Architecture of Western Principalities. Architecture of southern and southwestern Rus' in the middle - second half of the 12th century

During the era of feudal fragmentation, three centers rose up and began the process of collecting lands. In the southwest, Vladimir-Volynsky became such a center, in the northwest - Velikiy Novgorod, and in the northeast - Vladimir-on-Klyazma. The rise of Veliky Novgorod was associated with its special position during the time of united Rus': many great princes, before reigning in Kyiv, were the governors of their fathers in Novgorod.

The rise of Vladimir-Volynsky and Vladimir-on-Klyazma was associated with the activities of the appanage princes who ruled in these cities: Mstislav Galitsky and Andrei Bogolyubsky. These powerful rulers subjugated neighboring appanage reigns and participated in the struggle for the right to reign in Kyiv. However, their power no longer depended much on who was titled Grand Duke.

Three new centers of Rus' began to gather lands around them at the beginning of the 12th century, but this process was stopped in the middle of the century by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Over time, the old centers fell into disrepair. The centralization of Russian lands was completed by the middle of the 16th century.

In Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, Grodno, a new social force is forming early - urban population. People's assemblies - veche - had special power in Polotsk and Smolensk, limiting the power of the princes. In the 12th century, the princely courts were located outside the main urban area. It is quite natural that construction cooperatives interpreted generally accepted types of religious buildings in a more independent and original manner.

Polotsk architecture. The features of Polotsk architecture include: The contrast of the vertical development of the volumes of the temple with the longitudinal composition of its plan The contrast of upwardly directed masses with the monumental base The dynamism of semi-columns and rods The contrast of the impression of tightness, compression of the side naves and the freedom, airiness of the under-dome space The listed features of the composition are a consequence of the rethinking of the Byzantine cross-dome system under the influence of local aesthetic ideals, formed in the process of interaction between folk wooden architecture, stone ancient Russian architecture and elements of Romanesque architecture.

Using Kyiv building traditions, local craftsmen are developing their own system and slightly changing the cross-dome system of the temple. They narrow the side naves, lay out the outer apses in the thickness of the wall, strengthen the compositional role of the east-west axis, introducing elements of basilica construction. Plan of the Boris and Gleb Church, Polotsk, (XII century)

The only well-preserved monument of the Polotsk school. The creator of this temple is the architect John. He, like the northern “tree makers,” clearly delineated the volumetric-spatial components of the building. The narthex with choirs was made lower, the central apse was greatly extended, and the side apses were hidden in the thickness of the wall, focusing on the main square volume in plan.

Smolensk school By the end of the 12th century, character traits Smolensk architecture: Forms similar to those in Polotsk can be traced. Side apses begin to be made in the thickness of the wall. The main volume is supplemented by vestibules, forming a symmetrical stable spatial structure developing upward. The desire for centric, dynamic compositions is complemented by strongly dissected tufts of blades.

The centric composition of the court temple with three lowered limits and side apses. Volume-spatial unity and concentration of masses around the central axis were facilitated by covering the corner parts of the temple with semi-cylindrical vaults. Like flying buttresses, curvilinear corner coverings transferred thrust from the upper vaults to the lower sections of the walls, forming a structurally justified and expressive three-lobed completion. The form of the ceiling of the central part of the temple was also justified from a functional point of view, since it improved the removal of precipitation from the roof.

A special place in Smolensk architecture is occupied by religious buildings on the verge of the 13th century, with a rectangular slightly extended apse, which has analogues only in Polotsk. The plans of such four-pillar churches are close to a square, which suggests that their composition was centric and developed vertically, like the Church of the Archangel Michael.

Grodno school The meager remains of architectural works of Grodno masters allow us to express only general considerations. Everything speaks of the sufficient originality and independence of the Grodno architectural school, as well as a wide range of sources. The architects of Grodno, apparently, were familiar with the architectural monuments of Polotsk, the Dnieper region, Northern Europe and even the Balkan countries, and the level of their skill allowed them to artistically comprehend the achievements of other peoples.

Distinctive feature The partially preserved Lower Church (mid-12th century) in Detinets and Borisoglebskaya (80s of the 12th century) on Kolzhsky Hill is the polychrome nature of their facades. Huge granite boulders of various shades, polished to a shine, were inserted into the lower part of the outer walls of these temples, made of brick using the technique of ordinal masonry; above, crosses and ornamental inserts made of colored majolica tiles sparkled like gems. The sections of the walls between the stones and majolica were covered with a thin layer of plaster. The coloristic richness of the facades (far from the asceticism of medieval religious buildings) introduced a folk flavor into the architecture of Grodno churches.

The interior of the Boris and Gleb Church had a hall character, which is not typical for cross-domed buildings, thanks to round multifaceted internal pillars and a wooden balcony stretching along three walls from the northern apse to the southern one, and the entrance to these peculiar choirs was built not on the western side, but in the thickness of the walls of the side apses. The treatment of the interior walls with small niches and the large number of voice boxes inserted into the walls were also unusual.

Galicia-Volyn Rus' Galicia-Volyn lands separated from Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century. They were associated with states of both Northwestern and Southern Europe. Volyn masters took their first steps in the field of stone architecture with the help of Dnieper architects. However, when Prince Roman Mstislavich united the Galicia-Volyn lands into a single principality, their architecture acquired peculiar features.

Vladimir-Volynsky is the capital of the Galicia-Volyn principality. It was one of the largest cities with powerful fortifications. In 1160, the Assumption Cathedral, which has survived to this day, was built there.

The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky is not inferior in size to Kyiv churches. Reminiscent of the churches of the Chernigov school of the 12th century.

Galich is an important political and cultural center of the early 13th century. The Galician architectural school was formed in close contact with Western European art, which naturally left its mark on the appearance of the buildings. The creative development of Romanesque forms was also facilitated by the presence of dense, fine-grained limestone, which made it possible to perform fine ornamental carvings.

Assumption Cathedral in Galich In 1157, the city Assumption Cathedral was built, surrounded by a gallery. This building, which once adorned Galich, has common features with the buildings of the era of Yaroslav the Wise - the time of power Old Russian state. Unfortunately, it is difficult to judge the appearance of this monument, since only its foundations and fragments of external decoration have been preserved. However, this also gives an idea of ​​its features. The Assumption Cathedral was built of white limestone on rubble foundations. The masonry was made from well-hewn and carefully fitted stone blocks with backfilling of the space between the outer surfaces using limestone mortar. The facades of the cathedral were decorated with carved details: stone capitals completed the columns of the portals, and masks apparently complemented the frieze. The nature of the hewn masonry of the carved parts indicates that Galician craftsmen were familiar with the artistic culture of neighboring countries - Poland and Hungary.

Church of Panteleimon The usual four-pillar structure of the Church of Panteleimon has acquired a unique embodiment: the blades on the northern and southern facades do not coincide with the internal pillars, they are moved apart in the middle, forming a large plane on which a carved perspective portal stands out as a colorful spot. A particularly strong contrast between the geometrically strict surface of the wall with simple arched window openings and the multi-step portal with columns and archivolts covered with carvings was created on western facade. Turning portals into main element façade, which is not typical for the temples of Ancient Rus', the structure of the plinth, the profiling of which resembles Attic bases, the nature of the capitals and carved ornaments, which preserved traces of the influence of Hellenistic art, indicate that the architects of Galich combined the structure of the Old Russian temple with Romanesque decorative forms. Time has not preserved the upper parts of Panteleimon's church, which most likely corresponded to the cross-domed structure.

