurikovichs were coming to power, Europe was already actively waging wars with neighboring states for spheres of influence. The lag of Ancient Rus' from European countries is also noticeable in terms of cultural development.

By the middle of the 15th century, Ancient Rus', liberated from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, began to build a state in the European style, but another dynastic crisis made the country’s progress impossible. When talking about the achievements of famous commanders and artists, it is easiest to trace how the world was changing and how certain states were developing.

August II Strong (Handsome)	Elector of Saxony from 1694, King of Poland (1697-1706 and 1708-1733), Russian ally in the Northern War
Adoshev Alexey Fedorovich	Kostroma nobleman, member of the Elected Rada, stuffy clerk of the Petition Order; from 1566 in disgrace
Apraksin Fedor Matveevich	Companion of Peter I, count, admiral general, commander of the Russian fleet during the Northern War and the Persian Campaign, from 1700 - head of the Admiralty Prikaz, from 1718 - president of the Admiralty Board, from 1726 - member of the Supreme Privy Council
	Khan of the Great Horde (from 1465), organizer of the campaign against the Russian lands in 1480, which ended with a stand on the Ugra River and the final overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke; killed by Tyumen Khan Aibek
Batu (Batu Khan)	Mongol Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, led campaigns in Eastern and Central Europe (1236-1242)
Batory Stefan	Prince of Transylvania, commander, Polish king (since 1576), participant in the Livonian War; in 1581-1582 besieged Pskov. Founded the Academy in Vilna (future Vilna University)
Bolotnikov Ivan Isaevich	Battle slave of Prince Telyatevsky, leader of the uprising of 1606-1607, was defeated near Moscow (1606) and Tula (1607), exiled to Kargopol and killed there
Boretskaya Marfa (Posadnitsa)	The widow of the Novgorod mayor Isaac Andreevich Boretsky. In the early 70s. XV century headed the anti-Moscow party in Novgorod. After the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow, she was expelled from Novgorod and executed
Biron Ernst Johann	A native of Courland, Anna Ioannovna's favorite, Duke of Courland (1737-1740 and 1762-1769), after the death of Anna Ioannovna, became regent under the young Ivan VI Antonovich (1740), but was overthrown as a result of a palace coup and exiled to Pelm, and then to Yaroslavl, pardoned by Peter III and returned to Courland
	Grand Duke of Lithuania (from 1392), intervened in the affairs of Novgorod, captured Smolensk (1404), one of the organizers of the defeat of the Teutonic Order in the Battle of Grunwald
Volkov Fedor Grigorievich	Actor, creator of Russian professional theater
Vorotynsky Mikhail Ivanovich	Prince, boyar and governor, hero of the capture of Kazan (1552), defeated the Crimean Khan Davlet-Girey at the Battle of Molodi (1572), executed by Ivan IV
Glinskaya Elena	Second wife of Grand Duke Vasily III, mother of Ivan IV, during whose childhood (1533-1538) she ruled the country. Conducted judicial and monetary reforms
Godunov Boris	Boyar, Tsar of Moscow (from 1598). He became one of the associates of Ivan IV thanks to his marriage with the daughter of Malyuta Skuratov, and then the marriage of his sister Irina with the son of Ivan IV Fedor. During the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich (1584-1598), the actual ruler of the state
Golitsyn Vasily Vasilievich	Prince, boyar, governor, favorite of Sofia Alekseevna, headed the Ambassadorial Prikaz (1676-1689), led the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689, exiled by Peter I to the Arkhangelsk region
Golitsyn Mikhail Mikhailovich	An associate of Peter I, the prince, field marshal general, participant in the Azov campaigns and the Northern War, in 1720 defeated the Swedish fleet in the Battle of Grengam. Since 1726 - President of the Military Collegium and member of the Supreme Privy Council, one of the compilers of the "Conditions", died in disgrace
Golovin Fedor Alekseevich	Companion of Peter I, count, diplomat, admiral and field marshal general. Signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk with China, participated in the Azov campaigns and the Great Embassy from 1700, headed the Ambassadorial Order from 1701, headed the Navigation School
Golovkin Gabriel Ivanovich	An associate of Peter I, the count, from 1706 headed the Ambassadorial Prikaz, from 1718 - president of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, in 1726-1730. member of the Supreme Privy Council, in 1731-1734. - Cabinet Minister of Empress Anna Ioannovna
Greek Feofan	Icon painter, master of wall paintings, originally from Byzantium. The pinnacle of creativity is the painting in the Church of the Savior on Ilinaya Street in Novgorod, the icons of the Annunciation and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin
Dionysius (c. 1440-1503)	Painter, monk of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. The pinnacle of creativity is the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Ferapontov Monastery. Participated in the painting of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, author of the icon “Savior in Power”
Dezhnev Semyon Ivanovich	Explorer and navigator, 1646 circumnavigated the Chukotka Peninsula and discovered the cape - the northeastern tip of Eurasia (Cape Dezhnev)
Demidov (Antufiev) Nikita Demidovich	Tula blacksmith, founder of a dynasty of factory owners and landowners, founder of the Tula Arms Plant, organizer of the construction of metallurgical plants in the Urals
Ermak Timofeevich	Cossack ataman, with his campaign against the Siberian Khanate, marked the beginning of the annexation of Siberia to Russia
Hilarion	The first Metropolitan of Kiev of Russian origin, author of the “Sermon on Law and Grace”
	King of Sweden since 1697, commander, commanded the Swedish army in a number of battles of the Northern War (near Narva in 1700, near Poltava in 1709), died during the battle in Norway
Cyril and Methodius	Brothers, creators of the Slavic alphabet, educators and preachers of Christianity
Kurbsky Andrey Mikhailovich	Prince, member of the Chosen Rada, military leader, writer. The hero of the capture of Kazan in 1552, a participant in the Livonian War, fearing the disgrace of Ivan IV, fled to Lithuania (1564) and entered the service of the Polish king Sigismund Augustus. From the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth corresponded with Ivan IV, author of “The History of the Grand Duchy of Moscow”
Lefort Franz Yakovlevich (c. 1656-1699)	An associate of Peter I, a native of Switzerland, a participant in the Crimean and Azov campaigns, one of the leaders of the Grand Embassy, ​​had a great influence on the formation of the personality of Peter I
False Dmitry 1	The impostor (presumably the fugitive monk of the Moscow Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev), became the Tsar of Moscow in 1605, and was killed in 1606.
False Dmitry II	The impostor, the "Tushino thief", unsuccessfully tried to capture Moscow in the Struggle with Vasily Shuisky (1608-1609), killed
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich	From a family of Pomors, scientist, naturalist, poet, founder of Moscow University, studied chemistry, physics, astronomy, history, philology, made a great contribution to the formation of the modern Russian literary language
Mazepa Ivan Stepanovich	Hetman of Left Bank Ukraine (1687-1708), during the Northern War he went over to the side of Charles XII, after the Battle of Poltava he fled to Turkey with Charles XII
(1482-1563)	Moscow Metropolitan (since 1542), writer, head of the Josephites, member of the Elected Rada, compiler of the Chetey Menya, Degree Book and Litsevoy Chronicle, contributed to the emergence of printing in Russia
	The Tatar Temnik, the de facto ruler of the Golden Horde, was defeated by Prince Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), after which he lost power and was killed
Menshikov Alexander Danilovich	Companion of Peter I, son of a court groom, His Serene Highness Prince, Generalissimo (1727). Orderly of Peter I, participant in the Azov campaigns, the Grand Embassy and the Northern War, first commandant of St. Petersburg and governor of Ingria (St. Petersburg province), president of the military college (1716-1724 and 1726-1727), during the reign of Catherine I, actual ruler of the country, exiled by Peter II to Berezov (1727), where he died
	The legendary founder of the Lithuanian state, the Grand Duke of Lithuania (1230s) maintained friendly relations with the Galician Prince Daniel and Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky
Minin Kuzma Minich	Nizhny Novgorod merchant, zemstvo elder, organizer of the II militia
Minich Burchard Christopher	A native of Oldenburg (Germany), in Russian service since 1721, count, field marshal general, engineer, builder of the Ladoga bypass canal. President of the Military Collegium (1730-1740), commander of the troops during the Russian-Turkish War of 1735-1739, dismissed by Anna Leopoldovna, in 1742 exiled by Elizaveta Petrovna to Pelm
	Monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, chronicler, author-compiler of the oldest chronicle that has come down to us - “The Tale of Bygone Years”, author of the lives of princes Boris and Gleb, Theodosius of Pechersk
Nikon (Nikita Minov)	The Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' since 1652, the initiator of the church reform that caused a split in the Russian Orthodox Church, tried to place church power above secular power, which led to a conflict with Alexei Mikhailovich. In 1666 he was deprived of the patriarchal rank and exiled to the Ferapontov Monastery
Ordin-Nashchokin Afanasy Lavrentievich	Boyar, diplomat, governor. Head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz (16671671). He concluded the Truce of Andrusovo, drew up the Trade Charter of 1667, and became a monk in 1672.
Orlov Alexey Grigorievich	Count Chesmensky, general-in-chief and general-admiral, brother of G. G. Orlov. Participant in the palace coup of 1762, hero of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, commanded a Russian squadron in the Battles of Navarin and Chesme, retired from 1775, developed the Oryol trotter breed
Orlov Grigory Grigorievich	Prince, favorite of Catherine II, general-in-chief, brother of A.G. Orlov, participant in the palace coup of 1762, founder and first president of the Free Economic Society (from 1765), pacified the “plague riot” in Moscow (1771) , philanthropist, patron of science
Ostarman Andrey Ivanovich	A native of Westphalia, in Russian service from 1703, count, diplomat, vice-chancellor (1725-1741), member of the Supreme Privy Council (from 1726) and cabinet minister of Anna Ioannovna (from 1731), Peter's tutor II, from 1731 he actually led Russian foreign policy. In 1741, under Elizaveta Petrovna, he was exiled to Berezov
Panin Nikita Ivanovich	Count, statesman and diplomat, participant in the palace coup of 1762, educator of Paul I, author of the Senate reform, headed the Collegium of Foreign Affairs (1763-1781), creator of the “Northern Accord” bloc
Petrov Avvakum (c. 1620-1682)	Archpriest, leader of the Old Believers (schismatics), writer. Ideological opponent of Nikon, exiled to Pustozersk in 1667, where he wrote “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”
Pozharsky Dmitry Mikhailovich	Prince, commander, participant of the 1st militia, organizer and leader of the 2nd militia, one of the organizers of the Zemsky Sobor of 1613, subsequently headed a number of orders (Yamskoy, Razboiny, etc.)
Polotsk Simeon	Public and church figure, writer and poet, preacher, polemicized with schismatics and Nikon, founded a printing house in the Kremlin
Potemkin Grigory Alexandrovich	Favorite and closest assistant of Catherine II, His Serene Highness Prince Tauride, Field Marshal General, statesman, participant in the palace coup of 1762, participant in the Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774, Novorossiysk, Azov and Astrakhan military governor (since 1776), vice-president (from 1774) and president (from 1784) of the military college
Prokopovich Feofan	Companion of Peter I, church leader, publicist, Bishop of Pskov and Archbishop of Novgorod, vice-president of the Synod (since 1721), compiler of the “Spiritual Regulations”, supporter of absolutism in Russia
Pugachev Emelyan Ivanovich (c. 1740-1775)	Don Cossack, leader of the uprising of 1773-1775, executed in Moscow
Sergius of Radonezh (c. 1321-1391)	Founder and abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, initiator of the introduction of communal regulations in Russian monasteries
Razin Stepan Timofeevich	Don Cossack, leader of the uprising of 1670-1671, executed in Moscow
Razumovsky Alexey Grigorievich	From a family of Ukrainian Cossacks, he tended cattle as a child. Count, Field Marshal General, favorite and secret morganatic husband of Elizabeth Petrovna, participant in the palace coup of 1741.
Razumovsky Kirill Grigorievich	Brother of A. G. Razumovsky, count, president of the Academy of Sciences (1746-1798), last hetman of Ukraine (1750-1764)
Rastrelli Bartolomeo Carlo	Italian sculptor and architect, worked in Russia since 1716, author of sculptural portraits of Peter I and Anna Ioannovna
Rastrelli Francesco Bartolomeo
Rebrov Ivan Ivanovich	Explorer and navigator, Tobolsk Cossack, explored the Lena River to its mouth, the Laptev Strait, was the first to sail into the East Siberian Sea
Rublev Andrey (c. 1360-c. 1430)	Icon painter and master of wall paintings, monk of the Trinity-Sergius, and then the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery. The pinnacle of creativity is the Trinity icon. Participated in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery
Rumyantsev Pyotr Alexandrovich (1725-1796)	Count, commander, field marshal general, hero of the Seven Years' War, commander of the Russian army in the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, won victories at Ryaba Mogila, Larga and Kachul
Sigismund III	The Polish king (since 1587), an active leader of the Counter-Reform, supported False Dmitry I, organized an intervention in Russia during the Time of Troubles (1609-1612)
Sylvester	Archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, confessor of Ivan IV, member of the Elected Rada, author of Domostroi. From 1560 in disgrace
Skopin-Shuisky Mikhail Vasilievich	Prince, boyar, commander. Participant in the suppression of the Bolotnikov uprising, won a number of victories over False Dmitry II, lifted the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery; poisoned
Skuratov Malyuta (Skuratov-Beliekiy) Grigory Lukyanovich	Nobleman, close associate of Ivan IV, one of the leaders of the oprichnina, organizer of the murders of Vladimir Staritsky, Metropolitan Philip, led the executions during the oprichnina campaign in Novgorod (1570), died during the Livonian War
Sofya Alekseevna	The princess, daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich, ruler (regent) in 1682-1689, concluded the “Eternal Peace” with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Treaty of Nerchinsk with China. Sophia's favorite Vasily Golitsyn undertook the Crimean campaigns during her reign. Sofya Alekseevna was the initiator of the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow. In 1689 she was removed from power by Peter I, in 1698 she was tonsured a nun
Spiridov Grigory Andreevich	Admiral, in the Seven Years' War he commanded the landing force during the capture of Kolberg, in the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774. won the Battle of Chesme
Suvorov Alexander Vasilievich	Count of Rymniksky, Prince of Italy, commander, generalissimo (1799). Participant in the Seven Years' War, the Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791, the suppression of the Pugachev uprising and the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1794, commander-in-chief of the Russian-Austrian army in Italy (1799). Made the famous Swiss campaign through the Alps in 1799, did not lose a single battle (won 60), author of a number of military theoretical works (“The Science of Victory”), creator of original strategy and tactics of combat
Timur (Tamerlane)	Commander, creator of the state with its capital in Samarkand, emir since 1370. Defeated the Golden Horde, made campaigns of conquest in Iran, Transcaucasia, India, Asia Minor
Trezzini Domenico (c. 1670-1734)	The architect, a native of Switzerland, worked in Russia from 1703. The Summer Palace of Peter I, the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the building of the Twelve Colleges and other architectural monuments in St. Petersburg were built according to his designs
Ushakov Simeon Fedorovich
Ushakov Fedor Fedorovich	Naval commander, admiral, hero of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791, during the war with France (1798-1800) he successfully commanded the Mediterranean campaign of the Russian fleet
Fedorov Ivan (c. 1510-1583)	Founder of book printing in Russia and Ukraine
Frederick II the Great	King of Prussia, from 1740 pursued a policy of enlightened absolutism, reformed the Prussian army, commander, commanded Prussian troops during the Silesian and Seven Years' Wars, took part in the First Partition of Poland
Khabarov Erofey Pavlovich	Explorer and navigator, explored the Amur region, compiled a “drawing of the Amur River”
Khmelnitsky Bogdan (Zinovy) Mikhailovich (c. 1595-1657)	Ukrainian Cossack, hetman of Ukraine since 1648, led the uprising in Ukraine against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the organizers of the Pereyaslav Rada (reunification of Ukraine with Russia)
Genghis Khan (Temuchin) (OK. 1155-1227)	Founder of the Mongol Empire, codified the customary law of the Mongols (Laws of Yasa), created a significant army, led conquests in Southeast Siberia, China and Central Asia
Sheremetyev Boris Petrovich	Companion of Peter I, count, field marshal general, diplomat, participated in the conclusion of the “Eternal Peace” with Poland, commanded an auxiliary army during the Azov campaigns, during the Northern War he commanded Russian troops in the Baltic states, suppressed the uprising in Astrakhan, commanded infantry in the Battle of Poltava and in the Prut campaign
Shuvalov Ivan Ivanovich	Favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna, adjutant general, philanthropist, patron and friend of M. V. Lomonosov, founder and first curator of Moscow University, initiator of the creation and first president of the Academy of Arts (1757-1763)
Petr Ivanovich	Count, statesman, field marshal general, brother of I. I. Shuvalov, participant in the palace coup of 1741, de facto head of the government under Elizabeth Petrovna (carried out a number of reforms)
Shuisky Vasily	Prince, boyar, son of Ivan Shuisky (hero of the defense of Pskov during the Livonian War). He headed the government commission to investigate the death of Tsarevich Dmitry. After the death of Boris Godunov, he went over to the side of False Dmitry I, and then organized a conspiracy against the impostor. Tsar of Moscow (1606-1610), suppressed the Bolotnikov uprising, fought against False Dmitry II, overthrew from the throne, was forcibly tonsured a monk, died in Polish captivity
Yaguzhinsky Pavel Ivanovich	Companion of Peter I, count, general-in-chief, diplomat, from 1722 - prosecutor general of the Senate, in 1726-1727. - Ambassador to Warsaw, 1731-1734. - Ambassador to Berlin, from 1734 - Cabinet Minister of Empress Anna Ioannovna
Ivan Susanin (1568 – 1613)	Russian peasant who saved Mikhail Romanov during the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. He was tortured, but did not reveal the location of the young king.
Vitus Bering (1681 – 1741)	Great navigator, commander of the Russian fleet. He headed the 1st and 2nd Kamchatka expeditions. Opened the strait between Chukotka and Alaska. Made it to the shores of North America.

Brief biographical information

Andreev Leonid Nikolaevich(1871-1919). Writer. Graduated from the Faculty of Law of Moscow University (1897). He began publishing as a feuilletonist in 1895. In the early 1900s. became close to M. Gorky, joined the group of writers “Knowledge”. In his early works (“Thought”, 1902; “The Wall”, 1901; “The Life of Vasily Fiveysky”, 1904) a lack of faith in the human mind and in the possibility of reorganizing life was manifested. The Red Laughter (1904) exposes the horrors of war; in the stories “The Governor” (1906), “Ivan Ivanovich” (1908), “The Tale of the Seven Hanged Men” (1908), and the play “To the Stars” (1906), sympathy for the revolution and protest against the inhumanity of society are expressed. The cycle of philosophical dramas (“Human Life”, 1907; “Black Masks”, 1908; “Anatema”, 1910) contains the idea of ​​the powerlessness of reason, the idea of ​​the triumph of irrational forces. In the last period, Andreev also created realistic works: the plays “Days of Our Lives” (1908), “Anfisa” (1909), “The One Who Gets Slapped” (1916). Andreev's work, with its schematism, sharp contrasts, and grotesquery, is close to expressionism.

