Definition of the object and subject of pedagogy. Functions and tasks of pedagogical science

Only science brings consciousness and a critical attitude where, without it, a skill acquired from nowhere and the lack of accountability in a life not created by us reigns. For education, this science is pedagogy. It is nothing more than awareness of education... Pedagogy sets the rules for the art of human education. A living person is the material for the work of a teacher and educator.
S.I. Hesse

Chapter 5. Pedagogy in the system of human sciences

General idea of ​​pedagogy as a science

Pedagogy got its name from the Greek word “paidagos” (“paid” - “child”, “gogos” - “lead”), which means “child breeding” or “child education”.
In Ancient Greece, this function was carried out directly - teachers were originally called slaves who accompanied their master's children to school. Later, teachers were already civilian people who were engaged in instructing, raising and training children. By the way, in Rus' (XII century) the first teachers received the name “masters”. These were free people (sacristans or laymen), who taught children reading, writing, prayers at home or at home, as it is said in one “Life”: “... write books and teach students literate tricks.”
It should be noted that each person experimentally acquires certain knowledge in the field of upbringing, training and education, and establishes some dependencies between various pedagogical phenomena. Thus, primitive people already possessed knowledge of raising children, which was passed on from one generation to another in the form of customs, traditions, games, and everyday rules. This knowledge is reflected in sayings and proverbs, myths and legends, fairy tales and anecdotes (for example: “Repetition is the mother of learning,” “The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree,” “Live forever, learn,” etc.), which formed the content folk pedagogy. Their role is extremely great both in the life of society, an individual family, and a specific person. They. help him interact with other people, communicate with them, engage in self-improvement, and perform parental functions.
Folk pedagogy, having emerged as a response to an objective social need for education, conditioned by the development of people’s working activities, of course, cannot replace books, school, teachers, and science. But she's older pedagogical science, education as a social institution and initially existed independently of them.
However, pedagogical science, unlike everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, generalizes scattered facts and establishes causal connections between phenomena. She does not so much describe them as explain them, answer questions about why and what changes occur in human development under the influence of training and upbringing. This knowledge is necessary to anticipate and manage the process of personality development. At one time, the great Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky warned against empiricism in pedagogy; he correlated pedagogical practice without theory with witchcraft in medicine.
However, everyday pedagogical experience, despite the oral form of its existence, did not disappear, but was passed on from century to century, withstood tests, changed guidelines and values, but on the whole was preserved in the form of the pedagogical culture of the people, their pedagogical mentality and today forms the basis of scientific pedagogical knowledge . That is why K. D. Ushinsky, speaking against empiricism in teaching and upbringing, did not identify it with folk pedagogy, but, on the contrary, argued that, turning to the people, education will always find an answer and assistance in the living and strong feeling of a person who acts much stronger than conviction. If it does not want to be “powerless, it must be popular.”
To define pedagogy as a science, it is important to establish the boundaries of its subject area or answer the question: what does it study? In turn, the answer to this question involves understanding its object and subject.

Object, subject and functions of pedagogy

In the views of scientists on pedagogy, both in the past and in the present, there are three concepts. Representatives of the first of them believe that pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field of human knowledge. However, this approach actually denies pedagogy as an independent theoretical science, i.e. as an area of ​​reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In pedagogy, in this case, a variety of complex objects of reality are represented (space, culture, politics, etc.).
Other scientists assign pedagogy the role of an applied discipline, the function of which is to indirectly use knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve problems arising in the field of education or upbringing.

With this approach, a holistic fundamental basis for the functioning and transformation of teaching practice cannot be developed. The content of such pedagogy is a set of fragmentary ideas about individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena.
Productive for science and practice, according to V.V. Kraevsky, is only the third concept, according to which pedagogy is relative independent discipline, which has its own object and subject of study.

Object of pedagogy

A. S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the object pedagogical research child, but this is not true. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is the “pedagogical fact (phenomenon).” At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.
Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy

Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. For example, an economist studying the level real possibilities"labor resources" produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their preparation. A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question about the goals and general purpose of education - what they are today and what they should be in the future. modern world? A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

The contributions of numerous sciences to the study of education as social phenomenon, undoubtedly, valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.
Subject of pedagogy- this is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.
Functions of pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it implements in organic unity.
The theoretical function of pedagogy is implemented at three levels:
descriptive or explanatory- study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;
diagnostic- identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;
prognostic- experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality.
The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.
The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:
projective related to the development of appropriate teaching materials(curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and defining the “normative or regulatory” (V.V. Kraevsky) plan pedagogical activity, its content and nature;
Model - sample (standard, standard).
transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction;
reflective and corrective, which involves assessing the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in interaction scientific theory and practical activities.