Hill Founded in the second quarter of the 13th century. , the city was distinguished by its expressive architectural appearance, which we mainly know from chronicles. The picturesque silhouette of the city with the expressive outlines of white-stone churches was successfully complemented by a tall “vezha” - a defensive tower made of wood on a stone foundation, dominating the entire building. Numerous artisans from neighboring devastated principalities flocked to Kholm, which was almost unaffected by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and contributed to the construction of the capital city. Different architectural schools interacted in Kholm, the skills of Galician craftsmen intertwined with the techniques of Vladimir-Suzdal stone makers, the principles of the Dnieper masters with the traditions of the artistic culture of the Romanesque world.

Church of St. John Chrysostom and St. George's Cathedral As is clear from the Ipatiev Chronicle, in the Church of St. John Chrysostom the vaults rested on four-faced capitals; similar capitals crowned St. George's Cathedral (1230-1234) in Yuryev. Polish. Multicolor carved portals with gilded details were made by the “cunning Avdey” from white Galician and green Kholm stone. The tympanums were decorated with reliefs of “The Savior” and “John”. The windows of this temple, which aroused universal admiration, displayed amazing “Roman glass” - stained glass windows, unusual for Rus'.

Features of the palaces in Przemysl, Zvenigorod and Lvov Of particular interest are the remains of the princely stone palaces in Przemysl, Zvenigorod and Lvov that have survived to this day. Fragments of these unique civil buildings, supplemented by a description by the chronicler of the princely court in Galich, make it possible to recreate in general terms the appearance of the ancient Russian palace complex of the period of feudal fragmentation. The formation of small appanage principalities, constant civil strife and military attacks from outside gave rise to a type of fortified princely court, which had some common features with medieval castles Western Europe. The princely palaces on the Galician land were made not only in wood, as in other principalities, but also in stone. The complex of the stone palace in Przemysl included a church.

Defensive towers Construction in the XIII-XIV centuries. stone defensive towers (towers) in the western lands of Ancient Rus' are associated with a constant military threat, both from the Mongol-Tatars and neighboring states. A remarkable monument of military art is the grandiose, 29 m high White Vezha in Kamenets-Litovsky, built in 1271 -1289. Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich.

Dictionary Archivolt - a frame for an arched opening that separates the arc of the arch from the plane of the wall. Serves as an element for decorating facades and interiors. Vezha is a defensive tower. Golosniks are small ceramic vessels or chambers used in the masonry of walls or vaults, with their necks facing the interior of the building. Narthex - vestibule (late Greek Narthex, from Greek narqhx casket, casket) entrance room, usually adjacent to the western side of a Christian church. Intended for persons who did not have the right to enter the main premises. Tympanum – the inner field of the pediment, gables, zakomari. Can be triangular, semicircular or other shape. Frieze is a decorative composition in the form of a horizontal stripe or ribbon crowning or framing one or another part of an architectural structure.

Northwestern principalities. Due to their geographical location, the Grodno, Polotsk and Smolensk lands were part of the area of ​​trade and cultural relations between Novgorod and the Baltic states. Along the Neman and Western Dvina there was lively trade with the Baltic peoples. The most ancient cities of Polotsk and Smolensk are mentioned already in the 9th century, and it is said about Smolensk that “the city is great and has many people.” As in Novgorod, in Polotsk, Smolensk, Grodno, a new social force is formed early - the urban population. Medieval cities were not only trade and craft centers, but also centers of anti-feudal movements and freethinking. People's assemblies - veche - had special power in Polotsk and Smolensk, limiting the power of the princes. In the 12th century the princely courts in these cities were located outside the main urban area. It is quite natural that construction cooperatives interpreted generally accepted types of religious buildings in a more independent and original way.

Very few monuments have survived from the architectural heritage of Polotsk, Smolensk and Grodno.

In the first half of the 12th century. The features of the religious buildings of the Polotsk architectural school are taking shape; an example is the Boris and Gleb Church. Using Kyiv building traditions, local craftsmen are developing their own techniques and slightly changing the cross-domed structure of the temple. They narrow the side naves, lay out the outer apses in the thickness of the wall, strengthen the compositional role of the “east-west” axis, introducing elements of basilical construction.

The only monument of the Polotsk school that is fairly well preserved is the Cathedral of the Spaso-Evfrosinevsky Monastery (mid-12th century). The creator of this temple, which charted a new direction, was the Polotsk architect John. He, like the northern “woodworkers,” clearly delineated the volumetric and spatial components of the building. The narthex with the choirs was made lower, the central apse was greatly extended, and the side apses were hidden in the thickness of the wall, focusing attention on the main square volume in plan, which was given a vertical tower-like structure. While maintaining the structural basis of the cross-domed church, John enlarged the base of the drum, surrounding it with false zakomari. Their three-span form is close to the later wooden “crossed barrel” coverings and, most likely, was inspired by the “hewn tops” that stood over stone vaults, especially in the northern regions, which protected the structure from atmospheric influences.

Cathedral of the Spaso-Evfrosinevsky Monastery (mid-12th century) in Polotsk.

The tiered structure created by the architect organically connected the drum with the volume of the temple and gave the composition a dynamic character not typical of Byzantine religious buildings. The features of the cathedral and, obviously, Polotsk architecture include: the contrast of the vertical development of the volumes of the temple with the longitudinal composition of its plan; the opposition of upwardly directed masses to a monumental foundation; dynamism of semi-columns and rods; the opposite of the impression of tightness, constriction of the side naves and the freedom, airiness of the space under the dome.

The listed features of the composition are, apparently, a consequence of the rethinking of the Byzantine cross-dome system under the influence of local aesthetic ideals that were formed in the process of interaction between folk wooden architecture, stone ancient Russian architecture and elements of Romanesque architecture. The presence of “elements of Romanesque art” in the frescoes of the Spaso-Euphrosyne Monastery and their similarity to those of Novgorod is further evidence of this.

The influence of the structure of wooden churches is also confirmed by the remains of the Pyatnitskaya Church of the Belchitsky Monastery (1st half of the 11th century), where the Polotsk princes moved their residence. This small one-nave church with a vestibule and a rectangular apse, unusual for stone religious buildings, essentially repeated the type of a wooden three-frame church.

A similar process of formation of a unique version of the cross-domed building took place in Smolensk. During the reign of Rostislav Mstislavich (127-1159), Smolensk turned into the capital of an independent principality - a major political and cultural center, which was facilitated by the establishment of an episcopal see here in 1136. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall, numerous huts of artisans and boyar mansions are being cut down, stone churches are being erected, and streets are being paved with logs. In terms of the scope of monumental construction, Smolensk was almost as good as Novgorod. Remains of more than forty brick buildings from the 12th century. 13th century rest in its ancient soil.

Plans of the Smolensk churches a-Borisoglebskaya on Smyadyn (mid-12th century), b-Peter and Paul (1146)

The city was divided, like Novgorod, into “ends” with a trade and craft population and “merchant hundreds”. On a hill above the Dnieper stood the Assumption Cathedral in Detinets, which began construction back in 1001 by Vladimir Monomakh. Next door was the bishop's courtyard, and the princely residence was located on Smyadyn - the western outskirts of Smolensk. Numerous monasteries surrounded the city. However, only three stone temples survived from its former greatness in the pre-Mongol period; despite this, data from archaeological excavations make it possible to outline the main stages in the formation of Smolensk architecture.

In the first half and middle of the 12th century. Smolensk craftsmen adhere to construction techniques and architectural forms characteristic of the Dnieper region. Four- and six-pillar churches with three apses were erected from brick using the technique of ordinary row masonry, followed by plastering the surface of the walls. The composition of religious buildings was often supplemented by galleries and chapels. The walls were divided vertically by blades with half-columns, and horizontally by an arcature belt and curb, reminiscent of Chernigov buildings.