Bazhenov Vasily Ivanovich(1737-1799). The son of a village priest. Initially he studied in the “team” of D.V. Ukhtomsky, then at Moscow University. Since 1755 in St. Petersburg - student and assistant of S.I. Chevakinsky during the construction of St. Nicholas Cathedral. He studied at the Academy of Arts from its founding. After graduating from the Academy, he was sent as a pensioner to France and Italy for further education. He studied at the Paris Academy with C. de Wailly. Lived and worked in Italy. He held the title of professor at the Roman Academy and a member of the academies in Florence and Bologna. In 1765 he returned to St. Petersburg. He took part in the competition for the Ekateringof project, for which he received the title of academician. He served as an architect for the artillery department. In 1767 he was sent to Moscow to put the buildings in the Kremlin in order.

The grandiose project of the Grand Kremlin Palace created by him was not implemented, but had a huge influence on the formation of classicist principles of urban planning in Russia. During his work in the Kremlin, a school of young classicist architects formed around Bazhenov (M.F. Kazakov, I.V. Egotov, E.S. Nazarov, R.D. Kazakov, I.T. Tamansky), who developed their own independent works of Bazhenov's ideas.

Belinsky Vissarion Grigorievich(1811-1848). Literary critic and philosopher. As a critic he had a strong influence on the Russian social movement. As a philosopher, he developed the teachings of Hegel, primarily his dialectical method, introduced into the Russian spoken language many concepts from Western European philosophical literature (immediacy, view, moment, negation, concreteness, reflection, etc.). He developed the principles of realistic aesthetics and literary criticism, based on a specific historical analysis of artistic phenomena. The concept of realism he created is based on the interpretation of the artistic image as a unity of the general and the individual. The nationality of art is a reflection in it of the characteristics of a given people and national character. From 1840 he turned to German and French radicalism. This was manifested in his famous letter to N. Gogol (1847).

Berdyaev Nikolay Alexandrovich(1874-1948) - Russian religious philosopher, in exile since 1922, lived in Berlin, then in Paris. Being strongly influenced by Marx, Nietzsche, Ibsen, Kant and Carlyle, he defended the ideas of existentialism, in which the problematics of philosophy prevailed, taught about the primacy of freedom over being (freedom cannot be determined by anyone or anything, not even by God, it is rooted in non-existence) , about the revelation of being through (godlike) man, about the rational course of history, wrote about Christian revelation, on issues of sociology and ethics. For polemics with theorists of scientific communism, he was arrested twice, and in the fall of 1922 he was expelled from Russia, among dozens of scientists, writers, and publicists.

Main works: “The Meaning of Creativity”, 1916; “The Meaning of History”, 1923; "New Middle Ages", 1924; “On the purpose of man”, 1931; “I and the world of objects”, 1933; “The Fate of Man in the Modern World”, 1934; "Spirit and Reality", 1949; “Existential dialectics of the divine and human”, 1951; “The Kingdom of the Spirit and the Kingdom of Caesar”, 1952; "Self-Knowledge", 1953.

Blok Alexander Alexandrovich(1880-1921). Russian poet. Father is a professor of law at the University of Warsaw, mother is M.A. Beketova, writer and translator. He graduated from the Slavic-Russian department of the philological faculty of St. Petersburg University (1906). He began writing poetry from childhood and publishing it since 1903. In 1904 he published the collection “Poems about a Beautiful Lady,” where he appeared as a lyricist-symbolist, influenced by the mystical poetry of Vl. Solovyova. Since 1903, Blok’s abstract romantic poetry included a social theme: the anti-human city with its slave labor and poverty (section “Crossroads,” 1902-1904). The theme of the Motherland is constantly present in Blok's poetry. His work becomes tragic and deep, permeated with a sense of the catastrophic nature of the era (the cycle “On the Kulikovo Field”, 1908, sections of the cycle “Free Thoughts”, 1907, “Iambas”, 1907-1914). Blok’s love lyrics are romantic; along with delight and rapture, they contain a fatal and tragic beginning (sections of the cycle “Snow Mask”, 1907, “Faina”, 1907-1908, “Carmen”, 1914).

Blok's mature poetry is freed from abstract symbols and acquires vitality and concreteness ("Italian Poems", 1909, the poem "The Nightingale Garden", 1915, etc.). Many ideas of Blok’s poetry were developed in his dramaturgy: the plays “Stranger”, “Balaganchik”, “King on the Square” (all in 1906), “Songs of Fate” (1907-1908), “Rose and Cross” (1912-1913). Blok’s poetic fame was strengthened after the release of the collections “Unexpected Joy” (1906), “Snow Mask” (1907), “Earth in the Snow” (1908), “Lyrical Dramas” (1908), “Night Hours” (1911).

In 1918, Blok wrote the poem “The Twelve” - about the collapse of the old world and its collision with the new; the poem is built on semantic antitheses and sharp contrasts. The poem “Scythians” (of the same year) is dedicated to the historical mission of revolutionary Russia.

Bryusov Valery Yakovlevich(1873-1924). Writer. Born into a merchant family. Literary debut - three collections “Russian Symbolists” (1894-1895) was a selection of samples of Western poetry (poems in the spirit of P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé, etc.). “The Third Watch” (1900) marks the beginning of Bryusov’s creative maturity. In it, as in the book “To the City and the World” (1903), the characteristic features of Bryusov’s poetry are clearly visible - completeness of images, clarity of composition, strong-willed intonation, oratorical pathos. Since the beginning of the 20th century. Bryusov becomes the leader of symbolism, does a lot of organizational work, runs the Scorpion publishing house, and edits the Libra magazine.

The book of poems “Wreath” (1906) is the pinnacle of Bryusov’s poetry. The high rise of romantic lyrics and magnificent historical and mythological cycles are combined in it with examples of revolutionary poetry.

In the books of poems “All the Tunes” (1909), “Mirror of Shadows” (1912), as well as “Seven Colors of the Rainbow” (1916), along with life-affirming motives, notes of fatigue are heard, and self-directed formal searches are found. During the same period, the historical novels “Fire Angel” (1908) and “Altar of Victory” (1913), collections of stories and dramatic scenes “Earth’s Axis” (1907), “Nights and Days” (1913), and collections of articles “Distant and loved ones" (1912). During World War I, Bryusov collaborated with M. Gorky. He studies the history and literature of Armenia, translates poems of Armenian poets. Bryusov accepted the October Revolution unconditionally. In 1920 he joined the ranks of the RCP(b). He worked at the People's Commissariat for Education, at the State Publishing House, and headed the Book Chamber. He published books of poetry “Last Dreams” (1920), “On Days Like These” (1921), “A Moment” (1922), “Dali” (1922).

Bulgakov Sergey Nikolaevich(1871-1944). Religious philosopher, theologian, economist. Professor of political economy in Kyiv (1905-1906) and Moscow (1906-1918). Emigrated in 1923, professor of dogmatics and dean of the Russian Theological Institute in Paris in 1925-1944. He was significantly influenced by I. Kant, F.M. Dostoevsky and V.S. Solovyov, from whom he learned the idea of ​​unity. He sought the salvation of Russia on the path of religious revival and in this regard, he saw all social, national relations and culture as overvalued on religious principles. The idea of ​​incarnation became dominant in Bulgakov’s teaching, i.e. the internal connection between God and the world he created - Sophia (“the wisdom of God”), which manifests itself in the world and man, making them involved in God. The sophiology he developed was set out in the works: “Non-Evening Light” (1917), “On God-Humanity. Trilogy" ("Lamb of God", 1933; "Comforter", 1936; "Bride of the Lamb", 1945). Other works: “Two cities. Studies on the nature of social ideals", vol. 1-2, 1911; “Quiet Thoughts”, 1918; “The Burning Bush,” 1927. Died in Paris.

Bunin Ivan Alekseevich(1870-1953). Russian writer. From an impoverished noble family. In his youth he worked as a proofreader, statistician, librarian, and reporter. Published since 1887

I. Bunin's first books are collections of poetry. His poems are an example of the “old” classical form. The theme of young Bunin's poetry is native nature. Then he began writing stories. In 1899, I. Bunin began collaborating with the Znanie publishing house. The best stories of this period are “Antonov Apples” (1900), “Pines” (1901), “Chernozem” (1904). The story “The Village” (1910) had a serious public resonance. The story “Sukhodol” (1911) chronicled the degeneration of the estate nobility. I. Bunin's prose is an example of picturesqueness, rigor, and rhythmic expressiveness.

I. Bunin’s poetry collection “Falling Leaves” (1901) received the Pushkin Prize. In 1909, Bunin was elected honorary academician. Bunin's translation of Longfellow's poem "The Song of Hiawatha" became famous. In 1920, Bunin emigrated. Later he lives and works in France.

In exile, he created works about love (“Mitya’s Love,” 1925; “The Case of Cornet Elagin,” 1927; a series of short stories “Dark Alleys,” 1943). The central place in the work of the late Bunin is occupied by the autobiographical novel “The Life of Arsenyev” (1930). In 1933, the writer was awarded the Nobel Prize. Abroad, I. Bunin also created a philosophical and literary treatise about L.N. Tolstoy's "The Liberation of Tolstoy" (1937) and "Memoirs" (1950).

Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich(1828-1886). Chemist, public figure. He received his education at Kazan University (1844-1849). Since 1854 he was a professor of chemistry at this university, and in 1860-1863. its rector. In 1868-1885. professor of chemistry at St. Petersburg University. Since 1871 - academician.

A.M. Butlerov is the creator of the theory of chemical structure, the head of the largest Kazan school of organic chemists. The basic ideas of the theory of chemical structure were first expressed in 1871. He was the first to explain the phenomenon of isomerism. Butlerov's views received experimental confirmation in the works of scientists of his school. Published in 1864-1866. in Kazan with three editions of “Introduction to the complete study of organic chemistry”. For the first time, based on the chemical structure, Butlerov began a systematic study of polymerization.

The great merit of A.M. Butlerov was the creation of the first Russian scientific school of chemists. Among his students are such famous chemists as V.V. Markovnikov, A.N. Popov, A.M. Zaitsev, A.E. Favorsky, M.D. Lvov, I.L. Kondakov.

Butlerov devoted a lot of effort to the struggle for recognition of the merits of Russian scientists, appealing to public opinion through the press. He was a champion of higher education for women, participated in the organization of the Higher Women's Courses (1878), and created chemical laboratories for these courses.

Voronikhin Andrey Nikiforovich(1759-1814). From the family of serfs, Count A.S. Stroganov (according to some assumptions, his illegitimate son). Initially he studied with the icon painter G. Yushkov in the icon painting workshop of the Tyskorsky Monastery. In 1777 he was transferred to Moscow, where he worked for V.I. Bazhenova. From 1779 he lived in St. Petersburg in the Stroganovs' house. In 1781, together with Pavel Stroganov and his tutor Romm, he traveled around Russia. In 1785 he received his freedom. Since 1786, he has lived abroad with Stroganov and Romm in Switzerland and France. In 1790 he returned to Russia and worked for A.S. Stroganov. In 1794 he was “appointed” to the Academy of Arts. Since 1797 - with the rank of academician of perspective painting, since 1800 he taught at the Academy. Since 1803 - professor. A brilliant representative of classicism. Having won the competition for the design of the Kazan Cathedral, he created an ingenious structure, unparalleled in taste, proportionality, grace and grandeur.

Main works in St. Petersburg and the surrounding area: reconstruction of the interiors of the Stroganov Palace, the Stroganovs' dacha in Novaya Derevnya (not preserved), the Kazan Cathedral and the lattice enclosing the square in front of it, the Mining Institute, the interiors of the Pavlovsk Palace, the Pink Pavilion in Pavlovsk, the fountain on Pulkovo Mountain.

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich(1812-1870). Thinker, writer, publicist, politician. In 1831-1834. led a circle at Moscow University in 1835-1840. in exile (Vyatka), from 1847 until the end of his life in exile (London). He published under the pseudonym Iskander. A fighter against serfdom and autocracy. According to his philosophical views, he is a materialist (his works “Amateurism in Science” - 1843 and “Letters on the Study of Nature” - 1846). Creator of the so-called “Russian socialism” - the theoretical basis of populism. He pinned his hopes on the Russian peasant community - the embryo of socialist social relations.

In 1853, together with N.P. Ogarev founded the Free Russian Printing House in England. Herzen was the publisher of the almanac "Polar Star" (1855-1868) and the newspaper "Bell" (1857-1867) - radical uncensored publications that were imported illegally into Russia and had a great influence on Russian public opinion. He contributed to the creation of the secret revolutionary society “Land and Freedom” and supported the Polish uprising of 1863-1864, which led to a reduction in his influence among Russian liberals.

A.I. Herzen is an outstanding writer, author of anti-serfdom books - the novel “Who is to Blame?” (1846), the stories “Doctor Krupov” (1847) and “The Thieving Magpie” (1848). One of the best works of Russian literature is “The Past and Thoughts” (1852-1868) - a broad canvas of the social life of Russia and Western Europe in the 19th century.

Glinka Mikhail Ivanovich(1804-1857). The founder of Russian classical music, an outstanding composer.

From the nobles of the Smolensk province. From 1817 he lived in St. Petersburg and studied at the Noble boarding school at the Main Pedagogical School. In the 20s XIX century - a popular metropolitan singer and pianist. In 1837-1839 conductor of the Court Singing Chapel.

In 1836, M. Glinka’s heroic-patriotic opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”) was staged on the stage of the Bolshoi Theater in St. Petersburg. It glorifies the courage and resilience of the people. In 1842, the premiere of the opera “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (based on the poem by A.S. Pushkin) took place - a new achievement in Russian music. This opera is a magical oratorio with alternating wide vocal and symphonic scenes, with a predominance of epic elements. Russian national features in the music of “Ruslan and Lyudmila” are intertwined with oriental motifs.

Of great artistic value are Glinka’s “Spanish Overtures” - “Aragonese Jota” (1845) and “Night in Madrid” (1848), the scherzo for orchestra “Kamarinskaya” (1848), music for the tragedy of N. Kukolnik “ Prince Kholmsky.

M. Glinka created about 80 works for voice and piano (romances, arias, songs). Glinka's romances, the pinnacle of Russian vocal lyricism, became especially famous. Romances based on poems by A. Pushkin (“I remember a wonderful moment”, “Don’t sing, beauty, in front of me”, “The fire of desire burns in the blood”, etc.), V. Zhukovsky (ballad “Night View”), E. Baratynsky (“Do not tempt me unnecessarily”), N. Kukolnik (“Doubt”).

Under the influence of M. Glinka’s work, a Russian music school emerged. Glinka's orchestral writing combines transparency and impressive sound. Russian songwriting is the foundation of Glinka’s melody.

Gogol Nikolay Vasilievich(1809-1852). Great Russian writer. Born into a family of nobles of the Poltava province Gogol-Yanovsky. He received his education at the Nizhyn Gymnasium of Higher Sciences (1821-1828). Since 1828 - in St. Petersburg. In 1831 - acquaintance with Pushkin, which played a special role in the formation of Gogol as a writer. I tried unsuccessfully to teach the history of the Middle Ages.

Literary fame since 1832 (“Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”). In 1835, the collections “Arabesques” and “Mirgorod” were published. The pinnacle of Russian drama of the first half of the 19th century. became the comedy “The Inspector General” (1836).

From 1836 to 1848, with short breaks, Gogol lived abroad (mainly in Rome), working on his main work, the novel-poem “Dead Souls.” Only the 1st volume was published (1842), which caused a huge public outcry for its presentation of the unsightly sides of Russian reality. Gogol's realism, manifested primarily in The Government Inspector and Dead Souls, and his skill as a satirist placed the writer at the head of Russian literature.

Gogol's stories became famous. In the so-called Petersburg stories (“Nevsky Prospekt”, “Notes of a Madman”, “The Overcoat”) the theme of human loneliness takes on a tragic sound. The story “Portrait” examines the fate of an artist in a world where money rules. The picture of the Zaporozhye Sich, the life and struggle of the Cossacks is presented in “Taras Bulba”. The story “The Overcoat” with its defense of the “little man” became a kind of manifesto of Russian critical realism.

In 1847, N. Gogol published the book “Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends,” which met with misunderstanding among a significant part of Russian society. In it, he tried to outline his idea of ​​moral ideals and the duty of every Russian person. The ideal of Gogol, who increasingly turned to religion, was Orthodox spiritual renewal. From the same positions, he tries to create positive images in the 2nd volume of Dead Souls, which he works on after returning to Russia. As a result of a deep mental crisis in February 1852, Gogol burned the manuscript of the 2nd volume of the novel. Soon after this he died in Moscow.

Danilevsky Nikolai Yakovlevich(1822-1885). Philosopher, sociologist, natural scientist. In the book “Russia and Europe” (1869), he outlined the sociological theory of isolated “cultural-historical types” (civilizations), which are in continuous struggle with each other and the external environment and go through certain stages of maturity, decrepitness and death. History is expressed in a change of cultural and historical types that displace each other. He considered the most historically promising type to be the “Slavic type,” most fully expressed in the Russian people and opposed to the cultures of the West. Danilevsky's ideas anticipated similar concepts of the German cultural philosopher Oswald Spengler. Danilevsky is also the author of the work “Darwinism” (vol. 1-2, 1885-1889), directed against the theory of Charles Darwin.

Derzhavin Gavrila Romanovich(1743-1816). Russian poet. Coming from a poor noble family. He studied at the Kazan gymnasium. From 1762 he served as a private in the guard and took part in a palace coup. In 1772 he was promoted to officer. Participant in the suppression of the Pugachev uprising. Later he served in the Senate. In 1773 he began publishing poetry.

In 1782 he wrote “Ode to Felitsa,” glorifying Catherine II. After the success of this ode he was awarded by the empress. Governor of Olonets (1784-1785) and Tambov (1785-1788) provinces. In 1791-1793 cabinet secretary of Catherine II. In 1794 he was appointed president of the Commerce College. In 1802-1803 - Minister of Justice of Russia. Since 1803 - retired.

Derzhavin was able to create a new style in poetry that contained elements of lively colloquial speech. Derzhavin's verse is characterized by concreteness of image, plasticity of images, didactics and allegorism. He managed to combine elements of ode and satire in one poem. In his odes he glorified generals and monarchs, condemned unworthy nobles and social vices. The most famous are “Ode on the Death of Prince Meshchersky” (1779), “God” (1784), and “Waterfall” (1794). Derzhavin's philosophical lyrics revealed a deep understanding of the problems of life and death, the greatness and insignificance of man. The work of G. Derzhavin is the pinnacle of classicism in Russian literature.

Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich(1821-1881) - great Russian writer. Born into a doctor's family. He graduated from the St. Petersburg Military Engineering School in 1843, was enrolled as a draftsman in the engineering department, but retired a year later. Dostoevsky's first novel, Poor People (1846), made him one of the most famous writers in Russia. Soon such works by F. Dostoevsky appeared as “The Double” (1846), “White Nights” (1848), “Netochka Nezvanova” (1849). They revealed the writer's profound psychologism.

Since 1847, Dostoevsky became a member of the utopian socialist circles. Involved in the prosecution in the case of the Petrashevites, he was sentenced to death, which, just before the execution, was replaced by 4 years of hard labor, followed by assignment as a private in the army. Only in 1859 was he able to return to St. Petersburg.