Education as a social phenomenon

Any society exists only on the condition that its members follow its accepted values ​​and norms of behavior, determined by specific natural and socio-historical conditions. A person becomes a person in the process socialization, thanks to which he gains the ability to perform social functions. Some scientists understand socialization as a lifelong process, linking it with a change in place of residence and group, and with marital status, and with the advent of old age. Such socialization is nothing more than social adaptation. However, socialization does not end there. It involves development, self-determination, and self-realization of the individual. Moreover, such problems are solved both spontaneously and purposefully, by the entire society, by institutions specially created for this purpose, and by the individual himself. This purposefully organized process of managing socialization is called education, which is a complex socio-historical phenomenon with many sides and aspects, the study of which, as already noted, is carried out by a number of sciences.
The concept of "education" (similar to the German "bildung") comes from the word "image". Education is understood as a unified process of physical and spiritual formation of a personality, a process of socialization, consciously oriented towards some ideal images, towards historically determined social standards, more or less clearly fixed in the public consciousness (for example, a Spartan warrior, a virtuous Christian, an energetic entrepreneur, a harmoniously developed personality ). In this understanding, education acts as an integral aspect of the life of all societies and all individuals without exception. Therefore, it is first of all a social phenomenon.
Education has become a special sphere of social life since the time when the process of transferring knowledge and social experience stood out from other types of life activity of society and became the work of persons specially engaged in training and education. However, education as a social way of ensuring the inheritance of culture, socialization and personal development arose along with the advent of society and developed along with the development of labor activity, thinking, and language.
Scientists studying the socialization of children at the stage of primitive society believe that education in that era was woven into the system of social and production activities. The functions of training and education, the transfer of culture from generation to generation were carried out by all adults directly in the course of introducing children to labor and social work. responsibilities.
Every adult member of society became a teacher in the process of everyday life, and in some developed communities, for example among the Yaguas (Colombia, Peru), younger children were raised mainly by older children. In any case, education was inseparable from the life of society, included in it as required component. Children, together with adults, obtained food, guarded the hearth, made tools and learned at the same time. Women gave girls lessons in housekeeping and child care, men taught boys to hunt and wield weapons. Together with adults, children tame animals, grow plants and watch the movement of clouds and celestial bodies, comprehended the secrets of nature, rejoiced at a successful hunt, military victories, danced and sang, experienced misfortunes, hunger, defeats and the death of their fellow tribesmen. Education was therefore carried out comprehensively and continuously in the process of life itself.
Expanding the boundaries of communication, the development of language and general culture have led to an increase in information and experience to be transmitted to young people. However, the possibilities for its development were limited. This contradiction was resolved by creating public structures or social institutions that specialized in the accumulation and dissemination of knowledge.
For example, in order to preserve in memory all the richness of folklore, the priests of the Tohunga (Maori tribes of New Zealand) practiced for hours every day in the endless repetition of myths, genealogies, and traditions. In each tribe, special schools were created - “vare vananga” (houses of knowledge), in which the most knowledgeable people passed on the knowledge and experience of the tribe to the young people, introduced them to rituals and legends, and initiated them into the art of black magic and witchcraft. The young men spent many months at school, memorizing the spiritual heritage word for word. In wara vananga, young people were taught various crafts, agricultural practices, were introduced to the lunar calendar, and were taught to determine favorable dates for the start and completion of agricultural work by the stars. The full course of study at such a school took several years. Schools of this type existed not only among the Maori, but also among other tribes. The spread of such schools significantly accelerated the progress of mankind, made society more mobile and adapted to environmental changes.
The emergence of private property and the identification of the family as an economic community of people led to the isolation of teaching and educational functions and the transition from public education to the family, when the role of teacher began to be played not by the community, but by parents. The main goal of education was to raise a good owner, an heir capable of preserving and increasing the property accumulated by the parents as the basis of family well-being.
However, the thinkers of antiquity already realized that the material well-being of individual citizens and families depended on the power of the state. The latter can be achieved not by family, but by public forms of education. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, for example, considered it obligatory for children ruling class obtaining education in special government institutions. His views reflected the educational system that developed in ancient Sparta. State control over upbringing began from the first days of a child’s life. From the age of seven, boys were sent to boarding schools, where a harsh way of life was established. The main goal of education was to raise strong, resilient, disciplined and skillful warriors capable of selflessly defending the interests of slave owners. A similar education system existed in ancient Athens.
It should be noted that the strength of Sparta and Athens was largely due to the educational systems that developed in them, which provided high level culture of the population. The existence, along with the family, of state, temple and other forms of education was characteristic of many slave-owning societies.
The driving force behind the development of education during this period was its internal contradictions. The invention of writing and mathematical symbols not only revolutionized the methods of accumulation, storage and transmission of information, but also radically changed the content of education and teaching methods. Mastering the educational material required daily special classes for a number of years. To organize the exercise, people were needed who were prepared for this. Thus, there was a separation from the single process of reproduction public life spiritual reproduction - education carried out through training and education in institutions adapted for these purposes. This also meant a transition from non-institutional to institutional socialization.