By the end of the 12th century. characteristic features of Smolensk architecture are emerging, in which forms similar to those of Polotsk can be traced. The side apses begin to be made in the thickness of the wall, the main volume of the temple is complemented by vestibules, forming a symmetrical and stable volumetric-spatial structure, developing upward. The desire for centric, dynamic compositions is complemented by highly dissected beam blades. The tendencies of ancient Russian architects to develop the volumes of a religious building upward are to a certain extent consonant with the creative aspirations of Gothic masters. In ideological and artistic terms, they are an indirect reflection of the vibrant social life, love of freedom and heresies that arose in medieval cities. It was in large trade and craft centers that the national artistic culture arose.

A fairly large group of monuments with complexly profiled beam blades and a semicircular middle apse, which is the only one extended from the plane of the wall, is represented by the Church of the Archangel Michael (1191-1194). The centric composition of the court temple with three lowered chapels and side apses, rising majestically on the top of the hill, worthily crowned the princely residence on Smyadyn. Volume-spatial unity and concentration of masses around the central axis were facilitated by covering the corner parts of the temple with semi-cylindrical vaults. Like flying buttresses, curvilinear corner coverings transferred thrust from the upper vaults to the lower sections of the walls, forming a structurally justified and expressive three-lobed completion. The dynamics of increasing curvilinear forms, supported by window frames, were intensified by false zakomaras surrounding the base of the drum, as in the Cathedral of the Spaso-Euphrosyne Monastery. The shape of the covering of the central part of the temple was also justified from a functional point of view, because it improved the removal of precipitation from the roof.

The organic nature of the entire spatial structure was also perceived in the interior of St. Michael’s Church. Its angular volumes and the vestibules opened inward seem to flow into the single and diverse space of the temple, developing upward and culminating in the dome of the drum.

The architect's skill was also manifested in the rhythmic construction of window openings and niches on the plane of the facades, giving scale and integrity to this outstanding monument of Ancient Rus'. The originality and picturesqueness of the princely temple was complemented by rows of small niches in its lower, clearly visible part, in which fresco images are believed to have been placed. The unusual nature of the Church of the Archangel Michael, its enormous height and solemnity were noted even by chroniclers who were stingy with praise: “there is nothing like it in the midnight country.”

Religious buildings on the verge of the 13th century occupy a special place in Smolensk architecture. with a rectangular slightly extended apse, which has analogues only in Polotsk. The plans of such four-pillar temples approximate a square; this suggests that their composition was centric and developed vertically, like the Church of the Archangel Michael.

The tower-like nature of the composition, the strengthening of the role of vertical divisions, the construction of a plinth (St. Michael’s Church) and unique bases for bundled blades (the church at the Okopnoe cemetery, etc.), rectangular apses lead to the idea of ​​​​acquaintance and creative processing by Smolensk masters at the end of the 12th century. not only the techniques of wooden architecture, but also the architectural forms of stone buildings of the Principality of Polotsk, as well as the Baltic countries.

Even more unique were the buildings of the Grodno land, located on the westernmost outskirts of Rus'. Scarce remains of architectural works

Grodno masters allow only general considerations. A distinctive feature of the partially preserved Lower Church (mid-12th century) in Detinets and Borisoglebskaya (80s of the 12th century) on Kolzhsky Hill is the polychrome nature of their facades. Huge granite boulders of various shades, polished to a shine, were inserted into the lower part of the outer walls of these temples, made of brick using the technique of row masonry; above, crosses and ornamental inserts made of colored majolica tiles sparkled like gems. The sections of the walls between the stones and majolica were covered with a thin layer of plaster. The coloristic richness of the facades, far from the asceticism of medieval religious buildings, introduced a folk touch to the architecture of Grodno churches.

The interior of the Boris and Gleb Church had a hall character, unusual for cross-domed buildings, thanks to round multifaceted internal pillars and a wooden balcony stretching along three walls from the northern apse to the southern one; Moreover, the entrance to these peculiar choirs was not built on the western side, but in the thickness of the walls of the side apses. The treatment of the interior walls with small niches and the large number of voice boxes inserted into the walls were also unusual.

All this speaks of the sufficient independence and originality of the Grodno architectural school, as well as the wide range of sources that fed it. The architects of Grodno, apparently, were familiar with the architectural monuments of Polotsk, the Dnieper region, Northern Europe and even the Balkan countries, and the level of their skill allowed them to artistically comprehend the achievements of other peoples.

Assumption Cathedral (1160) in Vladimir-Volynsky. Plan.

Southwestern principalities. In the middle of the 12th century. The Volyn lands are also separated from Kyiv. The strengthening of the role of cities was accompanied by the emergence of new settlements in Volyn and the formation of large trade and craft centers, which was facilitated by its favorable geographical location. Galician-Volyn Rus was connected with the states of both North-Western and Southern Europe. The capital of the principality - Vladimir-Volynsky - turns into one of the largest cities with powerful fortifications. In 1160, the Assumption Cathedral, which has survived to this day, was erected there - a monumental building, not inferior in size to the buildings in Kyiv. The cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky is very reminiscent of 12th century churches. Chernigov school.

Church of Panteleimon (before 1200) in Galich, plan.

Volyn craftsmen took their first steps in the field of stone construction with the help of Dnieper architects. However, already at the end of the 12th century, when Prince Roman Mstislavich united the Galicia-Volyn lands into one principality, their architecture acquired peculiar features. This was especially evident in Galich, an important political and cultural center of the early 13th century.

Galich flourished during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187), who relied on the townspeople in his unification policy. On a high cape, in Detinets, a princely palace was built in 1152, and five years later - the city Assumption Cathedral, surrounded by a gallery. This building, which once adorned Galich, which was not inferior in population and beauty to large Western European cities, has common features with the buildings of the era of Yaroslav the Wise - the time of the power of the Old Russian state. Unfortunately, it is difficult to judge the appearance of this monument, since only its foundations and fragments of external decoration have been preserved. But even these meager remains give an idea of ​​its features.

The Assumption Cathedral was built from local white limestone on rubble foundations. In contrast to the techniques used in Novgorod, the masonry was carried out from well-hewn and carefully fitted stone blocks with backfilling of the space between the outer surfaces using lime mortar. The facades of the cathedral were decorated with carved details: stone capitals completed the columns of the portals, and masks apparently complemented the frieze. The nature of the hewn masonry of the carved parts indicates that Galician craftsmen were familiar with the artistic culture of neighboring countries - Poland and Hungary.

This is also noticeable in the Church of Panteleimon (before 1200), the only partially surviving building here. The usual four-pillar structure of the temple in plan has acquired a unique embodiment: the blades on the northern and southern facades do not coincide with the internal pillars, they are moved apart in the middle, forming a large plane on which a carved perspective portal stands out as a colorful spot. A particularly strong contrast between the geometrically strict surface of the wall with simple arched window openings and the multi-step portal with columns and archivolts covered with carvings was created on the western façade.

The transformation of portals into the main element of the facade, which is not typical for churches in Rus', the design of the plinth, the profiling of which is reminiscent of Attic bases, the nature of the capitals and carved ornaments, which preserved traces of the influence of Hellenistic art, indicate that the architects of Galich combined the structure of the Old Russian temple with Romanesque decorative forms. Time has not preserved the upper parts of the Church of Panteleimon, which most likely corresponded to the cross-domed structure.