At the turn of the 1850s - 1860s. Dostoevsky publishes the stories “Uncle’s Dream” and “The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants” (both in 1859), the novel “Humiliated and Insulted” (1861), “Notes from the House of the Dead” (1862), written about hard labor . Dostoevsky also gets involved in public life (participation in the magazines “Time” and “Epoch”). He becomes a supporter of the theory of pochvennichestvo, one of the largest thinkers in Russia. Dostoevsky demanded that the intelligentsia, who had become detached from the “ground,” draw closer to the people and moral improvement. He angrily rejected Western bourgeois civilization (“Winter Notes on Summer Impressions,” 1863) and the spiritual image of an individualist (“Notes from the Underground,” 1864).

In the second half of the 1860s and in the 1870s. F.M. Dostoevsky creates his best novels: “Crime and Punishment” (1866), “The Idiot” (1868), “Demons” (1872), “The Teenager” (1875), “The Brothers Karamazov” (1879) -1880). These books reflected not only social problems and contradictions, but also the philosophical, ethical, and social searches of the writer. The basis of Dostoevsky's work as a novelist is the world of human suffering. At the same time, Dostoevsky, like no other classical writer, mastered the skill of psychological analysis. Dostoevsky is the creator of the ideological novel.

The activity of Dostoevsky the publicist continues. In 1873-1874 he edited the magazine "Citizen", where he began publishing his "Diary of a Writer", which was published monthly in separate issues in 1876-1877, and occasionally later. F. Dostoevsky's speech about Pushkin became famous, becoming a deep analysis of the national significance of the genius of Russian literature and at the same time a declaration of the moral and philosophical ideals of Dostoevsky himself. The influence of F. Dostoevsky on Russian and world literature is enormous.

Ekaterina II Alekseevna(1729-1796), Empress of Russia (Catherine the Great) in 1762-1796. By origin, a German princess from the Anhalt-Zerbst dynasty (Sophia Frederick Augustus). In Russia since 1744 Wife of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (in 1761-1762 Emperor Peter III) since 1745 Empress after the coup of 1762 Reorganized the Senate (1763), secularized monastic lands (1764), approved the Institution for administration provinces (1775), Charters granted to the nobility and cities (1785). Expanded the territory of Russia as a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774) and (1787-1791), as well as three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793, 1795). A prominent figure in national education. During her reign, the Smolny and Catherine Institutes, pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and foundling homes were opened. In 1786, she approved the “Charter of Public Schools of the Russian Empire,” which marked the beginning of the creation of a non-class system of schools in Russia. Catherine II is the author of many prose, drama and popular science works, as well as “Notes” of a memoir nature. She corresponded with Voltaire and other figures of the French Enlightenment of the 18th century. Supporter of "enlightened absolutism".

Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich(1783-1852). Poet. Illegitimate son of landowner A.I. Bunin and the captured Turkish woman Salha. The views and literary preferences of the young Zhukovsky were formed in the Moscow Noble Boarding School (1797-1801) and the Friendly Literary Society (1801) under the influence of the traditions of noble liberalism. In 1812, Zhukovsky joined the militia. The Patriotic War of 1812 is associated with patriotic notes heard in the poem “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” (1812) and others. Service at court (from 1815 - tutor of the Tsarevich) allowed Zhukovsky to alleviate the fate of the disgraced A.S. Pushkin, Decembrists, M.Yu. Lermontov, A.I. Herzen, T.G. Shevchenko. After retiring in 1841, Zhukovsky settled abroad.

Zhukovsky’s first poetic experiments are associated with sentimentalism (“Rural Cemetery”, 1802, etc.). In his lyrics, Zhukovsky developed and deepened the psychological quests of the school of N.M. Karamzin. Dissatisfaction with reality determined the nature of Zhukovsky’s work with his idea of ​​a romantic personality and deep interest in the subtlest movements of the human soul. Since 1808, Zhukovsky turned to the ballad genre (“Lyudmila”, 1808, “Svetlana” 1808-1812, “Eolian Harp”, 1814, etc.). In ballads, he recreates the world of folk beliefs, church books or knightly legends, far from real modernity. Zhukovsky's poetry is the pinnacle of Russian romanticism.

For the first time in Russian poetry, Zhukovsky’s psychological realism revealed the spiritual world of man, thereby creating the prerequisites for the future development of realism.

Kazakov Matvey Fedorovich(1738-1812). Born in Moscow. Studied at the architectural school of D.V. Ukhtomsky. In 1763-1767 worked in Tver. Was an assistant to V.I. Bazhenov when designing the Grand Kremlin Palace. For the first time in Russia he created designs for domes and large spans. From 1792 he headed after V.I. Bazhenov architectural school during the expedition of the Kremlin building. Students: I.V. Egotov, O.I. Bove, A.I. Bakirev, F. Sokolov, R.R. Kazakov, E.D. Tyurin and others. Drew up a project for organizing a construction vocational school (“School of Stone and Carpentry”). He supervised the preparation of the general and facade plan of Moscow, in connection with which he and his assistants completed thirty graphic albums of particular and civil buildings, containing drawings of most Moscow houses of the late 18th century. One of the founders and greatest masters of classicism. The author of most of the buildings that define the appearance of classical Moscow.

Main works: Petrovsky (Putevoy) Palace, the Senate building in the Kremlin with the famous domed hall, the Church of Metropolitan Philip, the Golitsyn hospital, the university building, the house of the Noble Assembly, the houses of Gubin, Baryshnikov, Demidov in Moscow, the church and mausoleum in the Nikolsko-Pogoreloye estate in Smolensk province.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich(1766-1826). Writer, publicist and historian. The son of a landowner in the Simbirsk province. He received his education at home, then in Moscow, in a private boarding school (until 1783); also attended lectures at Moscow University. Novikov’s magazine “Children’s Reading for the Heart and Mind” published numerous translations of Karamzin and his original story “Eugene and Yulia” (1789). In 1789 Karamzin traveled through Western Europe. Returning to Russia, he published the “Moscow Journal” (1791-1792), in which he published his artistic works (the main part of “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, the story “Liodor”, “Poor Liza”, “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”, poems “ Poetry”, “To Grace”, etc.). The magazine, which also published critical articles and reviews of Karamzin on literary and theatrical topics, promoted the aesthetic program of Russian sentimentalism, the most prominent representative of which was N.M. Karamzin.

At the beginning of the 19th century. Karamzin acted as a publicist and substantiated the program of moderate conservatism in his journal “Bulletin of Europe”. The same magazine published his historical story “Martha the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod” (1803), which asserted the inevitability of the autocracy’s victory over the free city.

Karamzin's literary activity played a major role in the development of the Russian literary problem of personality, in improving the artistic means of depicting the inner world of man, in the development of the Russian literary language. Karamzin's early prose influenced the work of V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, young A.S. Pushkin. From the mid-1790s. Karamzin's interest in problems of history was determined. He left fiction and worked mainly on “History of the Russian State” (vol. 1-8, 1816-1817; vol. 9, 1821; vol. 10-11, 1824; vol. 12, 1829; reprinted several times), which became not only a significant historical work, but also a major phenomenon in Russian fiction.

Karamzin defended the inviolability of autocracy and the need to preserve serfdom, condemned the Decembrist uprising and approved the reprisal against them. In his “Note on Ancient and New Russia” (1811), M.M. sharply criticized the projects of state reforms. Speransky.

He was the first to use a large number of historical documents, incl. Trinity, Laurentian, Ipatiev Chronicles, Dvina Charters, Code of Laws, testimonies of foreigners, etc. Karamzin placed extracts from documents in lengthy notes to his “History,” which for a long time played the role of a kind of archive. Karamzin’s “History” contributed to increasing interest in Russian history in various strata of Russian society. It marked a new stage in the development of the noble direction in Russian historical science. Karamzin's historical concept became an official concept supported by state authorities. The Slavophiles considered Karamzin their spiritual father.

Kramskoy Ivan Nikolaevich(1837-1887). Painter, draftsman, art critic. From a poor middle-class family. In 1857-1863. studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, was the initiator of the so-called. The “revolt of the 14,” which ended with the creation of an Artel of artists who left the Academy. Ideological leader and creator of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions.

He created a gallery of portraits of major Russian writers, scientists, artists and public figures (portraits of L.N. Tolstoy, 1873; I.I. Shishkin, 1873; P.M. Tretyakov, 1876; M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, 1879; C .P. Botkin, 1880). The features of Kramskoy's art as a portrait painter are expressive simplicity of composition, clarity of drawing, and deep psychological characteristics. Kramskoy’s populist views found their most vivid expression in portraits of peasants (“Polesovschik”, 1874, “Mina Moiseev”, 1882, “Peasant with a bridle”, 1883). The central work of I. Kramskoy is the painting “Christ in the Desert” (1872). In the 1880s. Kramskoy’s paintings “Unknown” (1883) and “Inconsolable Grief” (1884) became famous. These canvases are distinguished by their skill in revealing complex emotional experiences, characters and destinies.

Kruzenshtern Ivan Fedorovich(1770-1846). An outstanding navigator and oceanographer, Russian military sailor. Founder of the Naval Academy, one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society. Head of the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” (1803-1805). He discovered inter-trade countercurrents in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and laid the foundation for systematic deep-sea exploration of the World Ocean. Mapped the coast of the island. Sakhalin (approx. 1000 km). Author of the Atlas of the South Sea (vols. 1-2, 1823-1826). Admiral.

Kuindzhi Arkhip Ivanovich(1841-1910). Landscape painter. Born in Mariupol, in the family of a Greek shoemaker. He studied painting on his own, and then at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. Member of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions.

He created landscapes designed for specific social associations in the spirit of the Wanderers (“Forgotten Village”, 1874, “Chumatsky Trakt”, 1873). In his mature works, Kuindzhi skillfully used compositional techniques and lighting effects (“Ukrainian Night”, 1876; “Birch Grove”, 1879; “After the Storm”, 1879; “Night on the Dnieper”, 1880).

A.I. Kuindzhi taught at the Academy of Arts (professor since 1892, full member since 1893). Dismissed in 1897 for supporting student unrest. In 1909 he initiated the creation of the Society of Artists (later the A.I. Kuindzhi Society). Teacher of a number of famous artists - N.K. Roerich, A.A. Rylova and others.

Cui Caesar Antonovich(1835-1918) - composer, music critic, military engineer and scientist.

He graduated from the Nikolaev Engineering Academy in 1857, and was retained as a teacher there (since 1880 - professor). Author of major works on fortification, teacher of a fortification course at the Academy of the General Staff. Since 1904 - engineer-general.

He gained the greatest fame as a music critic (since 1864), a supporter of realism and nationalism in music, and a promoter of the work of M.I. Glinka, A.S. Dargomyzhsky. Cui was one of the members of the "Mighty Handful". Author of 14 operas. Ts.A. Cui created more than 250 romances, distinguished by their expressiveness and grace. Popular among them are “The Burnt Letter” and “The Tsarskoye Selo Statue” (words by A.S. Pushkin), “Aeolian Harps” (words by A.N. Maykov), etc. The composer Cui’s heritage includes numerous works by chamber instrumental ensembles and choirs.

Lavrov Petr Lavrovich(1823-1900). Philosopher and sociologist, publicist, ideologist of “populism”. He took part in the work of the underground revolutionary organizations “Land and Freedom”, “People’s Will”, was arrested, exiled, but fled abroad. In his philosophical works (“Hegel’s Practical Philosophy,” 1859; “Mechanical Theory of the World,” 1859; “Essays on Questions of Practical Philosophy,” 1860; “Problems of Positivism and Their Solution,” 1886; “The Most Important Moments in the History of Thought,” 1899) believed that the subject of philosophy is man as a single indivisible whole; the material world exists, but in judgments about it a person cannot go beyond the world of phenomena and human experience. In sociology (“Historical Letters”, 1869) he developed the concepts of culture and civilization. The culture of society, according to Lavrov, is the environment given by history for the work of thought, and civilization is a creative principle found in the progressive change of cultural forms. The bearers of civilization are “critical thinking individuals.” The measure of enlightenment of human moral consciousness acts as a criterion of social progress, which consists in increasing the consciousness of the individual and solidarity between individuals. In politics he preached propaganda among the people.

Levitan Isaac Ilyich(1860-1900). Landscape painter. The son of a small clerk from Lithuania. He studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture with A.K. Savrasov and V.D. Polenova. Since 1891, member of the Association of Itinerants. In 1898-1900 participant of exhibitions of the magazine “World of Art”.

He worked in Crimea, on the Volga, in Finland, Italy, France. In his paintings, I. Levitan managed to achieve clarity of composition, clear spatial plans, and a balanced color scheme (“Evening. Golden Reach”, “After the Rain. Reach”, both 1889). Creator of the so-called a mood landscape in which the state of nature is interpreted as an expression of the movements of the human soul.

In their intonation structure, Levitan's mature landscapes are close to Chekhov's lyrical prose ("Evening Bells", "At the Pool", "Vladimirka", all 1892). The late works of I. Levitan are widely known - “Fresh Wind. Volga", 1891-1895; “Golden Autumn”, 1895; "Over Eternal Peace", 1894; "Summer Evening", 1900

The work of the great landscape painter I. Levitan had a significant influence on subsequent generations of artists.

Lermontov Mikhail Yurievich(1814-1841). Great Russian poet. Born into the family of a retired captain, he was raised by his grandmother, E.A. Arsenyeva, who gave her grandson a good education. He studied at the Moscow Noble boarding school (1828-1830) and Moscow University (1830-1832). Later - at the school of guards ensigns and cavalry cadets (1832-1834). He served in the Life Guards Hussar Regiment.

The early works of M. Lermontov (lyric poems, poems, dramas “Strange Man”, 1831, “Masquerade”, 1835) testify to the creative growth of the author. In those years, he was working on the novel “Vadim,” depicting episodes of the uprising led by Pugachev. Lermontov's youthful poetry was imbued with a passionate impulse for freedom, but later pessimistic tones began to predominate in his work.

M. Lermontov is a romantic poet, but his romanticism is far from contemplative, filled with a tragic feeling, including elements of a realistic view of the world. With the appearance of the poem “The Death of a Poet” (1837), the name of Lermontov became known throughout reading Russia. For this poem he was arrested and then transferred to the Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment, in the Caucasus. The Caucasian theme became one of the main ones in Lermontov’s work.

In 1838, Lermontov was transferred to the Grodno Hussar Regiment, and then returned to the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. Conducted in St. Petersburg 1838-1840. - the heyday of the great poet’s talent. His poems began to appear regularly in print. The historical poem “Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich...” (1838) and the romantic poem “Mtsyri” (1839) were very successful. The pinnacles of Lermontov’s creativity were the poem “The Demon” and the novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1840). An artistic discovery was the image of Pechorin, the main character of the novel, which shows a broad background of public life. Such poems as “Borodino” (1837), “Duma”, “Poet” (both 1838), and “Testament” (1840) appeared. Lermontov's poems are marked by unprecedented energy of thought.

In February 1840, for a duel with the son of the French ambassador, Lermontov was again court-martialed and sent to the Caucasus. As part of the active army, he takes part in a difficult battle on the Valerik River (in Chechnya). In the last months of his life, M. Lermontov created his best poems - “Motherland”, “Cliff”, “Dispute”, “Leaf”, “No, it’s not you I love so passionately...”, “Prophet”.

While undergoing treatment in Pyatigorsk in the summer of 1841, Lermontov died in a duel. In the work of M. Lermontov, civil, philosophical and purely personal motives are organically intertwined. And in poetry, and in prose, and in drama, he showed himself to be an innovator.

Leskov Nikolay Semenovich(1831-1895). Great Russian writer. Born in the Oryol province, in the family of a minor official. He studied at the Oryol gymnasium. From the age of 16 he served as an official in Orel, then in Kyiv. For several years he was an assistant manager of large estates and traveled a lot around Russia. Since 1861 - in St. Petersburg, working on articles and feuilletons.

In the 1860s. writes wonderful stories and tales: “The Extinguished Cause” (1862), “Caustic” (1863), “The Life of a Woman” (1863), “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District” (1865), “Warrior "(1866). Then his long-term polemic with supporters of radical, socialist ideas began. In a number of his works, N. Leskov (then known under the pseudonym M. Stebnitsky) debunks the images of nihilists, “new people.” These anti-nihilistic works include the story “Musk Ox” (1863), the novels “Nowhere” (1864), “Bypassed” (1865), “On Knives” (1870). Leskov seeks to show the futility of the revolutionaries’ efforts, the groundlessness of their activities.

In the 1870s a new period of N. Leskov’s creativity begins. The writer creates images of Russian righteous people - people powerful in spirit, patriots. The peaks of N. Leskov’s prose were the novel “The Soborians” (1872), the novels and short stories “The Enchanted Wanderer”, “The Sealed Angel” (1873), “Iron Will” (1876), “The Non-Lethal Golovan” (1880 g.), “The Tale of the Tula Oblique Lefty and the Steel Flea” (1881), “Pechersk Antiques” (1883). In the works of N. Leskov, the motives of the national identity of the Russian people and faith in their creative powers are strong.

In the 80s - 90s. XIX century the critical, satirical content of N. Leskov’s prose increases. He writes works both heartfelt and lyrical (the story “The Stupid Artist”, 1883) and sharply satirical (“Hare Remiz”, 1891; “Winter Day”, 1894, etc.). The ideal of the late Leskov is not a revolutionary, but an educator, a bearer of the Gospel ideals of goodness and justice.

N. Leskov's language is remarkable. The writer's narrative style is distinguished by his masterly command of the folk language (the use of folk sayings, a rich lexicon of fictitious words, barbarisms and neologisms). Leskov’s lively, “fairy-tale” manner reveals the image through his speech characteristics. The writer was able to create a fusion of literary and folk language.

Lisyansky Yuri Fedorovich(1773-1837). Russian navigator, captain 1st rank (1809). The commander of the ship "Neva" as part of the first Russian round-the-world expedition I.F. Krusenstern (1803-1805). Of the 1095 days of the expedition, Neva completed 720 days on its own. At the same time, a record sea crossing was completed - 13,923 miles of non-stop sailing without calling at a port in 140 days. Lisyansky discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands, explored Fr. Kodiak (off the coast of Alaska) and the Alexander Archipelago.

Lobachevsky Nikolai Ivanovich(1792-1856). Mathematician. All his activities are connected with Kazan University. He studied there (1807-1811), became a teacher (from 1814 - adjunct, from 1816 extraordinary, and from 1822 - ordinary professor). He taught mathematics, physics and astronomy, headed the university library for 10 years, was elected dean of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics (1820-1825), and from 1827 he was rector of the university for 19 years. During Lobachevsky's rectorship, Kazan University received a whole complex of auxiliary buildings (observatory, library, physics office, clinic, chemical laboratory), and developed publishing activities.

The main merit of N.I. Lobachevsky - the creation of a new geometry - a scientific theory, rich in content and having application in both mathematics and physics. Lobachevsky geometry is also called hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry (as opposed to Riemann elliptic geometry). Lobachevsky outlined the foundations of his theory in February 1826, but the essay itself, “A concise presentation of the principles of geometry with a rigorous proof of the theorem on parallels,” was included in the work “On the principles of geometry” and published in 1829. This was the first publication in world literature on non-Euclidean geometry. His works were subsequently published in 1835-1838, and in 1840 his book “Geometric Research” (in German) was published in Germany.

Contemporaries did not understand Lobachevsky's scientific ideas. Only after the death of Lobachevsky, who died unrecognized, the works of a number of mathematicians of the 60s - 80s. XIX century revealed the significance of the research of the creators of non-Euclidean geometry of the first half of the century - N. Lobachevsky, J. Bolyai (Hungary), K. Gauss (Germany).

At the end of his life, Lobachevsky was deprived of his rectorship, lost his son, and experienced financial difficulties. Already blind, he continued his scientific work, dictating his last book, Pan-Geometry, a year before his death.

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich(1711-1765). Genius of Russian science, the first Russian natural scientist of world significance, historian, poet, artist.

The son of a Pomor peasant in the Arkhangelsk province. In 1731-1735 studied at the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, and in 1736-1741. was in Germany, where he studied physics, chemistry and metallurgy. Upon returning to Russia, he became an adjunct of the Academy of Sciences in the physics class, and in August 1745 he became the first Russian elected to the position of professor of chemistry. In 1746, Lomonosov was the first to give public lectures on physics in Russian. At his insistence, the first chemical laboratory in Russia was founded in Russia (1748), and then Moscow University was organized (1755).

From 1748, Lomonosov worked mainly in chemistry, opposing the theory of caloric, which was dominant in the science of his time, to which he opposed his molecular kinetic theory. In a letter to L. Euler (June 5, 1748), Lomonosov formulated the universal principle of conservation of matter and motion. Lomonosov's chemistry was based on the achievements of physics. In 1752-1753 he taught the course "Introduction to True Physical Chemistry." M. Lomonosov paid a lot of attention to the research of atmospheric electricity. He also developed a number of instruments for physical research (viscometer, refractometer).

In addition to physics and chemistry, Lomonosov also studied astronomy and geophysics. In 1761 he discovered the atmosphere of Venus. He also carried out studies of gravity. Lomonosov's contribution to geology and mineralogy was great. Lomonosov proved the organic origin of soil, peat, coal, oil and amber. He is the author of the works “A Discourse on the Birth of Metals from the Earth’s Shaking” (1757), “On the Layers of the Earth” (1763). Lomonosov paid significant attention to metallurgy. In 1763, he published the manual “The First Foundations of Metallurgy or Mining.”

Since 1758, M. Lomonosov has headed the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences. He studied sea ice, developing its classification, wrote works on the significance of the Northern Sea Route, and proposed a number of new instruments and methods for determining the latitude and longitude of a place. In 1761, Lomonosov wrote a treatise “On the preservation and reproduction of the Russian people,” in which he proposed a number of measures aimed at increasing the population of Russia.

Since 1751, M. Lomonosov began systematic research into Russian history. He criticized the Norman theory. Lomonosov is the author of “A Brief Russian Chronicler with Genealogy” (1760) and “Ancient Russian History...” (published in 1766). M. Lomonosov also wrote fundamental works in the field of philology - “Russian Grammar” (1757), “Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language” (1758). In the latter, he developed a theory of genres and styles. Lomonosov also wrote “A Brief Guide to Eloquence” (1748).

In his literary and artistic work, Lomonosov acted as a supporter of classicism and at the same time a reformer of Russian versification. He substantiated the syllabic-tonic system of versification in his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739, published in 1778). Lomonosov is the creator of the Russian ode. He gave this genre a civil sound (ode “To the Capture of Khotin” - 1739, published in 1751). Lomonosov owns the tragedies “Tamira and Selim” (1750) and “Demophon” (1752), the unfinished epic poem “Peter the Great”.

For many years, M. Lomonosov developed a technology for producing colored glass and built a factory near St. Petersburg for this purpose. He used colored glass to create mosaics, to the development of which Lomonosov made a significant contribution. He created the monumental mosaic “Battle of Poltava”. For his mosaic works, Lomonosov was elected a member of the Russian Academy of Arts in 1763.

Maxim the Greek (1475-1556). Writer, publicist. In the world Maxim Trivolis. From the family of a Greek official, he studied in Italy. He accepted monasticism. In 1518, at the request of Vasily III, he arrived in Russia to correct translations of church books. Extensive education, brilliant mind, and hard work allowed him to occupy a privileged position in the high circles of the Russian clergy. But later Maxim the Greek began to interfere in politics, took the side of the non-covetous, and therefore at church councils in 1525, 1531. was convicted, imprisoned and released only in 1551. He spent the rest of his life in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, where he died. Most of Maxim the Greek's works are directed against monastic land ownership and usury. In his opinion, the tsar must act in harmony with the church and the boyars. In international affairs, Maxim the Greek recommended decisiveness, but advised to avoid complications. The political views of Maxim the Greek had a great influence on the Elected Rada.

Macarius (1481/82-1563). Moscow Metropolitan (since 1542) and politician. (In the world Makar Leontyev). He was close to Vasily III, under him he held the post of metropolitan in Novgorod. Actively contributed to the establishment of the power of Ivan IV. Under the influence of Macarius and with his participation, Ivan IV took the title of Tsar in 1547. Macarius was one of the inspirers of the Kazan campaigns. He was a supporter of a strong church: at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551 he opposed the government’s attempts to limit the rights of the church. With his participation, the “Degree Book” and the “Facebook Chronicle” were compiled. Macarius tried to compile a complete collection of all the “books that are found in the Russian land”: the lives of the saints, the Holy Scriptures with the interpretation of the Gospel, the books of John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and many others - a total of 12 handwritten volumes, with a volume of more than 13 thousand large-format sheets. He owns many journalistic works, permeated with the main idea: the need to strengthen the autocracy, strengthen the role of the church in the state. Macarius contributed to the opening of the first Russian printing house in Moscow on December 31, 1563.

Makarov Stepan Osipovich(1848/49-1904). Naval commander and scientist, vice admiral. Served in the Pacific and Baltic fleets. While serving on the armored boat "Rusalka", he began researching the problem of unsinkability of ships, which has retained its significance to this day. Participant in the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-78. In 1877, he used the Whitehead torpedo in combat for the first time. Conducted hydrological work in the Bosphorus. He wrote the work “On the Exchange of Waters of the Black and Mediterranean Seas” (1885), which was awarded a prize from the Academy of Sciences. From August 1886 to May 1889 he traveled around the world on the corvette Vityaz. The results of his observations also received a prize from the Academy of Sciences and a gold medal from the Geographical Society. Since 1840 Makarov has been a rear admiral, since 1891 he has been the chief inspector of naval artillery. In 1896, his idea of ​​​​creating a powerful icebreaker for Arctic research was embodied in the icebreaker Ermak, built under the leadership of Makarov, and in 1899 and 1901. he himself sailed on this ship to the Arctic. On February 1, 1904, Makarov was appointed commander of the Pacific Fleet, and on February 24 he arrived in Port Arthur. He prepared the fleet for active action against the Japanese, but died along with most of the crew on the battleship Petropavlovsk, which was blown up by a mine.

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich(1834-1907). Chemist, teacher and public figure. Born into the family of the director of the Tobolsk gymnasium. In 1855 he graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg with a gold medal. In 1856 he defended his master's thesis, and in 1865 - his doctoral dissertation. In 1861 he published the textbook “Organic Chemistry”, which was awarded the Demidov Prize by the Academy of Sciences. In 1876 he was elected corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1865-1890 - Professor at St. Petersburg University. Author of more than 500 published scientific works on chemistry, physics, metrology, economics, meteorology, issues of public education, etc. In 1892, Mendeleev was appointed scientific custodian of the Depot of Model Weights and Weights, which he transformed into the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures, of which he remained the director. until the end of life.

The main scientific merit of D.I. Mendeleev - the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements in 1869. Based on the table of chemical elements compiled by Mendeleev, he predicted the existence of several still unknown elements, which were soon discovered - gallium, germanium, scandium. The periodic law has long been universally recognized as one of the fundamental laws of natural science.

Mendeleev is the author of the book “Fundamentals of Chemistry,” which was reprinted many times and translated into a number of languages ​​(Russian edition 1869-1872, English and German 1891, and French in 1895). His study of solutions is a significant contribution to chemistry (monograph “Study of aqueous solutions by specific gravity”, 1887, containing enormous experimental material). D. Mendeleev proposed an industrial method for the fractional separation of oil, invented a type of smokeless gunpowder (“pyrocollodium”, 1890) and organized its production.

DI. Mendeleev actively participated in the industrial development of Russia. He paid special attention to the oil, coal, metallurgical and chemical industries. He did a lot for the development of the Baku and Donbass industrial regions, and was the initiator of the construction of oil pipelines. In agriculture he promoted the use of mineral fertilizers and irrigation. Author of the book “Towards Knowledge of Russia” (1906), which sums up his thoughts on the development of the country’s productive forces.

Mussorgsky Modest Petrovich(1839-1881). Great composer, member of the “Mighty Handful” association. From a noble family. Started playing music at the age of 6. In 1849 he entered the Peter and Paul School (St. Petersburg), and in 1852-1856. studied at the School of Guards Ensigns.

Since 1858, having left military service, he devoted himself to composition. In the late 1850s - early 1860s. wrote a number of romances and instrumental works. In 1863-1866. worked on the opera “Salammbô” (based on the novel by G. Flaubert, unfinished). I turned to current topics in Russian life. He created songs and romances based on the words of N. Nekrasov and T. Shevchenko.

The symphonic painting “Night on Bald Mountain” (1867) is distinguished by the richness and richness of its sound colors. The greatest creation of M. Mussorgsky was the opera “Boris Godunov” (based on Pushkin’s tragedy). The first edition of the opera (1869) was not accepted for production, and only in 1874, with large cuts, “Boris Godunov” was staged at the St. Petersburg Mariinsky Theater. In the 1870s. M. Mussorgsky worked on the “folk musical drama” “Khovanshchina” and the comic opera “Sorochinskaya Fair” (based on Gogol’s story). The operas were not completed until the composer's death. “Khovanshchina” was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov, and “Sorochinskaya Fair” by A. Lyadov and Ts. Cui.

Mussorgsky's music is an original, expressive musical language, distinguished by acute character, subtlety, and a variety of psychological shades. The composer proved himself to be a brilliant playwright. In Mussorgsky's musical dramas, dynamic and colorful crowd scenes are combined with a variety of individual characteristics and the psychological depth of individual images.

Novikov Nikolay Ivanovich(1744-1818). Educator, writer, journalist, book publisher, bookseller.

Born into a noble family near the city of Bronnitsa (Moscow province). In 1755-1760 He studied at the noble gymnasium at Moscow University, then served in the Izmailovsky regiment. In 1767-1769 - employee of the Commission for the preparation of the “New Code” (Code of Russian Laws).

Beginning in 1770, N. Novikov became a publisher of satirical magazines in which he published his works. Novikov’s magazines - “Drone”, “Pustomelya”, “Painter”, “Wallet” - denounced serf owners and officials, and polemicized with the magazine “Everything and Everything” published by Catherine II. The magazine “Zhivopiets”, where Novikov’s anti-serfdom works were published, was particularly successful.

N. Novikov devoted a lot of energy to publishing. His merit is the publication of monuments of Russian history - “Ancient Russian Vivliofika” (1773-1775), the book “An Experience of a Historical Dictionary about Russian Writers”. Novikov published the first Russian philosophical journal "Morning Light" (1777-1780) and the country's first journal of critical bibliography "St. Petersburg Scientific Gazette" (1777).

In 1779 N. Novikov moved to Moscow and rented the university printing house for 10 years. Subsequently, he created the Printing Company, which had 2 printing houses, and organized book trade in 16 cities of Russia. Novikov's company published books on various fields of knowledge and teaching aids. (About a third of all books published in Russia in the 1780s were published by Novikov).

In 1792, N. Novikov was arrested and imprisoned for 15 years in the Shlisselburg fortress without trial. Under Paul I he was released, but without the right to continue his publishing activities. He died on his family estate.

Ostrovsky Alexander Nikolaevich(1823-1886). Great playwright. The son of an official. He received his education at the 1st Moscow Gymnasium (1835-1840) and at the Faculty of Law of Moscow University, which he did not graduate from. In 1843 -1851. served in Moscow courts.

The first publications were in 1847. The comedy “Our People - Let's Be Numbered”, published in 1850, brought fame. (The comedy was banned from production until 1861.) Ostrovsky published his early plays in the magazine Moskvityanin, the organ of Slavophiles. His plays appeared, created under the influence of the ideology of the Slavophiles: “Don’t sit in your own sleigh” (1852), “Poverty is not a vice” (1853), “Don’t live as you want” (1854). Starting with the comedy “Don’t Get in Your Own Sleigh,” A. Ostrovsky’s plays quickly conquered the Moscow stage and became the basis of the Russian theater’s repertoire (for more than 30 years, every season in the Moscow Maly and St. Petersburg Alexandrinsky theaters was marked by the production of his new play).

In the second half of the 1850s. Ostrovsky strengthens social criticism in his plays and becomes closer to the Sovremennik magazine. The drama of conflicts is great in the comedies “At Someone Else’s Feast a Hangover” (1855), “Profitable Place” (1856), and the drama “The Thunderstorm” (1859). The images of Katerina and representatives of the “dark kingdom” became the pinnacle of A. Ostrovsky’s dramaturgy.

In the 1860s. the playwright continued to write highly talented plays - both dramas (“The Deep”, 1865) and satirical comedies (“Simplicity is enough for every wise man”, 1868; “Mad Money” 1869), historical plays from the era of the Time of Troubles. Almost all of Ostrovsky's dramatic works of the 1870s - early 1880s. published in the journal Otechestvennye zapiski.

In the last years of his work, A. Ostrovsky created socio-psychological dramas about the fate of sensitive women in the world of cynicism and self-interest (“Dowry”, 1878; “Talents and Admirers”, 1882; “The Last Victim”, etc.). Ostrovsky's 47 plays created an extensive and timeless repertoire for the Russian stage.

Ostrogradsky Mikhail Vasilievich(1801-1861). Mathematician and mechanic. He studied at Kharkov University (1816-1820). Professor of officer classes at the Naval Cadet Corps (since 1828), the Institute of the Corps of Railway Engineers (since 1830), and the Main Artillery School (since 1841). Academician (1830).

His main works relate to mathematical analysis, theoretical mechanics, and mathematical physics. Solved an important scientific problem about the propagation of waves on the surface of a liquid in a pool (1826). In his works on physics he obtained differential equations for the propagation of heat. I found a formula for converting a volume integral into a surface integral (Ostrogradsky's formula - 1828). He constructed a general theory of impact (1854). Of great importance were Ostrogradsky's works on the theory of the movement of spherical projectiles in the air and elucidation of the effect of a shot on the gun carriage.

Perov Vasily Grigorievich(1833-1882). Painter. Studied at the Arzamas school of painting A.V. Stupin (1846-1849; intermittently) and at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1853-1861). Founding member of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. In the early 60s. Perov created a number of revealing genre paintings: he spoke in detail about simple everyday events, strengthening and sharpening the social characteristics of the characters (“Rural religious procession at Easter” (1861), “Tea Party in Mytishchi” (1862), etc.). The works of the Parisian period are marked by a growing interest in human individuality, a craving for tonal color (“The Blind Musician”, 1864). In the 2nd half of the 1860s. critical tendencies in Perov’s work are realized in works imbued with sympathy and compassion for the poor, disadvantaged people. Among them: “Seeing off the Dead Man” (1865), “Troika” (1866), “The Drowned Woman” (1867), “The Last Tavern at the Outpost” (1868).

Perov created a number of paintings in the genre close to portraits, in which he sought to convey the individual qualities of people from the people, their ability to think and feel deeply (“Fomushka the Owl”, 1868, “The Wanderer”, 1870).

In the early 70s. Perov worked on portraits of members of the intelligentsia, emphasizing their creativity. Perov’s portraits are characterized by an objective attitude towards the model, accuracy of social characteristics, unity of composition, pose and gesture with the psychological state of a person (portraits of A.N. Ostrovsky, 1871, V.I. Dahl and F.M. Dostoevsky - both 1872. ).

Soon Perov experienced an ideological crisis (in 1877 he broke with the Wanderers): from accusatory genre themes, he moved mainly to everyday life “hunting” scenes (“Birder”, 1870, “Hunters at a Rest” and “Fisherman” - both 1871) , as well as to historical painting, having suffered a number of creative failures in it (“Pugachev’s Court”, 1875). He taught at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1871-82).

Peter I Alekseevich(1672-1725), Russian Tsar from 1682 (reigned from 1689), Russian Emperor (from 1721 Peter the Great), from the Romanov dynasty.

He carried out numerous reforms in various areas of public life - the creation of collegiums, the Senate, the Synod, the abolition of the patriarchate, the formation of state control and political investigation bodies, the construction of the new capital of Russia - St. Petersburg. Peter I is the creator of the Russian regular army and navy, a major commander and diplomat. Achieved victory in the protracted Northern War with Sweden (1700-1721), annexed the Baltic lands to Russia.

The role of Peter I in the history of the material and spiritual culture of Russia is great. In order to strengthen the economy, he created manufactories, shipyards, metallurgical, mining, and weapons factories. Peter himself was a major shipbuilder at the beginning of the 18th century. On the initiative of Peter the Great, many educational institutions were opened in Russia, the Academy of Sciences was created, the civil alphabet was adopted, the country's first museum, botanical garden, etc. were founded. He contributed to the transformation of the life of the Russian nobility (the introduction of European clothing, the opening of assemblies, etc.). Many Russian people received education in the West under Peter I. In an effort to use the experience of Western European countries in the development of industry, trade, and military affairs, Peter the Great contributed to the introduction of Russia to the symbolic system of Western civilization. As a result, the harmonious development of Russian culture was disrupted.

Pirogov Nikolay Ivanovich(1810-1881). Scientist, doctor, teacher and public figure. Born into the family of a small employee. In 1828 he graduated from the medical faculty of Moscow University, in 1836-1840. - Professor of theoretical and practical surgery at the University of Dorpat. In 1841-1856. Professor of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (since 1847). Participant in the Sevastopol Defense of 1855. Trustee of the Odessa (1856-1858) and Kyiv (1858-1861) educational districts.

Pirogov is one of the founders of surgery as a scientific discipline. The main works are “Surgical anatomy of arterial trunks and fascia” (1837), “Topographic anatomy” (1859), “On plastic surgery in general and rhinoplasty in particular” (1835), “Beginnings of general military surgery" (1866). He laid the foundation of topographic anatomy and operative surgery, came up with the idea of ​​plastic surgery (for the first time in the world he put forward the idea of ​​bone grafting). He was the first to propose rectal anesthesia, use ether anesthesia in the clinic, and was the first in the world to use anesthesia (in 1847) in military field surgery.

N. Pirogov is the founder of military field surgery. He put forward the position of war as a “traumatic epidemic”, the unity of treatment and evacuation, and the triage of the wounded. He traveled as a consultant to the theater of military operations during the Franco-Prussian (1870-1871) and Russian-Turkish (1877-1878) wars. He developed and introduced methods of limb immobilization (starch, plaster bandages), was the first to apply a bandage in the field (1854), and during the defense of Sevastopol (1855) he involved women (sisters of mercy) in caring for the wounded at the front. After the death of Pirogov, the Society of Russian Doctors was founded in memory of N.I. Pirogov, who regularly convened Pirogov congresses (12 regular and 3 emergency).