The Galician architectural school was formed in close contact with Western European art, which naturally left its mark on the appearance of the buildings. The creative development of Romanesque forms was also facilitated by the presence of dense, fine-grained limestone, which made it possible to perform fine ornamental carvings.

Also, little has been preserved from the architectural monuments of Kholm, the capital of Prince Daniil of Galicia (1238-1254). Founded in the second quarter of the 13th century. the city was distinguished by its expressive architectural appearance, which we mainly know from chronicles. The picturesque silhouette of the city with the expressive outlines of white-stone churches was successfully complemented by a tall “vezha” - a defensive tower made of wood on a stone foundation, dominating the entire building.

Numerous artisans from neighboring devastated principalities flocked to Kholm, which was almost unaffected by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and contributed to the construction of the capital city. Different architectural schools interacted in Kholm, the skills of Galician masters were intertwined with the techniques of Vladimir-Suzdal stone makers, the principles of the Dnieper masters were intertwined with the traditions of the artistic culture of the Romanesque world.

As is clear from the Ipatiev Chronicle (under 1259), in the Church of John Chrysostom the vaults rested on four-faced capitals; similar capitals crowned the St. George Church in Yuryev-Polsky. Multicolor carved portals with gilded details were made by the “cunning Avdey” from white Galician and green Kholm stones. The tympanums were decorated with reliefs of “The Savior” and “John” - “like everyone

a-plan of the foundations of the princely palace in Zvenigorod on Belka, b – facade, section and plan of the Belaya Vezha (late 13th century) in Kamenets-Litovsky.

he marvels at those who see.” The windows of this temple, which aroused universal admiration, displayed amazing “Roman glass” - stained glass windows, unusual for Rus'.

Of particular interest are the remains of princely stone palaces in Przemysl, Zvenigorod and Lviv that have survived to this day. Fragments of these unique civil structures, supplemented by a description by the chronicler of the princely court in Galich, make it possible to recreate in general terms the appearance of the ancient Russian palace complex of the period of feudal fragmentation. The formation of small appanage principalities, constant civil strife and military attacks from outside gave rise to a type of fortified princely court, which had some common features with the medieval castles of Western Europe.

The princely palaces in Galician Rus' were made not only in wood, as in other principalities, but also in stone. Archaeological excavations of the palace complex in Zvenigorod on Belka (mid-12th century) showed that it consisted of a fairly large L-shaped princely palace and a small court church. Adjoining the church from the south was apparently a tower that served as a tomb and watchtower. The palace was connected along the second floor by wooden passages with choirs and a tower.

The complex of the stone palace in Przemysl also included a church.

Construction in the 13th-14th centuries. stone defensive towers (towers) in the western lands of Ancient Rus' are associated with a constant military threat from both the Mongol-Tatars and neighboring states. Like epic heroes, stone guards rise to enormous heights in the vicinity of the city of Kholm. A remarkable monument of military art is the grandiose, 29 m high White Vezha in Kamenets-Litovsky, built in 1271-1289. Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich.

Round religious buildings, rare in Rus', as well as single-nave churches, are also becoming widespread in the Galicia-Volyn lands. In these border lands of Rus' there also existed an original ancient Russian school of architecture, which absorbed and creatively interpreted elements of Byzantine and Western European cultures.

The division of Rus' between the Yaroslavichs, which we talked about last time, marked the beginning of the process of feudal fragmentation. With every decade, and even every year, the number of princes increased, the number of dynasties within the Rurik family increased. The Chernigov dynasty of princes, dating back to Svyatoslav, stood out, the Monomashichi stood out, but the Monomashichi were also not on the best terms with each other. The line of Mstislav the Great and the line of Vladimir Monomakh's youngest son, Yuri Dolgoruky, constantly competed.

It was against the backdrop of this political struggle that Russian architecture developed in the second and third quarters of the 12th century, which is what we will talk about today. But we will begin, as always, traditionally with Kyiv, which continues to remain the capital city of the Grand Duke, although there is a constant struggle for it between the Russian princes. And, in fact, the entire architecture of Kyiv of this time is, in fact, the history of warring princes and their monumental representation.

After the great Kyiv construction of the 11th century, Kyiv became one of the architectural centers of Rus'. The temples here do not amaze with their grandeur. Their form is generally standard, the one that was set in its time by the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery and which spread throughout Rus', but small individual details indicate to us some kind of individuality of each building, often associated with the personality of the prince. We will start with the Church of the Assumption, which is also called Pirogoshcha, named after a certain mysterious Pirogost, built in 1132-1136 in Kiev on Podol, and this is important, since we have now moved from a princely city from top to bottom to a trading city, by order of the prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. According to the plan, as was said, this is a fairly simple building, a narthex and a four-pillar naos.

The temple was blown up in Soviet time, but before its destruction, measurements were taken from it, according to which it was restored already in the 90s. Before us is a building, on the one hand, of a typical Kyiv style, about which we have already talked a lot. On the other hand, new features appear in it, new for Kyiv. These are the same small arcatures that go under the lunettes that complete the spindles, which go along the apse, which go along the drum and which indicate that the fashion that appeared in Chernigov at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries was finally established in Kyiv.

Another temple, already in the 1140s, was built by a rival dynasty, the Chernigov Olgovich dynasty, whose representative, Vsevolod Olgovich, occupied the Kiev throne at that moment. According to the plan, this building differs little from the Mother of God of Pirogoshcha, however, there are small, unnoticeable differences that should still be noted. First of all, this is the maximum increase in the dome square. The side naves were narrowed so that they became half as narrow as the central one. This allows you to make the space even more open, more concentrated on its main part, the dome and the altar.

Now the temple stands as it was reconstructed in modern times, and the ancient forms are only slightly discernible here.

But if we look at the reconstruction of the temple, we will see a typical monument of Chernigov architecture. And this is not surprising. There is no doubt that along with the prince his artel came from Chernigov. Old Russian artels are not known to us practically by the names of their heads, by the names of the masters, but are known to us primarily by the names of the princes, that is, which prince this artel was. And when the prince moved from one table to another, and this happened constantly in Ancient Rus', then the artel followed him. And here is the Cyril Church - the fruit of the construction of this Chernigov artel. However, it must be said that in size this temple surpasses the Chernigov monuments, the same Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery.

And if we go inside and look to the east, we will see that the space here has really expanded, it has become wide, solemn, ceremonial, but if we raise our eyes upward, we will see a rather important reception, which will be destined for great future in Russian architecture, namely, that the vaults of the arms of the cross, both western, and lateral, and eastern, suddenly sank in relation to the large supporting arches. Such a stepped composition or a stepwise rising composition appears, which, in fact, will form the basis of future architecture, especially architecture late XII, the beginning of the 13th century, which we will talk about next time.

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky 1156–60.

We can very well trace the vicissitudes of architecture, the vicissitudes of buildings and artels using the example of the Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir-Volynsky in Western Rus', which was built somewhere in 1156-1160 by Prince Mstislav Izyaslavich. Mstislav Izyaslavich, grandson of Mstislav the Great, was expelled from Kyiv in 1155 by another representative of the younger branch of the Monomashichs, Yuri Dolgoruky. He didn't run alone. He fled with his squad. He fled with the metropolitan, with the famous Klim Smolyatich, the second Russian metropolitan on the Kiev throne, whom Constantinople never recognized as the legitimate metropolitan.