As a teacher, N. Pirogov fought against class prejudices in the field of education and upbringing, advocated the autonomy of universities, and strived for the implementation of general primary education.

Plekhanov Georgy Valentinovich(1857-1918). Theorist and propagandist of Marxism, founder of the Social Democratic movement in Russia, major researcher in the fields of philosophy, sociology, aesthetics, religion, as well as history and economics.

G. Plekhanov is the founder of the Marxist group “Emancipation of Labor” (1883). He conducted polemics with the populists in the books “Socialism and Political Struggle” and “Our Disagreements.”

In 1901-1905 - one of the leaders of the created V.I. Lenin of the newspaper "Iskra"; later opposed Bolshevism. In the philosophical and sociological works “On the development of a monistic view of history” (1895), “Essay on the history of materialism” (1896), “On the question of the role of personality in history” (1898), he developed a materialist understanding of history, applied the dialectical method to knowledge of social life. He rejected the concept of “heroes who make history,” believing that “the people, the entire nation should be the hero of history.” In the field of aesthetics, he took the position of realism, considering art as a specific form of reflection of social life, a way of artistic exploration of reality.

G. Plekhanov’s “History of Russian Social Thought” is written by G. Plekhanov.

Polenov Vasily Dmitrievich(1844-1927). Painter. Full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893), People's Artist of the RSFSR (1926).

He studied at the Academy of Arts (1863-1871), from 1878 he was a Wanderer. Since the late 1870s. Landscape began to occupy a large place in his work. Polenov skillfully conveyed the quiet poetry and discreet beauty of Russian nature, achieving freshness of color, compositional completeness and clarity of drawing. The most famous are: “Moscow Courtyard” and “Grandma’s Garden” - both 1878; “Overgrown Pond”, 1879. In 1886-1887. The painting “Christ and the Sinner” was created - a canvas dedicated to moral problems. The pinnacle of V. Polenov’s creativity is the painting “Golden Autumn” (1893). He worked a lot in the field of theatrical and decorative painting.

Pushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich(1799-1837) - genius of Russian literature, creator of the modern Russian literary language, founder of Russian classics.

He received his education at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1811-1817), a member of the Arzamas literary society and the Green Lamp circle. In poems 1817-1820 Pushkin’s talent and love of freedom were revealed (“Liberty”, “Village”, “To Chaadaev”, etc.). In 1820, the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” was published, which became a turning point in Russian poetry. In May 1820, Pushkin was exiled to the south of Russia. The time of “southern exile” is the era of the heyday of romanticism in the poet’s work. Among the “southern poems” of A. Pushkin are “Prisoner of the Caucasus” (1821), “Bakhchisarai Fountain” (1823), “Gypsies” (1824). In these poems, along with the perfection of verse, a philosophical approach to the problems of freedom, personality, and love was revealed.

In July 1824, Pushkin was expelled from service for unreliability and sent to the family estate - the village of Mikhailovskoye. Here the poet creates the central chapters of the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” (work on it began in May 1823), the cycle “Imitation of the Koran”, and the satirical poem “Count Nulin”. At the same time, Pushkin wrote the masterpieces of his lyrics - the poems “The Desire for Glory”, “The Burnt Letter”, “K” (“I Remember a Wonderful Moment”), “The forest is dropping its crimson attire”. A mature view of history was manifested in the tragedy “Boris Godunov” (1825), which laid the foundations for Pushkin’s understanding of realism and nationality.

In September 1826, the new Emperor Nicholas I returned Pushkin from exile. A new period in the poet’s life and work begins. New works were created in prose - the novel "Arap of Peter the Great" (1827) and poetry - "Stanzas" (1826), the poem "Poltava" (1828). Pushkin makes a trip to the Caucasus (1829), collaborates in A. Delvig’s Literary Newspaper.

In the autumn of 1830, on his Nizhny Novgorod estate Boldino, A. Pushkin was experiencing the height of his creative powers (about 50 works of different genres were created in 3 months). Here “Eugene Onegin” was basically completed, the cycle “Belkin’s Tales” (“Shot”, “Blizzard”, “Undertaker”, “Station Warden”, “Peasant Lady”) was created, the so-called “Little tragedies” (“The Miserly Knight”, “Mozart and Salieri”, “The Stone Guest”, “A Feast in the Time of Plague”). About 30 poems appeared in Boldin (including “Elegy”, “Spell”, “For the Shores of the Distant Fatherland”, “Demons”, etc.).

In 1831, Pushkin married and moved to St. Petersburg. He carefully studies the history of Russia, having gained access to archives, and is working on the novel “Dubrovsky”. In 1833 he travels to the places of the Pugachev uprising - the Volga region and the Urals. On the way back to Boldin, Pushkin writes “The History of Pugachev”, the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, the story “The Queen of Spades”, the poem “Autumn”, the cycle “Songs of the Western Slavs”.

In 1834, the last period of A. Pushkin’s creativity began. He works on “The History of Peter” and begins publishing the magazine “Contemporary” (since 1836). Work on “The Captain's Daughter”, a historical novel about the uprising led by E. Pugachev, is nearing completion. Pushkin writes the philosophical story “Egyptian Nights” (1835), a number of new poetic masterpieces (“It’s time, my friend, it’s time...”, “...I visited again,” “From Pindemonti,” “I erected a monument to myself... " and etc.). In poems 1834-1836. Philosophical thoughts, sadness, thoughts about death and immortality predominate.

In January 1837 A.S. Pushkin was mortally wounded in a duel.

Radishchev Alexander Nikolaevich(1749-1802). Writer and philosopher. The son of a wealthy nobleman-landowner. He was educated at the Corps of Pages (1762-1766) and the University of Leipzig (1767-1771). From 1773 he served as chief auditor (legal adviser) of the headquarters of the Finnish division (St. Petersburg), in 1775 he retired, and from 1777 he again served in the Commerce Collegium. From 1780 - assistant manager, and from 1790 - manager of the St. Petersburg customs house.

In 1771-1773 Radishchev completed a number of translations. At the turn of the 1770s and 1780s. acts as an independent author (the unfinished allegorical oratorio “The Creation of the World” (1779), “The Tale of Lomonosov” (1780), “Letter to a Friend Living in Tobolsk” (1782) and the ode “Liberty”). From the mid-1780s. A. Radishchev began work on his main book - “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.” In the book, he strongly condemned autocracy and serfdom. Having condemned the ideology of the Enlightenment, he leads the reader to the conclusion about the need for revolution. The book was published in May 1790, and on June 30 Radishchev was arrested. The court sentenced him to death, which was replaced by exile to 10 years in the Ilimsk prison in Siberia with deprivation of ranks and nobility. In exile, Radishchev created the philosophical treatise “On Man, His Mortality and Immortality” (1792-1795), and a number of other works.

Under Paul I, Radishchev was transferred to one of his father's estates - s. Nemtsovo, Kaluga province (1797), and Alexander I completely amnestied him. In 1801, Radishchev was assigned to serve in the Commission for Drafting Laws. Working on draft legislative acts, he put forward ideas for eliminating class privileges, which did not find understanding in the administration. In September 1802, A. Radishchev poisoned himself.

Repin Ilya Efimovich(1844-1930). Great painter. Born into the family of a military settler. He studied at the Drawing School of the Society for the Encouragement of Artists and at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1864-1871), and was a scholarship recipient in Italy and France (1873-1876). Since 1878, member of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions. Full member of the Academy of Arts (1893).

In his work he revealed the social contradictions of post-reform Russia (the painting “Religious procession in the Kursk province”). He created images of commoner revolutionaries (“Refusal of Confession”, “Arrest of a Propagandist”, “They Didn’t Expect” 1879-1884). In the 1870s - 1880s. Repin created the best portraits (V.V. Stasov, A.F. Pisemsky, M.P. Mussorgsky, N.I. Pirogov, P.A. Strepetova, L.N. Tolstoy). They reveal the inner world of outstanding figures of Russian culture. Repin also created outstanding paintings in the genre of historical painting (“Princess Sophia,” 1979; “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan,” 1885; “Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan,” 1878-1891). One of the pinnacles of Repin’s creativity was the monumental group portrait “Great Meeting of the State Council” (1901-1903).

In 1894-1907 Repin taught at the Academy of Arts, becoming I.I.’s teacher. Brodsky, I.E. Grabar, B.M. Kustodiev and others. Lived in the Penaty estate in Kuokkala (Finland). After 1917, due to the separation of Finland, he ended up abroad.

Rimsky-Korsakov Nikolai Andreevich(1844-1908). Composer, teacher, conductor, public figure, music writer. From the nobles. He received his education at the St. Petersburg Naval Corps, after which (1862) he participated in sailing on the clipper "Almaz" (Europe, North and South America). In 1861 he became a member of the musical and creative community “The Mighty Handful”. Under the leadership of M.A. Balakirev, who had a great creative influence on Rimsky-Korsakov, created the 1st symphony (1862-1865, 2nd edition 1874). In the 60s wrote a number of romances (about 20), symphonic works, incl. the musical picture “Sadko” (1867, final edition 1892), 2nd symphony (“Antar”, 1868, later called a suite, final edition 1897); the opera “The Pskov Woman” (based on the drama by L.A. Mey, 1872, final version 1894). Since the 70s Rimsky-Korsakov's musical activity expanded significantly: he was a professor at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (from 1871), inspector of brass bands of the naval department (1873-1884), director of the Free Music School (1874-1881), assistant manager of the Court Singing Chapel (1883-1884). 1894). He compiled a collection of “100 Russian folk songs” (1876, published 1877), harmonized Russian songs collected by T.I. Filippov (“40 songs”, published 1882).

The passion for the beauty and poetry of folk rituals was reflected in the operas “May Night” (after N.V. Gogol, 1878) and especially in “The Snow Maiden” (after A.N. Ostrovsky, 1881) - one of the most inspired and poetic works of Rimsky-Korsakov , as well as in the later operas “Mlada” (1890), “The Night Before Christmas” (after Gogol, 1895). In the 80s most of the symphonic works were created, incl. “The Tale” (1880), “Sinfonietta on Russian Themes” (1885), “Spanish Capriccio” (1887), the “Scheherazade” suite (1888), the “Bright Holiday” overture (1888). In the 2nd half of the 90s. Rimsky-Korsakov's creativity acquired exceptional intensity and diversity. After the epic opera “Sadko” (1896), Rimsky-Korsakov focuses on the inner world of man.

Rimsky-Korsakov wrote music for the operas: “Mozart and Salieri”, “Boyaryna Vera Sheloga” (prologue to the opera “The Pskov Woman”, 1898), “The Tsar’s Bride” (1898). The opera “The Tale of Tsar Saltan” (based on Pushkin, 1900), with its theatricality and elements of stylization of folk popular prints, and the majestic, patriotic opera-legend “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia” (1904) are masterpieces of Russian music. Two opera-fairy tales are marked by a socio-political orientation: “Kashchei the Immortal” (1901), with its idea of ​​liberation from oppression, and “The Golden Cockerel” (after Pushkin, 1907), a satire on despotism.

Rimsky-Korsakov's work is deeply original and at the same time develops classical traditions. Harmonious worldview, subtle artistry, perfect craftsmanship and strong support on a folk basis make him similar to M.I. Glinka.

Rozanov Vasily Vasilievich(1856-1919). Philosopher and writer. He developed the theme of contrast between Christ and the world, paganism and Christianity, which, in his opinion, expresses the worldview of hopelessness and death. Spiritual revival must take place on the basis of a correctly understood new Christianity, the ideals of which will certainly triumph not only in the other world, but also here on earth. Culture, art, family, personality can only be understood within the framework of a new religious worldview as a manifestation of the “divine-human process”, as the embodiment of the divine in man and human history. Rozanov also tried to build his philosophy of life on the deification of clan, family (“Family as Religion,” 1903), and gender. Main works: “On Understanding”, 1886; “The Family Question in Russia”, 1903; “In the world of the unclear and unresolved”, 1904; “Near the Church Walls”, 2 vols., 1906; "Dark face. Metaphysics of Christianity", 1911; “People of the moonlight. Metaphysics of Christianity", 1911; "Fallen Leaves", 1913-1915; "Religion and Culture", 1912; “From Eastern motives”, 1916.

Rublev Andrey (c. 1360 - c. 1430). Russian painter.

Biographical information about the great artist of medieval Rus' is very scarce. He was brought up in a secular environment and took monastic vows in adulthood. Andrei Rublev's worldview was formed in an atmosphere of spiritual upsurge at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. with his deep interest in religious problems. Rublev's artistic style was formed on the basis of the art traditions of Moscow Rus'.

Rublev's works embody not only a deep religious feeling, but also an understanding of the spiritual beauty and moral strength of man. Icons of the Zvenigorod rank (“Archangel Michael”, “Apostle Paul”, “Savior”) are the pride of medieval Russian iconography. Laconic smooth contours and a broad brushwork style are close to the techniques of monumental painting. The best icon by Rublev, “The Trinity,” was created at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. The traditional biblical story is filled with philosophical content. The harmony of all elements is an artistic expression of the basic idea of ​​Christianity.

In 1405, Andrei Rublev, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and in 1408, with Daniil Cherny, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and created icons for its three-tiered iconostasis. In 1425-1427 painted the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and painted the icons of its iconostasis.

The work of Andrei Rublev is the pinnacle of ancient Russian painting, a treasure of world culture.

Savitsky Konstantin Apollonovich(1844-1905). Painter. He studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1862-1873. member of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions in 1878. He taught at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1891-1897) and the Penza Art School (from 1897 until his death), of which he was director.

The author of genre paintings of an accusatory nature, in which he was able to convey the psychology of the masses. The most famous paintings: “Repair work on the railway”, 1874, “Meeting of the icon”, 1878; “To War,” 1880-1888; “Dispute on the Boundary”, 1897. He also created etchings and lithographs.

Savrasov Alexey Kondratievich(1830-1897). Landscape painter. Studied in 1844-1854. at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, where in 1857-1882. led a landscape class. One of the founders of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions.

A. Savrasov's landscapes are distinguished by their lyrical spontaneity and skillful conveyance of the deep sincerity of Russian nature. Savrasov’s most famous paintings are “Elk Island in Sokolniki” (1869), “The Rooks Have Arrived” (1871), “Country Road” (1873). He had a huge influence on Russian landscape painters of the late 19th - early 20th centuries (K. Korovin, I. Levitan, etc.).

Seraphim of Sarov(1759-1833) in the world Moshnin Prokhor Sidorovich. Orthodox ascetic, hieromonk of the Sarov Hermitage, canonized in 1903. Since 1778, accepted into the monastic brotherhood of the Sarov Hermitage. From 1794 he chose the path of hermithood, and then silence, and became a recluse. After leaving seclusion in 1813, many laymen became his spiritual children, as well as the sisters of the Diveye community, founded in 1788, 12 versts from the Sarov Desert. Since 1825, Seraphim spent his days in a forest cell not far from the monastery. Here his meetings with spiritual children took place. Despite the hardships of life, he maintained an enlightened and peaceful state of mind. Hesychast, who dedicated himself to God in the strictest asceticism. The teachings and image of St. Seraphim of Sarov were revered by the Don; later Sergius would become the godfather of his children). The position of the Grand Duke's confessor opened the way for Sergius to broad political activity. In 1374, he takes part in a large congress of Russian princes in Pereslavl, where the princes agreed on a joint fight against Mamai, and later blesses Dmitry Donskoy for this fight; in 1378-1379 solves questions about the structure of the Russian church and monastic life. Sergius introduced a cenobitic charter, destroying the previously existing separate residence of monks; he and his students did a great job of organizing and building Russian monasteries. Sergius of Radonezh in the 80s. resolves conflicts between Moscow and other principalities (Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod). Contemporaries highly valued Sergius of Radonezh.

I.A. Ilyin, C. de Wailly. In 1766 he moved to Rome. He returned to St. Petersburg in 1768. Since 1772, he played a leading role in the Commission on the Stone Structure of St. Petersburg and Moscow, and was involved in the planning of cities (Voronezh, Pskov, Nikolaev, Ekaterinoslav). Court Advisor. Designed a lot for the book. G.A. Potemkin. From 1769 - associate professor, from 1785 - professor, from 1794 associate rector of architecture at the Academy of Arts. From 1800 he headed the commission for the construction of the Kazan Cathedral.

One of the leading classicists of the late 18th century. Notable for the rigor of his style, his work had a huge influence on the development of the classicist school. Thus, the Tauride Palace became a model of estate construction in Russia.

Main works: in St. Petersburg - the Tauride Palace, the Trinity Cathedral and the Gate Church of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra; a number of manor houses in the vicinity of St. Petersburg, of which the houses in Taitsy and Skvoritsy, the palace in Pella (not preserved); palaces in Bogoroditsk, Bobriki and Nikolsky-Gagarin near Moscow. Theotokos Cathedral in Kazan; magistrate in Nikolaev.

Surikov Vasily Ivanovich(1848-1916). Historical painter. Born into a Cossack family. He studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1869-1875) with P.P. Chistyakova. Full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893). From 1877 he lived in Moscow, systematically made trips to Siberia, was on the Don (1893), on the Volga (1901-1903), in the Crimea (1913). Visited Germany, France, Austria (1883-1884), Switzerland (1897), Italy (1900), Spain (1910). Member of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (since 1881).

Surikov passionately loved Russian antiquity: turning to complex turning points in the history of Russia, he sought to find in the past of the people the answer to the troubling questions of our time. In the 1880s. Surikov created his most significant works - monumental historical paintings: “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution” (1881), “Menshikov in Berezovo” (1883), “Boyaryna Morozova” (1887). With the depth and objectivity of an insightful historian, Surikov revealed in them the tragic contradictions of history, the logic of its movement, the trials that strengthened the character of the people, the struggle of historical forces in the time of Peter the Great, in the era of schism, in the years of popular movements. The main character in his paintings is the struggling, suffering, triumphant masses of the people, infinitely diverse, rich in bright types. After the death of his wife in 1888, Surikov fell into acute depression and abandoned painting. Having overcome a difficult mental state after a trip to Siberia (1889-1890), he created the canvas “The Capture of a Snowy Town” (1891), which captured the image of a people full of daring and fun. In the painting “The Conquest of Siberia by Ermak” (1895), the artist’s thoughts are revealed in the bold prowess of the Cossack army, in the peculiar beauty of human types, clothes, and jewelry of the Siberian tribes. The film “Suvorov's Crossing of the Alps” (1899) glorifies the courage of Russian soldiers. During the years of reaction he worked (1909-1910) on the painting “Stepan Razin”. Surikov’s patriotic, truthful creativity, which for the first time showed the people with such force as the driving force of history, became a new stage in world historical painting.

Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich, count (1828-1910). Great Russian writer. Received home education in 1844-1847. studied at Kazan University. In 1851-1853 participates in military operations in the Caucasus, and then in the Crimean War (on the Danube and in Sevastopol). Military impressions gave L. Tolstoy material for the stories “Raid” (1853), “Cutting Wood” (1855), artistic essays “Sevastopol in December”, “Sevastopol in May”, “Sevastopol in August 1855” (published in the magazine "Contemporary" in 1855-1856), the story "Cossacks" (1853-1863). The early period of Tolstoy’s work includes the stories “Childhood” (the first printed work published in Sovremennik in 1852), “Adolescence”, “Youth” (1852-1857).

At the end of the 1850s. L. Tolstoy experienced a spiritual crisis, from which he found a way out by getting closer to the people and taking care of their needs. In 1859-1862. He devotes a lot of effort to the school he founded in Yasnaya Polyana for peasant children, and during the peasant reform he acts as a peace mediator for the Krapivensky district, defending the interests of peasants freed from serfdom.

The heyday of the artistic genius of Leo Tolstoy was the 1860s. He lives and works in Yasnaya Polyana. Since 1860 he writes the novel “The Decembrists” (the plan was abandoned), and since 1863 - “War and Peace”. Work on L. Tolstoy's main novel continued until 1869 (publication from 1865). "War and Peace" is a work that combines the depth of a psychological novel with the scope of an epic novel. The images of the novel and its concept glorified Tolstoy and made his creation the pinnacle of world literature.

The main work of L. Tolstoy of the 1870s. - novel “Anna Karenina” (1873-1877, published 1876-1877). This is a highly problematic work in which there is a strong protest against public hypocrisy. Tolstoy's refined skill was manifested in the characters of the novel's heroes.

By the end of the 1870s. the worldview of Leo Tolstoy is formed - the so-called. "Tolstoyanism". It was expressed in his works “Confession” (1879-1880), “What is my faith?” (1882-1884). Tolstoy criticizes the teachings of the Orthodox Church and tries to create his own religion. He claims to “renew” and “purify” Christianity (works “A Study of Dogmatic Theology” (1879-1880), “Connection and Translation of the Four Gospels” (1880-1881), etc.). A sharp criticism of modern civilization was given by L. Tolstoy in his journalistic works “So what should we do?” (1882), "Slavery in our time" (1899-1900).

L. Tolstoy also shows interest in drama. The drama “The Power of Darkness” and the comedy “The Fruits of Enlightenment” (1886-1890) were a great success. Themes of love, life and death in the 1880s. - central to Tolstoy’s prose. The stories “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” (1884-1886), “The Kreutzer Sonata” (1887-1899), and “The Devil” (1890) became masterpieces. In the 1890s. L. Tolstoy's main artistic work was the novel “Resurrection” (1899). Artistically exploring the destinies of people from the people, the writer paints a picture of lawlessness and oppression, calls for spiritual awakening, “resurrection.” Sharp criticism of church rituals in the novel led to the excommunication of L. Tolstoy by the Holy Synod from the Orthodox Church (1901).

In the same years, L. Tolstoy created works published posthumously (in 1911-1912) - “Father Sergius”, “Hadji Murat”, “After the Ball”, “False Coupon”, “Living Corpse”. The story “Hadji Murat” exposes the despotism of Shamil and Nicholas I, and in the play “The Living Corpse” attention is focused on the problem of a person “leaving” his family and the environment in which it has become “ashamed” to live.

In the last years of his life, L. Tolstoy came out with journalistic articles against militarism and the death penalty (“I Can’t Be Silent”, etc.). The departure, death and funeral of L. Tolstoy in 1910 became a major social event.

Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich(1818-1883). Great Russian writer. Mother - V.P. Lutovinova; father - S.N. Turgenev, officer, participant in the Patriotic War of 1812. Turgenev spent his childhood years on his mother’s estate - p. Spasskoye-Lutovinovo, Oryol province. In 1833 he entered Moscow University, a year later he moved to St. Petersburg University to the verbal department of the Faculty of Philosophy (graduated in 1837). To the series of the 30s. include the early poetic experiments of I. Turgenev. In 1838, Turgenev’s first poems “Evening” and “To the Venus of Medicine” were published in the Sovremennik magazine. In 1842, Turgenev passed the examination for a master's degree in philosophy at St. Petersburg University and traveled to Germany. Upon his return, he served in the Ministry of Internal Affairs as an official on special assignments (1842-1844).

In 1843, Turgenev’s poem “Parasha” was published, highly appreciated by Belinsky; Following her, the poems “Conversation” (1845), “Andrey” (1846) and “Landowner” (1846) were published. In the prose works of these years - “Andrei Kolosov” (1844), “Three Portraits” (1846), “Bretter” (1847) - Turgenev continued to develop the problem of the individual and society put forward by romanticism.

In Turgenev's dramatic works - genre scenes "Lack of Money" (1846), "Breakfast with the Leader" (1849, published 1856), "Bachelor" (1849) and the social drama "Freeloader" (1848, staged in 1849, published in 1857) - in the image of the “little man” the traditions of N.V. were reflected. Gogol. In the plays “Where it is thin, there it breaks” (1848), “Provincial Woman” (1851), “A Month in the Country” (1850, published in 1855), Turgenev’s characteristic dissatisfaction with the inaction of the noble intelligentsia and the anticipation of a new commoner hero are expressed.

The series of essays “Notes of a Hunter” (1847-1852) is the most significant work of the young Turgenev. It had a great influence on the development of Russian literature and brought the author world fame. The book was translated into many European languages ​​and already in the 50s, being virtually banned in Russia, went through many editions in Germany, France, and England. At the center of the essays is a serf peasant, smart, talented, but powerless. Turgenev discovered a sharp contrast between the “dead souls” of the landowners and the high spiritual qualities of the peasants that arose in communication with the majestic, beautiful nature.

In 1856, the novel “Rudin” appeared in Sovremennik - a kind of result of Turgenev’s thoughts about the leading hero of our time. Turgenev’s point of view on the “superfluous man” in “Rudin” is twofold: while recognizing the significance of Rudin’s “word” in awakening the consciousness of people in the 40s, he notes the inadequacy of the propaganda of high ideas alone in the conditions of Russian life in the 50s.

In the novel “The Noble Nest” (1859), the question of the historical destinies of Russia is acutely raised. The hero of the novel, Lavretsky, is closer to people’s life and better understands the needs of the people. He considers it his duty to alleviate the lot of the peasants.

Turgenev in his novel “On the Eve” (1860) expressed the idea of ​​the need for a creative and heroic nature. In the image of the common Bulgarian Insarov, the writer brought out a man with an integral character, all of whose moral forces are concentrated on the desire to liberate his homeland.

In the novel “Fathers and Sons” (1862), Turgenev continued his artistic interpretation of the “new man.” The novel is not just about the change of generations, but about the struggle of ideological trends (idealism and materialism), about the inevitable and irreconcilable clash of old and new socio-political forces.

After “Fathers and Sons,” a period of doubt and disappointment began for the writer. The stories “Ghosts” (1864) and “Enough” (1865) appear, filled with sad thoughts and pessimistic moods. At the center of the novel “Smoke” (1867) is the problem of life in Russia, shaken by the reform. The novel was sharply satirical and anti-Slavophile in nature. The novel “New” - (1877) - a novel about the populist movement. I.S. Turgenev is a master of Russian prose. His work is characterized by the refined art of psychological analysis.

Tyutchev Fedor Ivanovich(1803-1873). Russian poet. He belonged to an old noble family. In 1819-1821 Studied at the verbal department of Moscow University. Upon completion of the course, he enlisted in the College of Foreign Affairs. He was a member of the Russian diplomatic missions in Munich (1822-1837) and Turin (1837-1839). In 1836 A.S. Pushkin, delighted with Tyutchev’s poems delivered to him from Germany, published them in Sovremennik. Returning to Russia (1844), from 1848 Tyutchev held the position of senior censor of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and from 1858 until the end of his life he headed the Committee of Foreign Censorship.

Tyutchev developed as a poet at the turn of the 20s and 30s. The masterpieces of his lyrics date back to this time: “Insomnia”, “Summer Evening”, “Vision”, “The Last Cataclysm”, “How the Ocean Envelops the Globe”, “Cicero”, “Spring Waters”, “Autumn Evening”. Imbued with passionate, intense thought and at the same time a keen sense of the tragedy of life, Tyutchev’s lyrics artistically expressed the complexity and contradictory nature of reality. In 1854, the first collection of his poems was published, which received recognition from his contemporaries. 40s - 50s XIX century - the heyday of F.I.’s poetic talent. Tyutcheva. The poet feels within himself a “terrible division”, which, in his opinion, constitutes the distinctive quality of a person in the 19th century. (“Our Century”, 1851, “O my prophetic soul!”, 1855, etc.).

Tyutchev's lyrics are saturated with anxiety. The world, nature, man appear in his poems in a constant clash of opposing forces.

In the 50-60s. the best works of Tyutchev's love lyrics are created, stunning with psychological truth in revealing human experiences.

The soulful lyricist and poet-thinker F.I. Tyutchev was a master of Russian verse, who gave traditional meters an extraordinary rhythmic variety, and was not afraid of unusual expressive combinations.

Fedorov Ivan (Fedorov-Moskvitin) (c. 1510-1583). Founder of book printing in Russia and Ukraine. He was a deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin. Probably in the 50s. XVI century worked in the so-called anonymous printing house in Moscow. In 1564, together with Peter Mstislavets, he published “The Apostle,” known as the first Russian printed publication (however, even before that, 9 books were published). “Apostle” is skillfully ornamented. Ivan Fedorov created the so-called old printing style, and developed the font based on the Moscow semi-statutory letter of the mid-16th century.

In 1566, due to the persecution of the Josephite Church, Ivan Fedorov moved to Lithuania, worked in Zabludov, then in Lvov, Ostrog, published the “Book of Hours”, “Primer”, “New Testament”, “Ostrog Bible” - the first complete Slavic Bible. I. Fedorov was a versatile craftsman who mastered many crafts: he invented a multi-barreled mortar and cast cannons.

Fedorov Nikolay Fedorovich(1828-1903). Religious thinker, philosopher. In the essay “Philosophy of the Common Cause” (vol. 1-2, 1906-1913), published after Fedorov’s death by his students and followers, he proposed an original system - cosmism - subordinate to the idea of ​​“patrification” (resurrection of ancestors - “fathers”), which implied the recreation of all living generations, their transformation and return to God. He saw their “resurrection” in the possibility of regulating the blind forces of nature by means of developing science and technology, mastering their achievements. This, according to Fedorov, could lead to universal brotherhood and kinship (“the unification of sons for the resurrection of fathers”), to overcoming all enmity, the gap between thought and deed, “learned” and “unlearned”, city and countryside, wealth and poverty ; in addition, the prerequisites would be created for the cessation of all wars and militaristic aspirations. He considered the Christian idea of ​​personal salvation to be opposite to the cause of universal salvation and therefore immoral. Recognition came to him after his death, at the beginning of the 20th century, during a period of craze for mysticism.

Florensky Pavel Alexandrovich(1882-1937). Religious philosopher, scientist, priest and theologian. In 1911 he accepted the priesthood, and until the closure of the Moscow Theological Academy in 1919, he edited the magazine “Theological Bulletin”. In 1933 he was arrested. The central issues of his main work “The Pillar and Ground of Truth” (1914) are the concept of unity and the doctrine of Sophia coming from Solovyov, as well as the justification of Orthodox dogma, especially the trinity, asceticism and veneration of icons. Religious and philosophical issues were subsequently widely combined by Florensky with research in a variety of fields of knowledge - linguistics, theory of spatial arts, mathematics, physics. Here he tried to combine the truths of science with religious faith, believing that the primary way to “grasp” truth can only be revelation. Main works: “The Meaning of Idealism”, 1914; “Around Khomyakov”, 1916; “The First Steps of Philosophy”, 1917; “Iconostasis”, 1918; “Imaginaries in Geometry”, 1922. In 1937 he was shot on Solovki.

Frank Semyon Ludvigovich(1877-1950). Religious philosopher and psychologist. Professor at Saratov and Moscow universities until 1922, when he was expelled along with a large group of philosophers, writers and public figures from Soviet Russia. Until 1937 he lived in Berlin, where he taught at the University of Berlin and was a member of the Religious and Philosophical Academy organized by N.A. Berdyaev, participated in the publication of the magazine “Put”. From 1937 he lived in Paris, and then until his death in London. Back in 1905-1909. edited the magazine “Polar Star”, and then participated in the publication of the collection “Vekhi”, where he published the article “Ethics of Nihilism” - a sharp rejection of the rigoristic moralism and unspiritual perception of the world of the revolutionary intelligentsia.

In his philosophical views, Frank supported and developed the idea of ​​unity in the spirit of V.S. Solovyov, tried to reconcile rational thinking with religious faith on the way to overcoming the inconsistency of the divine value of all things, the imperfection of the world and the construction of Christian theodicy and ethics. Throughout his life, the philosopher affirmed as the highest value “comprehensive love as the perception and recognition of the value of all concrete living things.” Main works: “Friedrich Nietzsche and the ethics of love for the distant”, 1902; “Philosophy and Life”, St. Petersburg, 1910; “The Subject of Knowledge”, 1915; "The Soul of Man", 1918; "Essay on the methodology of social sciences." M., 1922; "Living knowledge". Berlin, 1923; "The Crash of Idols" 1924; “Spiritual Foundations of Society”, 1930; "Unfathomable." Paris, 1939; “Reality and man. Metaphysics of human existence." Paris, 1956; "God is with us". Paris, 1964.

Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich(1840-1893). Great composer. The son of a mining engineer at the Kama-Votkinsk plant in the Vyatka province. In 1850-1859 studied at the School of Law (St. Petersburg), and then (in 1859-1863) served in the Ministry of Justice. In the early 1860s. studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (graduated in 1865 with honors). In 1866-1878. - Professor at the Moscow Conservatory, author of the textbook “Guide to the Practical Study of Harmony” (1872). Appeared in print as a music critic.

Already in the Moscow period of P. Tchaikovsky’s life, his creativity began to flourish (1866-1877). Three symphonies were created, the fantasy overture “Romeo and Juliet”, the symphonic fantasies “The Tempest” (1873) and “Francesca da Rimini” (1876), the operas “The Voevoda” (1868), “The Oprichnik” (1872), “The Blacksmith Vakula” (1874, 2nd ed. - “Cherevichki”, 1885), ballet “Swan Lake” (1876), music for A. Ostrovsky’s play “The Snow Maiden” (1873), piano pieces (including the cycle “Seasons” ") and etc.

In the fall of 1877, P. Tchaikovsky went abroad, where he devoted himself entirely to composing. During these years he wrote the operas “The Maid of Orleans” (1879), “Mazeppa” (1883), “Italian Capriccio” (1880) and three suites. In 1885, Tchaikovsky returned to his homeland.

Since 1892 P.I. Tchaikovsky lives in Klin (Moscow province). He resumes active musical and social activities. He is elected director of the Moscow branch of the Russian Musical Society. Since 1887, Tchaikovsky has been performing as a conductor.

In 1885-1893. created a number of outstanding works that are included in the treasury of world music. Among them: the operas “The Enchantress” (1887), “The Queen of Spades” (1890), “Iolanta” (1891), the ballets “The Sleeping Beauty” (1889), “The Nutcracker” (1892), the symphony “Manfred” (1885) , 5th Symphony (1888), 6th “Pathetique” Symphony (1893), orchestral suite “Mozartiana” (1887).

Tchaikovsky's music is the pinnacle of Russian musical culture. He is one of the greatest symphonic composers. He is characterized by melodically generous musical speech and lyrical and dramatic expression. His best operas are psychologically deep vocal and symphonic tragedies. Thanks to the introduction of the principles of symphonic dramaturgy, Tchaikovsky's ballets are a new stage in the development of this genre. Tchaikovsky is the author of 104 romances.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich(1828-1889). Thinker, publicist, writer, literary critic. In 1856-1862. head of the Sovremennik magazine, ideologist of the revolutionary movement of the 1860s. Author of many works on philosophy, sociology, political economy, aesthetics. One of the founders of populism. His ideals are reflected in the novels “What is to be done?” (1863) and "Prologue" (1869). In the social sciences he is a supporter of materialism and anthropology. He was hostile to both autocracy and liberalism.

In 1862 he was arrested, and in 1864 he was sentenced to 7 years of hard labor. He served hard labor and exile in Eastern Siberia. In 1883 he was transferred to Astrakhan, and then to Saratov, where he died.

Chekhov Anton Pavlovich(1860-1904). Great Russian writer. Born in Taganrog, in the family of a merchant of the third guild. In 1868-1878 studied at the gymnasium, and in 1879-1884. at the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University. He practiced medicine.

Since the late 1870s. collaborated in a humorous magazine. Chekhov's first collections of stories were “Tales of Melpomene” (1884) and “Motley Stories” (1886). In the mid-1880s. moves from purely humorous stories to serious works. Stories and novellas “The Steppe” (1888), “The Seizure”, and “A Boring Story” (1889) appeared. Chekhov's collection “At Twilight” (1888) was awarded the Pushkin Prize.

In 1890, A. Chekhov took a trip to Sakhalin Island (at that time a convict zone in Russia). The results of the trip were the essay book “Sakhalin Island” (1894), the stories “In Exile”, “Murder”. In 1892, the story “Ward No. 6” was published.

Since 1892, Chekhov settled on the Melikhovo estate (Serpukhov district, Moscow province). The time is coming for the flourishing of A. Chekhov's creativity. He writes the stories “Student” (1894), “Ionych” (1898), “Lady with a Dog” (1899), the stories “Three Years” (1895), “House with a Mezzanine”, “My Life” (both 1896) , “Men” (1897), “In the Ravine” (1900). These works are imbued with the writer’s desire to reveal the truth of life and expose spiritual stagnation. The principle of Chekhov's prose is laconicism, conciseness. The writer maintains a manner of restrained, objective narration. Events seem to dissolve in the everyday flow of life, in psychology.

A.P. Chekhov is a reformer of world drama. The first plays and vaudevilles were written by him in the second half of the 1880s. (“Ivanov” and others).

In 1896, his play “The Seagull” appeared (it failed on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater). Only in 1898 it was held in triumph at the Moscow Art Theater. In 1897, Chekhov's play "Uncle Vanya" was published, in 1901 - "Three Sisters" (awarded with the Griboyedov Prize), in 1904 - "The Cherry Orchard". All these plays were staged on the stage of the Moscow Art Theater. In A. Chekhov's plays there is no plot of intrigue, and the center of gravity is shifted to a hidden, internal plot associated with the spiritual world of the heroes.

Introduction

Our entire history is made up of individuals; without historical figures there is no history. It is thanks to bright, outstanding personalities that the study of this science becomes not only useful, but also an interesting and exciting activity. People are the creators of history, under whose power is its course, giving a certain direction to the historical process. Famous figures of history, whose names will forever remain in our memory, allow us to imagine and evaluate the era with which their activities are connected more clearly and objectively, passing time and events through themselves. It is for this reason that I decided to write an essay on the topic “Statesmen, political and spiritual leaders of Russia in the 16th and early 17th centuries.” The study of history does not become a forced matter, but allows ordinary citizens to reconcile with the imperfection of the visible order of things, as with an ordinary phenomenon at all times; calms down state disasters, testifying that there have been similar ones before, there have been even more terrible ones, and the state was not destroyed; it nourishes a moral feeling and, through its righteous judgment, disposes the soul to justice, which affirms our good and the harmony of society.

The 16th century is a time rich in historical events, sometimes some of them seem unusually cruel and mysterious, such as the oprichnina, the establishment of the patriarchate, the beginning of book printing in Rus', and in general the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible was riddled with conspiracies, terrorist activities, and secrets. And who, if not the people of that era, made it so interesting for future generations.