And here, in Vladimir-Volynsky, the prince founded his new residence, and here a practically new metropolis was obtained, and, accordingly, the temple had to meet the prince’s needs. Indeed, this is a very large temple, with a narthex open to the naos - what in the history of Russian architecture is sometimes called, not entirely correctly, a six-pillar temple. But here suddenly a longitudinal orientation appears, because in the cross-shaped pillars their blades, which are directed not inside the dome square, but outward, suddenly turn out to be very stretched.

AND appearance of this temple, which, in fact, is such a reconstruction now, since it was also reconstructed in modern times and cleared of these later layers at the beginning of the 20th century, the appearance of the temple tells us that we see the same thing that we saw before , for example, in the architecture of the St. Cyril Church or the Virgin Mary of Pirogoshchaya. This is a combination of the Kyiv style and the Chernigov style. But, perhaps, this is the last large monument of the Kiev-Chernigov style in Southern Rus'. After this, essentially a completely different architecture will appear here.

Polotsk architecture of the 12th century.

Now you and I are moving northwest from Kyiv, up the Dnieper, towards Smolensk and further northwest to Polotsk, to that center of the Russian land, which we have practically not talked about with you yet. The branch of Rurikovich that was least connected with all the others, the so-called Bryachislavovichs, ruled here. These princes sometimes came into conflict with all the Russian princes and it was for this that they were expelled in the 30s of the 12th century. But even before their expulsion, they were able to lay the foundation for a very interesting architectural school, which, paradoxically, seems to be the future of Russian architecture.

Traditionally, Polotsk architecture began with Sophia of Polotsk, the first large stone church of Polotsk, dating it to the same time as Sophia of Kiev and Sophia of Novgorod, that is, to the 50s of the 11th century. However, in some paradoxical way, technically, that is, from the point of view of masonry, mortar plinth, this temple does not adjoin those cathedrals with which it is similar in plan, but to later Polotsk buildings from the beginning of the 12th century. Therefore, not so long ago, Evgeniy Nikolaevich Torshin expressed a completely sound hypothesis that this temple was built somewhere in the 70s-80s of the 12th century. And it is very interesting that in 1069, Prince Vseslav of Polotsk took Novgorod, plundered the city and, among other things, removed the bells from St. Sophia of Novgorod, which he moved to Polotsk, apparently for his new cathedral. So, in an amazing way, Sofia of Polotsk almost exactly reproduces Sofia of Novgorod.

Sophia of Polotsk now does not give the impression of an ancient Russian temple. This is, in fact, a church that was made by a Catholic, Jesuit temple and which hides only the remains of an ancient Russian building.

Here on the model we see what this cathedral looked like. Apparently very similar to Sofia of Novgorod. We see here five main chapters and two additional, high apses, two tiers, including choirs.

Inside the building itself, we see in places fragments of old masonry that appear from the whitewash of a later time.

And under the floor of the temple there is a kind of archaeological museum, where we can see with you the foundation of the ancient temple, including the masonry technique, huge boulders laid as the foundation, and the masonry with a hidden row that goes above them. Here we see the base of one of the cross pillars. The architecture of Polotsk, just like the architecture of other Russian centers, fully adopted this principle of cross-shaped pillars.

The heyday of Polotsk architecture occurred in the first half, the middle of the 12th century, despite the expulsion of the Polotsk princes, and they went into exile not just anywhere, but to Constantinople. Therefore, it was assumed that perhaps they brought with them new masters, Greek masters, although, as we will see, the latest research shows that most likely their main buildings, or at least the main architectural trends in Polotsk, were laid even before the expulsion of these princes.

The first building after Sofia in Polotsk is considered to be the Great Cathedral of the Belchitsky Monastery. Here we must, however, make a reservation that it is known to us only from archaeological materials. And besides, the name itself, Belchitsa Monastery, is a phenomenon of a later time, because in the 12th century in the chronicle Belchitsa is mentioned not as a monastery, but as a princely residence. True, it’s a big mystery why there are so many temples here, as many as four.

Please note that the Belchitsa Temple has two important features. Firstly, this is a temple of the type of inscribed cross of a complex design, that is, where additional cells were added from the east. This is rather a feature of Constantinople architecture, or at least high-level architecture. Second important feature here is the presence of three vestibules, which we have already seen in the famous building of Vladimir Monomakh, namely in the Church of the Savior on Berestov in Kyiv.

The further history of Polotsk architecture begins from the large cathedral of the Belchitsky monastery, and we see that its basic type was reproduced further, only slightly, perhaps modified. For example, instead of rectangular vestibules, side chapels could appear, that is, the vestibules with the addition of an apse were thus transformed into separate additional temples. In addition, a new feature is being developed, characteristic of Polotsk, namely, that the side apses begin to retract into the thickness of the wall and are not expressed from the outside, unlike the central apse.

And these complications lead, in particular, to very interesting solutions. In particular, in the same Belchitsky monastery, a temple was excavated in the 18th century during the extraction of sand, on the sides of which there were not vestibules, not chapels, but two additional apses. Thus, it is similar to the temples of Athos, the temples of Greece, but which were also in Constantinople and Asia Minor, the so-called cross-domed triconchs, where on the sides there are two additional apses, which in Slavic are called singers, that is, a place for choir, place for singers. And here we see how receptive Polotsk is to some trends that come from Byzantium, perhaps due to the connection of its princes with Constantinople.

But, unfortunately, of all the Polotsk buildings, only one has been completely preserved, although perhaps the most amazing one. This is the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord in the monastery, Spassky Monastery, founded by St. Euphrosyne.

The daughter of the Polotsk prince, a noble woman, she immediately chose the monastic path and was a surprisingly educated person for her time. We see this from her life, from her biography. What is worth is the fact that she died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

But the painting of the temple, which was recently revealed by our wonderful restorer, Vladimir Dmitrievich Sarabyanov, who died untimely, shows absolutely fantastic scenes, unknown in Rus'. Here are the rivers of wisdom, and Dionysius of Paris with his own head, and much more.

The plan of the temple itself, in principle, is not very different from the Polotsk buildings, only perhaps in size. This is a very small and very elongated temple, which, however, had a choir that was important for princely buildings. The height of the dome here is practically higher than all Russian buildings known to us in a proportional sense. Why it was needed, we will talk to you later.

Now the temple appears to us in a rather rebuilt form, although here we can discern a spinning wheel with zakomars, the windows are more or less in their places.

Moreover, during the latest restoration work, and this temple can be said to be an example of restoration, both painting restoration and architectural and archaeological restoration, very interesting elements of brickwork were revealed here. For example, amazing eyebrows above the windows, which have practically no parallels, or a row of pseudo-meander, that is, some kind of imitation of a real meander, made in the form of the Greek letters “pi”, above a row of second windows. And it’s precisely this kind of meander and exactly in this place, which is very important for architecture, because not only the motif is important for architectural decoration, but also the place where it is used; we find exactly this combination in Spas on Berestov. Therefore, a well-founded hypothesis was put forward that Polotsk architecture was created by the architects of Vladimir Monomakh, who moved to Polotsk after the construction of the Savior on Berestov.

Recent field studies of the temple made it possible to reconstruct its appearance, which turned out to be different from what we see now. The most important innovations here are the three-bladed zakomar ends. But if we go back a little, we remember that the same endings took place in Spas on Berestov. We saw them in the vestibule. But an even more important innovation is the appearance here, above this tier of zakomaras, of another tier imitating zakomaras. In fact, these are overhead three-blade zakomars, essentially the predecessors of future Russian kokoshniks. They do not correspond almost to the internal structure of the building, but mask the high base of the drum.

Thus, the temple acquires an increased pyramidal structure, rushes upward like the Byzantine temples of the 12th century, thus fitting into the general trend of Byzantine architecture, although in some ways it is even ahead of it. Such elongated temples, such narrow drums of Byzantium appear only in the late period.