Historical science, like its individual figures, is a mirror of the existence and activity of peoples, a testament of ancestors to posterity, addition and explanation of the present and forecasting of the future. History, opening the coffins and raising the dead, putting life into their hearts and words into their mouths, re-creating kingdoms from corruption and presenting to the imagination a series of centuries with their distinctive passions, morals, deeds, expands the boundaries of our own existence; by its creative power, we live with people of all times, we see and hear them, we love and hate them; Without even thinking about the benefits, we already enjoy the contemplation of diverse cases and characters that occupy the mind or nourish sensitivity. The personality of each is closely connected with the fatherland, which is why my essay covers the life path and activities of the leaders of the 16th and early 17th centuries, their main merits, contribution to national and world history, interaction and influence on other people and events. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to select a sufficient amount of material, carefully read it, highlight the main points, arrange it according to a certain classification and create a new text, that is, carry out an analytical and synthetic processing of various documents.

Chapter 1. Statesmen

1.1 Skuratov-Belsky Grigory Lukyanovich (Malyuta) (? – 1573)

The nickname Malyuta means “small”, “short”, and the Skuratovs were the names of either his father or grandfather; apparently the men in this family had bad skin (“skurat” - “worn suede”. His name became a symbol of medieval cruelty. This man acts on an equal footing with the most famous villains. Mikhail Bulgakov said about him: “Neither Gaius Caesar Caligula nor Messalina interested Margarita, just as Olin of the kings, dukes, jailers, informers, traitors, madmen, detectives, abusers was not interested. All of them the faces merged into one huge cake, and only the bottom sat painfully in the memory of the face, bordered by a truly red beard, the face of Malyuta Skuratov...” As soon as they called him: the tsar’s executioners, “the sovereign’s faithful dog,” a political adventurer, “a man of stone.” At the same time, very little is known about his biography, it is unknown when and where he was born, what exactly he looked like, where he was buried, this situation is not at all surprising; in 1568, by order of Ivan the Terrible, chronicle writing was officially stopped in Russia.

The Skuratovs are a noble family, descended, according to the legends of ancient genealogists, from the Polish nobleman Stanislav Belsky; according to other sources, Malyuta comes from baptized Tatars; or he was a small nobleman serving in the Belaya fortress near Smolensk. Others claim that the Skuratovs come from Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Klyuchevsky believes that Malyuta comes from a noble family of Moscow boyars, the Pleshcheevs. How and when Skuratov ended up in Moscow is unknown. Duma nobleman from 1570 to 1572, statesman, military and political figure, close associate of Ivan 4 the Terrible from 1569, head of the oprichnina terror. Coming from among the provincial nobility, he grew rather slowly into the system of public administration, and at first he was more in a secondary role. In 1567, he was first mentioned in documents in 1567, where Grigory Belsky participates in the campaign against Livonia, but occupies the lowest position of “head” (centurion) in one of the regiments there. During the beginning of the oprichnina repressions of 1569–1570, he sharply became one of the guardsmen closest to Ivan the Terrible thanks to his “thoughtless adherence to the tsar’s whims.” He carried out raids on the houses of Moscow boyars, governors, clerks, taking away their wives and daughters for the amusement of the tsar and his entourage. The tsar instructed Malyuta in 1569 to “read out the guilt” of the Staritsa prince Vladimir Andreevich before his murder. In December of the same year, Malyuta personally participated in the reprisal of Metropolitan Philip Kolychev, who was “removed” from the metropolis in 1568 and exiled to the Tverskaya Otroch Monastery because he refused the Tsar’s blessing for the oprichnina executions and in every possible way condemned the tsar’s oprichnina tyranny. Malyuta arrived at the monastery, ordered the Metropolitan to be tied up right during his service in the Assumption Cathedral, and personally strangled him.

Moscow Metropolitan Philip Kalychev speaks of the oprichnina this way: “A satanic regiment, gathered for Christian destruction.” Prince Andrei Kurbsky wrote in one of his letters to Ivan the Terrible: “...he gathered for himself from all over the Russian lands people who were nasty and spoiled by evil trends.” Contrary to popular belief, Skuratov was not at the origins of the oprichnina; according to the Piskaryevsky chronicle, the oprichnina was created on the advice of the “evil boyars” Alexei Bosmanov and Vasily Yuryev. It was they who were ordered by the tsar to carry out the selection into the ranks of the oprichniki, and the screening was huge: out of 12 thousand candidates, only 570 people ended up in the oprichnina. Malyuta ended up in the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, but in the “black brotherhood” he held the lowest position - he was a paraclesiarch (sexton). The guardsmen performed the functions of the political police - they conducted investigations and punished “traitors”, showing truly inventive cruelty: they were quartered, wheeled, impaled, fried in huge frying pans, sewn up in bearskin, poisoned with dogs. Dressed in uniform - black cassocks, on black horses, the guardsmen tied a dog's head and a broom to their saddles, as a symbol of their desire to sweep away treason from Rus', thus killing up to 40 people annually. In the “Synodics of the Disgraced” - lists of those executed, compiled at the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, it contained an article with the following content: on the estate of the disgraced nobleman Ivan Chelyadin-Fedorov, Malyuta killed 39 people suspected of conspiracy. Raids were carried out on the courts of disgraced nobles, their wives and daughters were taken away “for fornication” for the king and his associates. In 1569, the tsar ordered Skuratov to arrest his cousin Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky.

It was Malyuta who laid the foundations of political investigation in Russia; under Skuratov, the superior department was not subordinate to either the Boyar Duma or the oprichnina government - in fact, the head of the “Torture Court” was the tsar himself. Skuratov’s responsibilities included organizing total surveillance of political unreliables and listening to “izvetchikov” (informers). The main weapon of oprichnina investigators was torture. “Special swords, iron pincers, sharp nails, long needles were made for torture; they cut people at the joints, tore off their skin, and cut out the belts from their backs.” All this happened due to the king’s constant fear for his life and throne.

The executions followed one after another. Near the Church of St. Nicholas on Bersenevka, on the site where Skuratov’s chambers were located, about a hundred skulls were discovered. In 1569, Malyuta received secret information that Archbishop Pimen and the boyars wanted to give Novgorod and Pskov to the Lithuanian king Sigismund 2 August. The investigation was led by Skuratov, the suspects were burned, “they were hanged by their hands and a flame was set on their foreheads, then the convicts were thrown into an ice hole.” In the “Synodics of the Disgraced” there is an entry: “According to Malyutina’s tale, in the Nougorotsky parcel, one thousand four hundred and ninety people were killed by manual truncation, and fifteen people were killed separately, the names of whom are Skuratov himself, God forbid.” He simply physically could not destroy so many people with his own hands, therefore, this is the result of the activities of the punitive detachment under his leadership. Since those times, the expression “through which streets Malyuta Skuratovich rode, and through those streets the chicken did not drink” has been preserved - that is, nothing alive has been preserved.

Paradoxically, he played a decisive role in the process of eliminating the oprichnina. Gradually, the government began to lose control over the situation in the country; the guardsmen killed at will, ostensibly in the name of the tsar, but in fact according to their own whims and desires. The guardsmen were a well-organized military structure; the bloody executioners could only be eliminated with even more blood. On June 25, 1570, 300 people accused of conspiracy were brought to Red Square for execution, not without the assistance of Malyuta, the tsar pardoned 184 people, and ordered 116 to be tortured. Malyuta himself began the execution, personally cutting off the ear of one of the main accused, “Chancellor” Ivan Viskovaty. The tsar's final disappointment in the oprichnina occurred in the spring of 1552, during the complete burning of Moscow by the Crimeans, which the oprichnina army was unable to defend. After an investigation into the cause of the disaster, Malyuta Skuratov was appointed commander-in-chief and third oprichnina governor. In 1572, the army of “kromeshniks” was disbanded and the use of the word “oprichnina” was prohibited.

A. Tolstoy in “The Silver Prince” describes Malyuta this way: “His appearance instilled horror in the most timid... It seemed that no magnanimous feeling, no thought coming out of the circle of animal impulses could penetrate this narrow brain, covered with a thick skull and thick stubble. . There was something inexorable and hopeless in the expression of this face... He morally isolated himself from people, lived alone among them... ceased to be a man and made himself a royal dog, ready to indiscriminately tear to pieces anyone whom John thought of setting it on.” Skuratov amused himself by inventing new executions, previously unknown in Rus'. But his diplomatic qualities were extremely weak; because of his negotiations, Rus' almost lost Astrakhan.

When Grigory Lukyanovich led the tsarist army during the Patriotic War with Livonia, he died in the first battle on January 1, 1573 during the capture of the Livonian fortress of Weissenstein (now Paide in Estonia), which clearly characterizes his military leadership abilities. He did not seek high ranks or estates; after Skuratov’s death, his widow received a pension for life, a unique case at that time. Malyuta truly had “dog devotion.” Skuratov was buried with honors in the “citadel of Orthodoxy” - the Joseph-Volamsky Monastery. The tsar “gave his servant Grigory Malyata Lukyanovich Skuratov a contribution of 150 rubles - more than his brother Yuri or his wife Marfa.” In 1577, Staden wrote: “By decree of the Grand Duke, he is commemorated in churches to this day...”.

Skuratov did not have direct heirs in the male line, but he settled his three daughters very successfully. One of the daughters of Malyuta Skuratov - Maria - was married to a boyar, the future Tsar Boris Godunova, and later became a Tsarina, the other - Catherine, the future poisoner of M.V. Skopin-Shchuisky, to Dimitri Ivanovich Shuisky, elected Tsar during the Time of Troubles (Prince Dmitry was considered heir to the throne, so theoretically Catherine could also become queen). In January 1570, in connection with Novgorod's suspicion of treason, Malyuta led robberies and pogroms in the city. Thousands of inhabitants were slaughtered. All this has been preserved in the people's memory (“The Tsar is not as terrible as his Malyuta”). Some facts of his biography were overgrown with fictitious legends, including about the “lack of virginity” discovered by Ivan the Terrible in Princess Dolgoruky and the Tsar’s order to immediately drown the “youth,” which was supposedly carried out unquestioningly by Malyuta. After the victory of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey over the Russian army, Malyuta, on behalf of the tsar, conducted an investigation in order to find out the reasons for the defeat, and in 1572 he conducted diplomatic negotiations with a messenger from the Crimea. At the end of 1572, during the Livonian War, the king and his army entered Estonia. Malyuta was in one of the regiments and died in battle during the capture of Weissenstein Castle (now Paide in Estonia) on January 1, I573. By order of the tsar, the body was taken to the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery. Skuratov's relatives continued to enjoy royal favors, and his widow received a lifelong pension, which was a unique fact at that time. The determination and cruelty with which Malyuta carried out all the king’s orders aroused anger and condemnation among those around him. The image of a dutiful and soulless executor of the tsar’s inhuman orders is revealed in the historical songs of the Russian people, who have preserved in their memory for centuries the name of the executioner and murderer Malyuta Skuratov. In an era when executioners were in demand, they appeared as if by order, Malyuta Skuratov was only one of the first.

1.2 Adashev Alexey Fedorovich (? – around 1563)

The son of a serviceman of insignificant origin, Fyodor Grigorievich Adashev, glorified his name during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Adashev was first mentioned in 1547 at the royal wedding in the position of a lieutenant and a mover, that is, he made the sovereign’s wedding bed and accompanied the newlywed to the bathhouse. Adashev began to enjoy great influence on the Tsar together with the famous Annunciation priest Sylvester after the terrible Moscow fires (in April and June 1547) and the murder of the Tsar’s uncle, Prince Yuri Glinsky, by the indignant people. These events, considered as God's punishment for sins, produced a moral revolution in the young, impressionable king. This is what he himself says: “Fear entered my soul and trembling into my bones, my spirit was humbled, I was touched and recognized my sins.” From that time on, the tsar, averse to noble boyars, brought closer to himself two unborn, but the best people of his time, Sylvester and Adashev. Ivan found in them, as well as in Queen Anastasia and Metropolitan Macarius, moral support and support for his nature, spoiled since childhood, and directed his thoughts for the good of Russia.

In 1550, Ivan 4 granted Adashev a okolnichy and at the same time gave him a speech by which it is best to judge the tsar’s relationship with his favorite: “Alexey! I took you from the poor and from the youngest people. I heard about your good deeds and now I have sought you beyond your measure for the sake of helping my soul; although your desire is not for this, I wished for you, and not only you, but also others like you, who would quench my sorrow and look upon the people given to me by God. I instruct you to accept petitions from the poor and offended and analyze them carefully. Do not be afraid of the strong and glorious, who steal honors and destroy the poor and weak with their violence; despite the false tears of the poor, slandering the rich, with false tears, wanting to be right: but consider everything carefully and bring the truth to us, fearing the judgment of God; elect truthful judges from the boyars and nobles.” In the internal affairs of the state, Adashev’s activities can be characterized by the words of Kurbsky: “he was extremely useful to the general public,” “If everything were written in detail about this man, it would seem completely incredible among rude people; he was, one might say, like an angel.” According to Kostomarov, “Adashev accidentally became one of those whom Ivan brought closer to him for fun.” In this environment, Alexey Fedorovich Adashev stood out sharply for his intelligence, honesty and high morality. As A., who knew him well, later wrote. M. Kurbsky “Among rude people, he could be said to be like an Angel.” Under the influence of Sylvester, Ivan surrendered to Adashev with all his soul. The Tsar granted Alexei Fedorovich the honorary rank of the disgraced man and entrusted him with an important Petition order. From there, Adashev soon moved to the State Prikaz, where he received the rank of state treasurer for successful service.

The time of the so-called reign of Sylvester and Adashev was a time of broad and beneficial government activity for the land (the convening of the 1st Zemsky Sobor to approve the Code of Law in 1550, the creation of the Stoglav Church Council in 1551, the conquest of Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan ( 1554); the granting of charters that determined independent community courts: a large expansion of estates, which strengthened the maintenance of service people in 1553).

There is no doubt that Ivan Vasilyevich, gifted by nature with brilliant abilities and unusually imbued with the consciousness of his autocratic power, did not play a passive role in these glorious events, as some historians say, but in any case he acted on the advice of Sylvester and Adashev, and therefore the latter we must recognize the great historical merits.

Adashev’s diplomatic activity was also outstanding in conducting many negotiations entrusted to him: with the Kazan king Shig-Aley (1551 and 1552), the Nogais (1553), Livonia (1554, 1557, 1558), Poland (1558, 1560), Denmark (1559) . The importance of Sylvester and Adashev at court also created enemies for them, of which the main ones were the Zakharyins, relatives of Queen Anastasia. His enemies especially took advantage of the circumstances that were unfavorable for Adashev during the tsar’s illness in 1553.

Having become dangerously ill, the tsar wrote a spiritual letter and demanded that his cousin, Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, and the boyars swear allegiance to his son, the infant Dmitry. But Vladimir Andreevich refused to take the oath, asserting his own rights to the throne after the death of John and trying to form a party for himself.

Sylvester apparently leaned towards Vladimir Andreevich. Alexei Adashev, however, swore unquestioning allegiance to Dmitry, but his father, the okolnichy Fyodor Adashev, directly announced to the sick king that they did not want to obey the Romanovs, who would rule during Dmitry’s childhood.

John recovered and began to look at his former friends with different eyes. Likewise, Sylvester's supporters now lost the favor of Queen Anastasia, who could suspect them of not wanting to see her son on the throne. However, the tsar did not show any hostile feelings at first, either under the joyful impression of recovery, or for fear of affecting the powerful party and breaking old relations, and even in the same year of 1553 he granted Fyodor Adashev the boyar hat.

The Tsar's trip to the Kirillov Monastery, undertaken in the same year 1553 with the Tsarina and his son Dmitry, was accompanied by circumstances that were also unfavorable for Adashev: firstly, Tsarevich Dmitry died on the way, and thus the prediction of Maxim the Greek, conveyed to the Tsar by Adashev, was fulfilled. Secondly, during this trip John met with the former ruler of Kolomna Vassian Toporkov, the favorite of father Ivan 4, and, of course, Vassian’s conversation was not in favor of Sylvester and his party.

From that time on, the tsar began to feel burdened by his former advisers, especially since he was more far-sighted than them in political matters: the Livonian War was started in spite of Sylvester, who advised to conquer the Crimea. Ivan’s painful suspicion, strengthened by the slander of people hostile to Sylvester’s party, the enmity of Sylvester’s supporters towards Anastasia and her relatives, Sylvester’s inept efforts to maintain influence on the king with the threat of God’s wrath gradually produced a complete break between Ivan and his former advisers.

At the end of 1560, Adashev was removed from leadership of the government; in May 1560, the tsar’s attitude towards Adashev was such that the latter found it inconvenient to remain at court and went into honorable exile in Livonia in the city of Fellin (Viljan) as the 3rd commander of a large regiment, under the leadership of Prince Mstislavsky and Morozov. After the death of Queen Anastasia (August 7, 1560), Ivan’s dislike for Adashev intensified; the tsar ordered him to be transferred to Dorpat in the city of Yuryev (now Tartu in Estonia) and placed in custody. Here Adashev fell ill with a fever and died two months later. Natural death saved him, perhaps, from further vengeance from the king, but slanderers spread a rumor that he had poisoned himself out of fear. His long-term closeness to the king and the management of state affairs gave him the opportunity to acquire great wealth, but he did not leave behind any fortune, because everything he acquired he distributed to the needy.

Chapter 2. Political leaders

2.1. Sylvester (early 16th century – until 1568)

Coming from a prosperous Novgorod commercial and industrial environment, he was close to the Novgorod Archbishop Macarius, after whose election as metropolitan he moved to Moscow and from 1545 became the archpriest of the court Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin.

During the riots in Moscow, caused by a terrible fire and the performance of people against the Glinskys, who were considered to be the culprits of the fire, “Princess Anna Glinskaya with her children and her people took out human hearts and immersed them in water, and with that water they sprinkled Moscow streets and from that Moscow “I was burning out,” that’s what the people said.

The autocracy of the supreme power seemed at these moments to be losing its influence over the people, who had lost patience. Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible had previously believed too much in his omnipotence, and therefore behaved impudently and unbridled; now he fell into extreme cowardice and was completely at a loss. And during these events, a man in sacred clothing named Sylvester comes to him. There was something amazing in his speech, he presented the tsar with the sad situation of the Moscow land, indicated the cause of all misfortunes was the tsar’s vices, “Heavenly punishment was already hanging over Ivan Vasilyevich in the form of a popular revolt.” Most likely, the priest amazed the ruler with some other miracles and signs, because the always strong and powerful Ivan suddenly began to repent, cry and promised from then on to obey his mentor in everything. So, from 1547, Sylvester began to exert great influence on the king.

Finding himself the tsar's guardian, Sylvester and his friend Alexei Adashev, under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible, select a circle of people who defend strong state power - autocracy. These were people of noble families: Prince Dmitry Kurlyatov, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryany, Gorbaty, Sheremetyevs and others. In addition, Sylvester and Adashev began to invite from the crowd people who were not noble, but honest and useful to them, and installed them in various positions, distributing estates and estates to them. The state, thus, began to be governed by a circle of favorites, which Kurbsky calls the “Chosen Rada.” Sylvester subjugates the will of the tsar to such an extent that Ivan does not take a single step without his approval; the priest even interferes in his marital relations. At the same time, the ruler’s guardians tried, if possible, to conduct business in such a way that he would not feel the burden of guardianship, and it would seem to him that he was still the autocrat.