And confirmation of what the architects found is a fresco in the temple dating back to the 13th century, where the Venerable Euphrosyne herself is depicted, offering this very temple, and in her hands she holds a model on which we see these completions, as they are drawn. Although, again, the latest architectural studies show that the roof went wrong, not with three blades, but, apparently, with some angles.

Inside the temple we see its incredible verticality, elevation and at the same time emphasis within the spatial cross. And this is no coincidence. Vladimir Dmitrievich Sarabyanov perceived this temple as a kind of reliquary temple, in the center of which stood the famous inset cross of Euphrosyne, which disappeared during the war and is known to us from photographs. The entire temple turned out to be like a spatial cross.

The choirs in this temple, unlike ordinary princely choirs, received a special function. The fact is that on the sides, right here, two special chapels were built. In one we know that Euphrosyne prayed and lived next to her. There is her bed there. And when she prayed in this chapel and looked out the small window that is in it, then in the gap of this window she saw from the east the image of a stylite, that is, her feat of life in the choir was akin to stylite. And in another tent, near the window, a semblance of a table was found, all around there were shelves as if for books, and above this table there was an image of a writing angel. That is, most likely, books were copied here and there was a library of the monastery.

Next to the Spassky Temple there was a second temple, we do not know it by name, the so-called tomb temple. And recently, during work near this temple, an amazing thing was found. This is a piece of plinth, on which, apparently, an image of a shoulder blade was drawn in the still damp clay, exactly the same as what we see in this very temple-tomb. That is, it is something like a working drawing of a Russian master. From Polotsk architecture came Smolensk architecture, which gave a new impetus to Russian architecture at the end of the 12th century, but we will talk about this next time.

And if at the beginning of the 12th century we talked about large monastic princely buildings, now the architecture is changing. It is becoming more accessible. And although the prince is still the customer, the temple he is building, the Church of St. John on Opoki, is already a temple on Posad. It is no coincidence that it later became a temple for Novgorod merchants. According to one principle, according to the principle that was laid down in the plan of the Anthony Monastery, the churches of St. John on Opoki and the Assumption on Torg were built.

The Church of St. John on Opoki was completed in 1130, and in 1136 a major event occurred in the history of Novgorod. an important event. The prince was finally expelled, and after that the prince was already invited to Novgorod. Novgorod became the so-called boyar-veche republic. The Temple of John on Opoki has reached us in a revised form, in that rebuilt post-Mongol version, and at the same time we see a very modest decoration of its facades, which will be characteristic of all Novgorod architecture of the pre-Mongol period, until its end. For the period we are talking about, it is very important that for the first time in the history of Novgorod, an artel, which originally belonged to the prince, and then, perhaps, worked for the bishop, because we know the bishop as the customer of many buildings, this artel goes beyond the city limits and begins to build in other places.

And, strictly speaking, there will be two of these directions in the architecture of the Novgorod land. One direction is Pskov. This is the city that has always been something like the younger brother of Novgorod, which also had its own veche, also had its own identity and had its own prince. Expelled from Novgorod, Vsevolod, in fact, goes to Pskov and takes craftsmen there. Apparently, it was they who were building the cathedral of the Ioannovsky Monastery in Pskov, a simple building of the type already known to us in Novgorod. Its relative innovation is that in the western part all the pillars are no longer cross-shaped, and in the east there is a pair of T-shaped supports, which will become the basis of the Pskov style.

The decoration of the facades of this temple is extremely modest and unpretentious. Here, practically only small arches under the domes remain, but some new elements appear. The temple windows themselves are very narrow; indeed, others were not suitable for the Russian winter, but new small round windows appear. They are not at all similar to the round windows that came to Byzantium from ancient architecture. This is some kind of innovation.

It is also interesting that the domes here belong to the western corner cells, but the very scheme of the three domes, which we saw in both the Yuryev Monastery and the Anthony Monastery in Novgorod, is preserved.

If we look at the cross-section of the temple, we will see that everything here is not very neat. All the lines are slightly beveled, slightly shifted, and the structure itself, of course, has already lost that Byzantine tectonics that was present in the monuments of the 11th century, especially in the monuments of Southern Rus'. This is partly due to the transition to a different material. Along with plinth, these buildings actively use readily available stone, and not very well-hewn stone, often cobblestone, which becomes the main building material in the Novgorod land.

The same team that built the temple of the Ivanovo Monastery in Pskov also built the cathedral of another monastery, Miroshsky. Here, however, we see another, some new scheme, which is actually similar in appearance to the Byzantine scheme, because initially in this temple the corner cells were extremely lowered.

Now, after the restructuring, after the superstructure, the western cells have become taller, but these are separate rooms. Inside, the arch shows us that this is where they actually end, and the eastern ones were never built on like that. But despite the external resemblance to Byzantium, we see that in fact, inside this height is determined not by a column, not by a small girth arch of Byzantium, but in some arbitrary way.

The temple of the Mirosh Monastery is an order of the famous Novgorod Bishop Nifont, a man of amazing learning for his time, who, although he seemed to have been tonsured at the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, was so aware of all the latest trends in Byzantine literature, art, and so on, that it seems , must have been Greek, and he commissions paintings for this temple. And, in fact, this painting shows that that space, which in its whitewashed form seems rough and inept to us, begins to play wonderfully completely when covered with a fresco. And even such strange elements, such as, for example, large girth arches resting on consoles, are very subtly and wittily played out in painting here. The temple seems to be gaining new structure, the new axis around which it is built. And this is the so-called Christological axis, which goes from the dome from the “Ascension”, through the “Savior Not Made by Hands”, through the Deesis, through the “Savior on the Throne” and further, in fact, to the altar, where Christ is actually embodied in the holy gifts during Eucharistic celebration.

The second direction of architecture in the Novgorod land is the architecture of Ladoga. Ladoga is a city that is actually older than Novgorod, the so-called current Staraya Ladoga. As a matter of fact, some believe that Novgorod is called Novgorod because the old city was this Ladoga, a very important trade route on the way from the Varangians to the Greeks. Ladoga suddenly came to life again in the 12th century, in the middle of the 12th century, somewhere in the 50-60s. The princes give her great importance, and here construction begins. However, in this diagram we see how complex this construction developed and that the first temple in Ladoga was ordered by Bishop Nifont, the Church of Clement.

And further from it came the line of Ladoga architecture, which, unfortunately, has not all been preserved, but, in general, is represented by preserved buildings, including the Assumption Church in Staraya Ladoga, built in 1154-1159. It is likely that these are the buildings of the same artel that worked in Pskov, but, of course, not exactly the same, because people grew old, artel members changed, someone came, someone left, but the basic principles are the same .

These are the same principles that were laid down a long time ago, in the Anthony Monastery, by those masters who once came from Kyiv. But, of course, there is practically no trace left of the Kyiv masters here. This is a special, already Novgorod architecture.

And finally, after a long break in the surviving stone buildings, we see construction again in Novgorod. Perhaps there really was no construction because the artel was leaving, and this is surprising, because it turns out that even such a rich city as Novgorod could not provide itself with more than one, or maybe a maximum of two artels. Built in the 70s of the 12th century, this is a temple in Arkazhi, in a monastery that was once founded by Arkady, Archbishop of Novgorod, and one of his successors is building a temple here. Here we see the same scheme that we saw in Ladoga, that is, the isolation of the corner cells and two powerful square pillars in the west.

The facade decoration remains very simple, essentially reduced to small arches under the drum.

Nowadays, this temple in its rebuilt form does not give the impression of a pre-Mongol construction. This is a typical ending for post-Mongol Novgorod.

But if we go inside, you and I will see this very authentic pre-Mongol temple and see how heavy, bulky and powerful it has become. This is a temple of a small monastery, where the main thing is the strength and reliability of the structures. Therefore, the eastern pillars do not rise vertically upward, large arches do not form on the sides of them, and here additional arches are again introduced as additional powerful supports, which should make the entire structure of the building more stable.

Architecture of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality

And finally, in the middle of the 12th century, another, practically new school of Russian architecture appeared. This is the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', or more precisely, it is more correct to say, the Rostov-Suzdal principality, because the old center of this land is Rostov, the new center since the time of Yuri Dolgoruky especially is Suzdal, although the first temple in Suzdal was founded by Vladimir Monomakh. Nothing remained of it except small remnants of the foundation. And finally, Yuri’s son Andrei Bogolyubsky moves the center a little further, to Vladimir, which he plans to make the new capital of Rus'.

So, the first stage of the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' is associated with the city of Vladimir. But we will have to start from afar, because between the cathedral in Suzdal, built by Vladimir Monomakh, and the first buildings of Andrei Bogolyubsky, there is a gap of almost half a century. Where did Andrei get the masters who, as we will see now, are not at all similar to everything that we have seen before in Rus'? According to Oleg Mikhailovich Ionesyan, he received masters from Galician Rus', where, unfortunately, almost nothing remains of the monuments of this time. I am showing you a reconstruction of the plan of the cathedral in Zvenigorod, Zvenigorod on Belka in Southern Rus', built in the early 1140s.

From here these masters, familiar with the architecture of Poland or, more specifically, Lesser Poland, with the stone decoration of the provincial-Romanesque version, most likely moved to the principality of Yuri Dolgoruky, who was closely connected by allied ties with the Galician land. Of the buildings of Yuri Dolgoruky, of which there were more, two have reached us. These are churches in Pereslavl, Pereslavl-Zalessky, not to be confused with Pereslavl-Yuzhny, and in Kideksha at the residence of the prince near Suzdal. The temple in Kideksha, unfortunately, partially collapsed, but the temple in Pereslavl was preserved entirely.

Traditionally, in the history of Russian architecture, this temple was considered the beginning of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture due to the simplicity of its forms. There is practically no decor here. It is focused only on the apse, on the drum, and on the spinning wheels themselves we see only a small fracture in the middle. But the latest research, which I will talk about later, calls into question this clarity, this straight line: Pereslavl, Kideksha and then the architecture of Andrei Bogolyubsky.

Inside, you and I see, in general, a type of Russian church familiar to us, a clearly defined cross, but everything was suddenly built of white stone. And this is a novelty, which in fact will then turn out to be very important, because the stone has, in fact, completely different expressive capabilities than plinth. This stone was not visible inside, since the temple was covered with frescoes, the remains of which were known back in the 19th century.

The full potential of stone decoration begins to be realized under the son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky. Let me remind you that Yuri took Kyiv in 1155, moved there, where he soon died, and Andrei, without his father’s will, moved to the Suzdal land, took with him the famous icon of Our Lady of Vladimir and began to rule here almost independently. Andrei hatched a grandiose plan to create a metropolitanate in Vladimir, independent of Kyiv, and conducted long negotiations with Constantinople, which, however, were not crowned with success. And, accordingly, in order to confirm both his claims to the new church center of Rus', and to confirm his status among other princes in general, Andrei, who in principle did not want to be a prince in Kyiv, is building something new.

He invites masters from the West, and these are, undoubtedly, not only those masters who worked for Yuri, perhaps they still remain, but also new masters who bring a new school of architectural decoration, including facade sculpture. Andrei's first building was the Assumption Cathedral, modeled after the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, such a transfer of the south to the north, but obviously more complicated, with vestibules, with towers that already have the character of a slightly palace, front facade.

Unfortunately, this cathedral soon burned down in a large city fire, and although its walls inside remained (they are shown in black on this plan), they had to be built on the outside, so the temple turned out to be a much more complex shape, somewhat similar to St. Sophia of Kyiv, but the new temple is like a casket, like a kind of frame around the ancient walls.

And what we see with you now conveys only the general structure of the building, but not the details of the old building.

They are visible only here, in the small gaps between the new supports attached, we see with you an important innovation in Andrei’s architecture. This is now not only an arcature, but also an arcature-columnar belt that goes around the entire temple, which includes windows and, as we will see later, sculpture.

Inside the temple, the central part, which has been preserved, shows us, on the one hand, its grandiose scale. On the other hand, if we look up, standing under the famous vault, painted by Andrei Rublev several centuries later, we will see one amazing detail. Instead of the usual sails of Rus', tromps suddenly appeared here. Tromps are a form that is more typical for the East or the West. This is probably the influence of the very Romanesque masters who came here. Where they came from is unknown. Tatishchev's message that the masters were given by Friedrich Barbarossa is a late invention.

Andrey is trying to organize Vladimir as a new capital in the likeness of Kyiv, which is why the Golden Gate appears here.

Unfortunately, the ancient temple on these Golden Gates was dismantled in the 18th century, but the gate arch itself, the opening, retained its ancient forms.

Just like Yuri, Andrei had his favorite residence, Bogolyubovo, not far from Vladimir, and here he built a luxurious complex, which included both his own palace and a temple with two towers on the sides connected to this palace by passages. Fortunately, after the collapse of the temple in the 18th century, the towers and part of the walls of the temple still survived, and we can understand how grandiose this structure was. The front facade, reminiscent of the facades of Romanesque buildings rather than even Byzantine ones, is a luxurious phial, that is, a vessel for water with a ciborium, with a canopy above it.

In front of him is a fantastic monument, which is being reconstructed in the form of a column with the heads of maidens (we have preserved them), interior mosaic decor, a polished copper floor, gilded pilasters of round columns - all this was supposed to create something unprecedented, something completely new in Rus'.

Alas, little of this splendor remains, and we can only guess how powerful an impression this palace and St. Andrew’s Temple could have had on visitors.

At the bottom of this very tower, Andrei was, as we know, killed. But if we raise our eyes upward, we will see the arcature-columnar belt we already know, and the triple window, and the completely Romanesque completions of these same angular rods. One can only guess where these masters came from.

The powerful beam pilasters that we see on the corners of buildings have caused enormous controversy among scientists. Alexey Ilyich Komech believed that these masters came from the Middle Rhine, Oleg Mikhailovich Ionesyan - that they came from Northern Italy, likening these profiles to the Cathedral in Modena. Be that as it may, these were masters from the empire, and Andrei’s imperial habits are felt in the architecture.

For the first time in for a long time refuses the square, cross-shaped or octagonal pillars typical of Rus' and tries to reproduce the columns on which, as I already said, there were gilded capitals. The richest sculptural decoration, completely alien to Russian architecture before.

It manifests itself especially well in that temple, which is considered to be one of the symbols of Rus', in the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which stands so mysteriously and thoughtfully in the fields on the banks of the small river Nerl.

But archaeological research that was carried out here by Nikolai Nikolaevich Voronin showed that this temple looked completely different. It was a high, solemnly decorated hill, paved with slabs, with a grand staircase that led up from the river, and the temple itself stood not as a lonely candle, but rather as a powerful pyramid surrounded by a gallery, with a balcony at the top, from where the prince could survey his possessions . The function of this temple is unknown. Some believe that there was a small monastery here, some - that some other residence of the prince.