But gradually Sylvester's influence on the king begins to fall. Sylvester's main enemies were the Zakharins, who armed their sister, Queen Anastasia, against him. “The Tsar,” they whispered to Ivan, “must be autocratic, command everyone, obey no one; and if he does what others decide, then this means that he is only honored by the honor of the royal representative, but in fact is no better than a slave. And the prophet said woe to the city if many have it. Russian rulers had never obeyed anyone before, and were free to pardon and execute their subjects. It is by no means proper for a priest to rule and rule; their business is to perform sacred acts, and not to create human rule.” To top it all off, Ivan was convinced that Sylvester was a sorcerer who had entangled him with the power of magic and was holding him in captivity. The monk’s supporters admit that Sylvester deceived the king, presented himself in his eyes as a godly man, endowed with the extraordinary power of miracles, that he, in a word, fooled the king with false miracles, and they justify his actions only by the fact that all this was done for good purposes. Sylvester's enemies also presented him to the king as a miracle worker, but only one who received power not from God, but from the dark authorities. Sylvester was not tolerated by many for his insight and wanted to remove him. So at the end of 1559, the king had some kind of major clash with Sylvester and Adashev, the details of which are not known; we only know that Sylvester and his friends tried to keep Ivan from traveling to monasteries and from making pious vows. But after this clash, Sylvester and Adashev themselves found it impossible to remain with the king. Sylvester (probably already widowed by then) retired to some distant monastery, and Alexy Adashev went to join the army in Livonia. In this matter, Anastasia’s participation is almost certain; Sylvester’s supporters, regarding his removal, compared him with John Chrysostom, who suffered from the malice of Queen Evdokia. In August 1560, Tsarina Anastasia died. Sylvester's enemies began to assure the king that Anastasia was tormented by the dashing people of Sylvester and Adashev with their spells. Friends immediately informed both of them about this; the latter, through Metropolitan Macarius, asked for their trial and permission to come to Moscow for acquittal. But the enemies did not allow this.

The council condemned Sylvester to imprisonment in Solovki, where he was engaged in copying books, some of which have survived, the writer’s main work is “Domostroy,” which contains a number of instructions to his son and all people - religious, moral and economic.

Chapter 3. Spiritual leaders

3.1 Patriarch Job (1589 – 1605)

Coming from the townspeople of the city of Staritsa, he early began to pursue asceticism in the Staritsa Dormition Monastery, where the future patriarch spent his childhood and youth. His main passion was reading church books and mastering the liturgy to perfection. As the first reader and singer, Ivan the Terrible liked him in 1556 and was elevated to the rank of archimandrite. In 1571 - Archimandrite of the Simonov Monastery in Moscow. Four years later, he gets even closer to the royal family and heads the Novospassky Monastery, where the tomb of the tsar’s closest relatives is located. In 1581 - Bishop of Kolomna, in 1586 - Archbishop of Rostov, in the same year - Metropolis of Moscow and All Rus'. Since January 26, 1589 - Patriarch. In the person of the new metropolitan, the royal house found a zealous defender; in gratitude, the reigning persons generously presented both Job himself and the Russian Church.

From the Constantinople statements of Patriarch Jeremiah, the main participant in the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia, “since the old Rome fell from the Apollinarian heresy, and the second Rome - Constantinople - was in the possession of the godless Turks, then ... the great Russian kingdom - the third Rome - surpassed all previous kingdoms in piety , they united together... the kingdom (Moscow) and one (Russian Tsar) is now called the Christian Tsar throughout the universe; therefore, this great work (the establishment of the patriarchate) according to God’s providence, through the prayers of Russian miracle workers and according to ... the royal request from God and ... advice, is being fulfilled.”

There were several reasons contributing to the establishment of the patriarchate in Rus': firstly, the height of Orthodox piety in the Russian Church; secondly, the position of the Russian Tsar as the only Orthodox sovereign in the world; thirdly, the need to crown the church in his kingdom with the patriarchate so that it, therefore, has care for all Ecumenical Orthodoxy. Although, according to the conciliar definition of the Eastern Church in 1593, the Russian patriarch occupies fifth place in the diptych of Eastern patriarchs, he still becomes the support of all Orthodoxy. As a result, it is primarily the tsarist government that is concerned about the patriarchate in Russia, with the church government almost completely inactive. In this case, this external influence is only a sign of the complete agreement of the Russian hierarchy with the actions of state power.

Patriarch Job was a man of deep prayer, good Orthodox devotion and outstanding personal abilities. Everyone was surprised by his worship. It was distinguished not only by its decorum and piety, but also by the fact that Job served the liturgies of John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great by heart, the rite of the great blessing of water on Epiphany, even recited all the most spacious kneeling prayers of the Feast of the Trinity by heart... But at the same time, the patriarch had a predilection for expensive things that caused discontent, “fierce attack, anger, slander and reproach,” but his flexible character and ability to get along with the “powers of this world” helped him become the first Moscow patriarch and lead the church for almost twenty years. During a three-year famine in 1601-1603, Job did not support Boris’s charitable activities of distributing alms and selling cheap bread to those in need; on the contrary, wanting to make excess profits, he sold his bread at an inflated price; thousands of starving people died right on the church porch, where they tried to get help and alms.

After the death of Tsar Fedor, Patriarch Job was faced with the difficult task of leading the country out of the dynastic crisis and resolving the issue of a new candidate for the throne. In the shortest possible time, the patriarch settled everything peacefully. On February 21, 1598, that is, 45 days after the death of Tsar Feodor, Boris Godunov was declared the new sovereign. The success of the patriarch testifies to his very outstanding government abilities and great authority in the country. Job provided great assistance to Godunov in achieving the throne. During the patriarchate of Job, the murder of Tsarevich Dimitri occurred (1591). Job supported the official version that this was the work of Boris Godunov; after Godunov was elected as the new sovereign, the patriarch took the side of the tsar. During the chaos in which the country was at that time (crop failures, terrible famine, constant robberies and robberies), a liar, False Dmitry 1, appears in 1603, introducing himself as “Tsarevich Dmitry” who miraculously escaped in 1591.

Patriarch Job, in oral sermons and in special patriarchal messages to all dioceses, denounced False Dmitry as an impostor, the defrocked deacon of the Chudovsky Monastery Grigory Otrepiev, cited evidence of the reality of the death of Tsarevich Dmitry, pointed out that King Sigismund is using the impostor to trample the Orthodox faith in Rus' (that was actually true).

However, the myth about the miraculously saved prince was very strong; after the sudden death of Tsar Boris Godunov on April 13, 1605, a riot grew in Moscow. In June, rioters destroyed the patriarchal court and broke into the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin to physically deal with Patriarch Job. Kneeling before the miraculous Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, Saint Job prayed loudly, saying among other things: “I, a sinner, have ruled the word of truth for 19 years, preserved the integrity of Orthodoxy; Now, because of our sins, as we see, the Orthodox faith is being attacked by heretical faith. We pray to you, Most Pure One, save and establish Orthodoxy with your prayers!” The rioters attacked the patriarch, beat him, thrashed him, and dragged him to Execution Ground. Job was ready to die, but he was left alive. Most Russian bishops recognized False Dmitry. Job turned to their Council with a request to allow him to retire to the Staritsky Monastery. The impostor ordered Job to be sent there, “taking him as a bailiff,” and to be kept “in an embittered, sorrowful state.” Not only the bandaging mob, not only many bishops, but also prominent boyars, and even Tsarevich Dmitry’s own mother, nun Martha, out of fear of the impostor, recognized him as the “real” prince, who allegedly miraculously escaped from the hands of the murderer, and swore allegiance to him.

False Dmitry appointed Archbishop Ignatius, who was advantageous to him, to the Russian patriarchate, but the full rite of episcopal consecration was not performed over him, which was done over Job at one time.

On May 17, 1606, the boyar party of V. Shuisky raised an uprising in Moscow, as a result of which False Dmitry was killed and Ignatius was exiled to imprisonment in the Chudskoy Monastery.

On May 25, 1606, Vasily Shuisky became king and immediately called the legitimate patriarch Job, who was in Staritsa, to the patriarchal throne. But Job could no longer bear the heavy cross of such service due to his extreme old age and almost complete blindness. And he voluntarily refused to return to rule, blessing the election of Metropolitan Hermogenes of Kazan, who, together with the tsar, organized a ceremony of general repentance in January 1607, to which Job was invited. On Cathedral Square, Muscovites approached the blind patriarch with tears and crying and asked for forgiveness; he did not blame anyone and forgave everyone.

The patriarchate of Job was marked not only by great upheavals, but also by important church deeds; on his initiative, Basil the Blessed, Joseph of Volotsky, Kazan saints Gury and Barsanuphius were canonized. The relics of St. Herman of Kazan were transferred to Sviyazhsk, the relics of St. Philip of Moscow - to Solovki. In the canonization of saints, Patriarch Job saw a further increase in the glory of the Russian Church, for he fully shared the idea of ​​“Moscow is the third Rome,” which he captured in his “Testament” and in “The Tale of Tsar Theodore Ioannovich,” thereby showing himself as a church writer. Under Patriarch Job, the dioceses of Novgorod were elevated to the rank of metropolis. Rostov, Kazan and Krutitsk, Vologda, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Smolensk and Nizhny Novgorod departments became archbishoprics. The bishoprics of Astrakhan, Pskov, and Karelian were newly formed. Troubles and loss of vision interrupted the activities of the outstanding saint. On June 19, 1607, Job dies in the Staritsky Monastery, where he began his spiritual feat in his youth.

3.2 Maxim the Greek (in the world Mikhail Trivolis) (about 1475 – 1555)

Monk of Mount Athos, Vyatopedi Monastery, publicist, theologian, philosopher, translator, philologist. In 1518 he came from the Vyatopodsky Monastery on Holy Athos to the Russian state, became close to the church opposition, and was condemned at the councils of 1525 and 1531. He left an extensive literary heritage: journalistic articles (“The Controversy of a Famous Monastic Residence,” “The Chapters Are Instructive to Those Who Rule the Faith”), philosophical and theological discussions, translations, articles on grammar and linguistics. Canonized by the Russian Church in 1988.

Many historians believe that he was called to Russia to translate Greek books, which were in huge quantities in Moscow after the siege of Constantinople, but his students (Monk Zinovia, Nil) refute this assumption, since before arriving in Moscow he did not know the Slavic language and I learned it only in Russia. A more likely reason for his call, indicated in one of his Lives, where it is said that Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich found countless Greek books in the Royal Treasures of his ancestors, but there was no one to translate them, and Maxim was sent from Constantinople to help him in 1506 , settled in the Chudov Monastery.

Maxim the Greek is from the Albanian city of Arsha, his father is Manuel, his mother is Irina, he studied verbal sciences and philosophy in Paris with John Laskar, in Florence and in other European noble schools, after which he took monastic vows at the Vatopedi Monastery on Mount Athos.

His first translation, first into Latin, and only then into Slavic according to the Latin Interpreters Demetrius and Vasily, was the “Explanatory Psalter of the Seven Interpreters,” translated in a year and five months. Its scribes were Monk Silvan and Mikhail Medovartsov. After which he wanted to leave his translation work, but agreed to work on “Chrysostom’s Conversations.” Then he began correcting previous translations of the Slavic Church Service Books; he spent nine years in these works, finding many inaccuracies and errors, which he publicly announced, causing general indignation and disapproval. The Russian Holy Fathers accused him of damaging Slavic books. In one of the writings, Maxim even found a non-Orthodox book on the Incarnation of Christ, written by Aphroditian, which was revered and respected, which caused a wave of displeasure. Maxim the Greek did not translate the Church History of Theodoret, Bishop of Kurbsk into the Slavic language, citing the presence of anti-Orthodox aspects in them, which caused the displeasure of Metropolitan Daniel. Finally, the disfavor of the king himself falls upon him. After refusing to accept the Tsar’s divorce from his first wife Solomonia Yuryevna for her infertility, and to write out a Canonical opinion on the dissolution of his marriage, and to accept his second wife, Princess Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, Maxim announced that “The rules of the Holy Fathers do not allow divorce for the sake of infertility.” As a result, he was put on trial and in January 1525 condemned by the Council, which excommunicated him from the church and imprisoned him in the Volokolamsk Iosifovna, then in the Tver Monastery, and all his disciples were also sent to monasteries. For more than twelve years he has been in complete confinement, Metropolitan Macarius eases his imprisonment by allowing him to attend church; no longer has any of the metropolitans dared, despite the general hatred of the Royal family, to release or acquit Maxim.

During his imprisonment, Maxim wrote many dogmatic works about the Faith and Rites of the Church; Accusatory against Jews, Greeks, Latins and Hagarians and often against Russians; Philological on various subjects regarding translations and interpretations; Interpretive about various incomprehensible things: Theological, Church, Ritual and Philosophical; Moral for the instruction of many, high and low; Answers to various questions, and Interviews with yourself, or Prayers, and others. His works are mainly of spiritual content, but they also contain quite a lot of historical and characteristic information about contemporary Russia, and appeals to spiritual leaders. He turns to the Grand Duke with a request to bring him to the Constantinople court, because “I am not a subject of Russia,” but all his efforts are in vain.

Maxim the Greek died in the Trinity Monastery of Sergius in 1556, after thirty-three years of suffering, and was buried near the Church of the Descent of the Holy Spirit, where the Moscow Metropolitan Plato built a chapel.

3.3 Metropolitan Macarius (1482 – 1563)

Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus' since 1542. The head of the Josephites and the circle of scribes, whose members collected and distributed works of Russian church literature. In 1551, he achieved the failure of the government program for the secularization of church lands. Editor of "Chetey-Menya" and "Degree Book".

He was not born into a noble family, but took monastic vows in Borovsk at the Pafnutievsky Monastery. Then in Mozhaisk he was appointed archimandrite of the Mozhaisk Lusatian Monastery. He gained the favor of Vasily the Third, blessing him for his second marriage with Elena Glinskaya. Immediately after the wedding, Macarius was consecrated to the rank of archbishop. Having occupied the metropolitan table, the saint, according to the Pskov chronicler, did “a great intercession for people and was a nourisher for orphans,” according to Maxim the Greek, and “resolved many of the oppressed from prison and from their bonds.”

Dreaming of the spiritual renewal of society, Macarius put forward the grandiose task of collecting all the “holy books that are found in the Russian land,” correcting, reworking or re-composing new holy books, words, lives, epistles and church acts. As a result, in 1552, a collection for daily reading, “Cheti-Minea,” was created. Previously, the Menaion-Chetya included exclusively the lives of saints and some teachings and were intended only for reading by the clergy. Many Slavic, Russian, and Serbian writers were involved in the work. The Great Chetya-Menaia included the Holy Scriptures, gospels, patericons, books by John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Joseph of Volotsky, the “Helmsman’s Book”, a number of church acts, “The Jewish War” by Josephus, “Cosmography” by Kuzma Indikoplov; collections “Izmaragd”, “Golden Chain”; “The Walk of Abbot Daniel,” apocrypha, lives of new wonderworkers. The Menaion consisted of 12 volumes, with a volume of more than 13 thousand large format sheets.

During times of unrest in the political sphere, the Metropolitan tried to stop the bloodshed, but could not stop Ivan from executing the Shuiskys. Macarius embraced the idea of ​​crowning the Tsar with enthusiasm; he personified the triumph of autocracy with the triumph of the Orthodox faith. In 1547, Macarius crowned Ivan the Fourth in the Assumption Cathedral, blessing him “beloved by God and chosen by God,” the “god-crowned” Orthodox Tsar.

During a fire in Moscow in 1547, Macarius almost died in his yard; he was lowered through a hiding place in the Kremlin wall to the Moscow River, but he fell and received many bruises. After his coronation, Ivan, with the blessing of the Metropolitan, married the hawthorn Anastasia Romanova

In 1547 and 1549, Macarius held two church councils that established an all-Russian cult of almost forty new miracle workers, and Ivan’s influence on the compilation of the lists was not decisive.

Macarius enjoyed the tsar’s trust despite his former adherence to Ivan the Third (while setting off for Kazan, Ivan Vasilyevich ordered the boyars “to come to Metropolitan Macarius about all their affairs”), since in his sermons he successfully developed the idea of ​​​​the divine origin of royal power, which the tsar perfectly mastered .

At the Holy Council, convened by Macarius, he answered questions on behalf of the clergy; in general, the metropolis was a good diplomat who knew how to carefully resolve political and other issues. His answers formed the basis of the “Stoglavy Cathedral.”

On December 31, 1563, Metropolitan Macarius died at approximately eighty years of age. The Church has lost an authoritative leader at a very difficult time for the country. The reform projects were finally consigned to oblivion, and a time of terror and violence began.

Miller, in praise of the Metropolitan, noted that “his prudence and other spiritual qualities make it clear that, under such a government as Tsar John Vasilyevich, he was in continuous reverence for 22 years and at his death left a blessed memory.” In his will, written shortly before his death, Macarius said that, out of sorrow, he repeatedly wanted to leave his rank and retire to the desert, but was restrained by the persistent convictions of the Tsar and the Saints.

Conclusion

The goal of my work was to examine historical figures of the 16th and early 17th centuries in order to identify a complete picture of this era. The people I presented, Malyuta Skuratov, Alexei Adashev, Sylvester, Patriarch Job, Maxim the Greek, Metropolitan Macarius, are each in their own way special, remarkable and amazing personalities, but each of them was indelibly stamped by the era of which they were representatives. A time of cruel, immoral and unbridled terror against one’s own people in order to “sweep out treason from Rus'”, a time of conspiracies and fear of everyone and everything.

But even in this cruel time, people of strong character, noble, courageous, insightful, who care about the good of the state first and foremost, rather than about personal enrichment and ranks, make themselves known. Such figures include Metropolitan Macarius, who dreams of the spiritual renewal of society, wants to stop the bloodshed, and restore order both among secular people and among the clergy, who are also subject to worldly vices and the fall. Maxim the Greek publicly declares that the translations of the Slavic Church service books are incorrect, thereby turning the majority of spiritual leaders against himself.

There are also personalities whose activities and lives evoke exclusively negative emotions; such “executioners of the people” include Malyuta Skuratov, his slavish devotion to the king, incredible cruelty and immorality evoke disgust and perhaps even compassion. After all, such people do not appear without need; it is time that is to blame for the generation of people of different characters and moral principles. If it weren’t for Malyuta, then someone else would have fulfilled his role, because Ivan the Terrible and his entourage needed servants who were ready to unquestioningly carry out any order, so that the king’s personality would remain untouched and untouched.

There are also people who, by their inner qualities, are disciplined and insightful, but are infected by the historical situation. Such figures include Job and Sylvester. On the one hand, Job showed incredible zeal during worship, showed extraordinary oratorical and diplomatic abilities, but at the same time he was generously paid for his services to the king, which led to greed, stinginess and hypocrisy. Sylvester, using his power over Ivan the Terrible, actually removed him from power and ruled according to his desires, ideas and thoughts.

Having studied the autobiographies and roles of various personalities in the history of the 16th and early 17th centuries, I came to the conclusion that any activity of any person, almost regardless of his personal value priorities and life attitudes, to a greater or lesser extent depends on the era in which he lives personality. Historical time and the “powers of this world” control destinies, subordinate them to their interests and thoughts, and eliminate those who disobey and are too far-sighted.

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