We don't know this, but we see that the facades of the temple are richly decorated with carvings. Where these masters came from is another mystery. The same Oleg Mikhailovich Ionesyan not so long ago suggested that these masters came from Poitou, from the west of France, where they suddenly found themselves without work due to the political situation. The main theme of these reliefs, along with decorative motifs, with these female heads, lions and so on, is the glorification of princely power in the form of the image of the prophet David, which appears on various facades and is supposed to symbolize some ideal prince.

The fine carving of the column, which is made possible by the white stone, shows highest level these masters who come here on the order of Andrei Bogolyubsky.

And finally, when we enter the temple, we immediately pay attention to its height, to its upward direction, which in general common feature architecture of the 12th century, but which, perhaps, is not so noticeable from the outside and even less so when there were galleries around the temple. Of course, we pay attention to the choir for the prince in the west, because it was from these choirs that, perhaps, the correct, balanced view of this building opened up.

But this spatially expressed cross, these upward-pointing proportions and minimal carved decor inside, apparently there was fresco decor here, only in the bases of the arches we see small images of lions - all this was supposed to create the impression, on the one hand, of the greatness of the prince, and on the other hand, its completely innovative, in fact, function in Russian architecture, which was for the first time to fully combine the architecture of Old Russian, Byzantine in origin, with the architecture of Western Europe.

Preface. Yu. S. Yaralov... 5
INTRODUCTION P. N. Maksimov... 7

Chapter 1. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. N. I. Brunov... 16
Introduction... 16
I. Early Byzantine architecture... 23
1. The formation of Byzantine architecture... 23
2. Constantinople architectural school... 27
3. Architecture in the provinces of the empire... 60
II. Middle Byzantine architecture... 77
1. Main features of Middle Byzantine architecture... 77
2. Constantinople architectural school in Middle Byzantine times... 86
3. Eastern Byzantine architectural school in Middle Byzantine times... 113
4. Greek school of Middle Byzantine architecture... 123
III. Late Byzantine architecture... 143
Conclusion... 158

Chapter 2. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT OF BYZANTIUM. Yu. K. Milonov... 161
1. Technical heritage of the Roman Empire... 161
2. Architectural and construction encyclopedia of the Byzantine era... 163
3. Probable calculation methods... 165
4. Construction Materials... 170
5. Building structures... 175
6. Design and execution of construction work... 182
7. Technical heritage of the building art of the Byzantines... 193

Chapter 3. ARCHITECTURE OF ARMENIA. O. X. Khalpakhchyan... 197
Introduction... 197
I. Architecture of the IV-VII centuries. ... 199
II. Architecture of the 9th-11th centuries. ... 223
III. Architecture of the XII-XIV centuries. ... 245
IV. Architecture of Cilician Armenia (1080-1375) ... 273
V. Architecture of the XV-XIX centuries. ... 284
Conclusion... 296

Chapter 4. ARCHITECTURE OF GEORGIA. G. N. Chubinashvili... 300
I. Architecture of ancient times (IV-VII centuries) ... 300
1. Socio-economic and political conditions of development... 300
2. Level of construction technology... 301
3. Types of buildings... 302
4. Monuments of the IV-VII centuries. ... 324
5. Basic town planning techniques in the early feudal period... 325
II. Architecture of the 8th and 9th centuries. ... 328
III. Architecture of the 10th and 11th centuries. ... 336
IV. Architecture of the 12th and 13th centuries. ... 358
V. Architecture of the XIII-XV centuries. ... 366
VI. Architecture of the 16th-18th centuries. ... 370

Chapter 5. ARCHITECTURE OF BULGARIA... 376
Introduction. K. Miyatev... 376
I. Pre-Bulgarian architecture on the territory of Bulgaria. K. Miyatev... 380
II. Architecture of the era of the First Bulgarian Kingdom. K. Miyatev... 387
1. Capitals Pliska and Preslav. Fortresses in Madara and Ohrid... 387
2. Cult architecture... 391
3. Home architecture... 397
III. Architecture of the era of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. K. Miyatev... 398
1. Fortress and palace architecture... 398
2. Iconic architecture... -
IV. Architecture of the XV-XVIII centuries. G. Kozhukharov... 411
1. Home architecture... 411
2. Cult architecture... 414
Conclusion. K. Miyatev... 417

Chapter 6. ARCHITECTURE OF SERBIA AND MACEDONIA. D Boskovic... 418
Introduction... 418
I. Urban planning, fortress and civil architecture... 422
II. Iconic architecture... 429
1. Architecture of the early feudal period... 429
2. The period of Byzantine dominance... 432
3. Russian architectural school... 433
4. Macedonian and Kosovo-Metohija school... 446
5. Moravian school... 454
6. Frescoes of Serbian churches... 462
Conclusion... 463

Chapter 7. ARCHITECTURE OF MOLDAVIA AND WALLACHIA. G. Ionescu... 465
Introduction... 465
I. Architecture of the period of early feudalism (X-XIII centuries) ... 467
II. Architecture of the period of strengthening and development of feudalism (XIV - first half of the XV century) ... 470
III. Architecture of the heyday of feudalism (second half of the 15th and 16th centuries) ... 475
IV. Architecture of the 17th century and the first third of the 18th... century. ... 485
Conclusion... 500

Chapter 8. ARCHITECTURE OF THE NORTHERN BLACK SEA REGION. Yu. S. Aseev... 502
I. Architecture of Crimea V-IX centuries... 502
II. Architecture of Crimea X-XIII centuries. ...511

Chapter 9. ARCHITECTURE OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE (X - EARLY XII century). Yu. S. Aseev and P. N. Maksimov... 510
Introduction... 510
I. Urban planning... 518
II. Defensive architecture... 525
III. Wooden churches... 528
IV. Stone architecture of the late X - first half of the XI centuries. ... 530
V. Stone architecture of the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. ...551
1. Kiev architecture of the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. ...552
2. Pereyaslav architecture of the late 11th century. ...558
Conclusion... 560

Chapter 10. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHERN AND WESTERN Rus' IN THE XII-XIII centuries. Yu. S. Aseev... 562
I. Architecture of the Dnieper region in the XII - early XIII centuries. ... 562
1. Construction equipment... 563
2. Urban planning... 564
3. Defensive construction... 566
4. Monumental architecture of the Dnieper region of the 30-80s of the 12th century. ... 567
5. Monumental architecture of the Dnieper region of the late XII - early XIII centuries. ... 578
II. Architecture of the Western Regions ancient Rus' in the 12th century ... 584
III. Architecture of the southwestern regions of ancient Rus' in the XII-XIII centuries. ... 590

Chapter 11. VLADIMIRO-SUZDAL ARCHITECTURE. N. N. Voronin. ... 598
I. Construction of the time of Vladimir Monomakh. ... 598
II. Construction of the time of Yuri Dolgoruky... 600
III. Construction of Andrei Bogolyubsky's time... 603
IV. Construction of the time of Vsevolod III ... 618
V. Construction of the heirs of Vsevolod III ... 628
Conclusion... 637

Chapter 12. ARCHITECTURE OF NOVGOROD LAND XII - EARLY XIII centuries. P. N. Maksimov... 640
I. Urban planning and residential buildings... 640
II. Religious architecture before 1136 ... 641
III. Religious architecture of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. ... 645

CONCLUSION. P. N. Maksimov... 657

APPLICATIONS... 661
1. Literature... 663
2. Index of architectural monuments by their location. L. G. Dzisko, E. I. Kirichenko... 668
3. Name index of architects, sculptors and monumental artists. L. G. Dzisko, E. I. Kirichenko... 683