Large schools existed already in the 3rd century. BC, for example, in Mesopotamia and Egypt. In them, each teacher taught his own subject: one - writing, another - mathematics, a third - religion and mythology, a fourth - dancing and music, a fifth - gymnastics, etc.
The Middle Ages in Western and Central Europe are characterized by the establishment of Christian religious ideology. Therefore, schools, as a rule, were opened and maintained by the church, taught by monks and priests. Their main goal there was the spread of religion, the strengthening of the influence of the church in society. In the largest schools, along with teaching reading, writing, counting, singing, and Latin, they studied geometry, astronomy, music, and rhetoric. Such schools trained not only church ministers, but also educated people for secular activities.
The increasing complexity of social life and the state mechanism required more and more educated people. City schools, which were independent of the church, began to train them. In the XII - XIII centuries. Universities appeared in Europe, quite autonomous in relation to feudal lords, the church and city magistrates. They trained doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, notaries, secretaries and government officials.
Increased social needs for educated people led to the abandonment of individual training and the transition to a classroom-lesson system in schools and a lecture-seminar system in universities. The use of these systems ensured organizational clarity and orderliness of the educational process and made it possible to transmit information simultaneously to tens and hundreds of people. This has increased the effectiveness of education tenfold, and it has become much more accessible to the majority of the population.
The development of education in the pre-capitalist era was determined by the needs of trade, navigation, and industry, but until relatively recently it did not have a significant impact on production and the economy. Many progressive thinkers saw only humanistic, educational value in education. The situation began to change as the large machine industry demanded a change in the old mode of production, thinking patterns and value systems. The development of mathematics, natural science, medicine, geography, astronomy and navigation, engineering, the need for the widespread use of scientific knowledge came into conflict with the traditional, predominantly humanitarian, content of education, the center of which was the study of ancient languages. The resolution of this contradiction is associated with the emergence of real colleges and technical schools, higher technical educational institutions.
Objective demands of production and the struggle of workers for the democratization of education already in the 19th century. led to the adoption of laws on compulsory primary education in the most developed countries.
Before the Second World War, to successfully master working professions, secondary education was required. This was manifested in an increase in the duration of compulsory schooling, expansion school programs at the expense of course scientific disciplines, the abolition of fees for primary and secondary school education in a number of countries. Incomplete and then complete secondary education becomes the main condition for the reproduction of the labor force.
Second half of the 20th century characterized by unprecedented coverage of children, youth and adults various forms education. This is the period of the so-called educational explosion. This became possible because automatic machines, replacing mechanical machines, changed the position of man in the production process. Life has raised the question of a new type of worker, who harmoniously combines in his production activities the functions of mental and physical, managerial and executive labor, constantly improving technology and organizational and economic relations. Education has become a necessary condition reproduction of the labor force. A person who does not have educational training today is virtually deprived of the opportunity to obtain a modern profession.
Thus, the separation of education into a specific branch of spiritual production, therefore, answered historical conditions and had a progressive meaning.
Education as a social phenomenon is, first of all, an objective social value. The moral, intellectual, scientific, technical, spiritual, cultural and economic potential of any society directly depends on the level of development of the educational sphere. However, education, having a social nature and historical character, in turn, is determined historical type society that implements this social function. It reflects the tasks of social development, the level of economy and culture in society, the nature of its political and ideological attitudes, since both teachers and students are subjects public relations.
So, education is like. a social phenomenon is a relatively independent system, the function of which is the training and education of members of society, focused on mastering certain knowledge (primarily scientific), ideological and moral values, abilities, skills, norms of behavior, the content of which is ultimately determined by socio-economic and the political system of a given society and the level of its material and technical development.

Education as a pedagogical process.
Conceptual apparatus of pedagogy

The formation of any field of scientific knowledge is associated with the development of concepts, which, on the one hand, indicate a certain class of essentially unified phenomena, and on the other, construct the subject of this science. In the conceptual apparatus of a particular science, one can single out one central concept that denotes the entire field under study and distinguishes it from the subject areas of other sciences. The remaining concepts of the apparatus of a particular science, in turn, reflect the differentiation of the original, core concept.
For pedagogy, the role of such a core concept is played by the “pedagogical process.” It, on the one hand, denotes the entire complex of phenomena that are studied by pedagogy, and on the other hand, it expresses the essence of these phenomena. Analysis of the concept of “pedagogical process” therefore reveals the essential features of the phenomena of education as a pedagogical process, in contrast to other related phenomena.
In its first approximation to the definition, the pedagogical process is a movement from the goals of education to its results by ensuring the unity of teaching and upbringing. The essential characteristic of the pedagogical process is therefore integrity as the internal unity of its components, their relative autonomy.
The pedagogical process as an integrity can be considered from the perspective systematic approach, which allows us to see in it, first of all, a pedagogical system (Yu. K. Babansky). In pedagogical literature and educational practice, the concept of “system” is often used without regard to its real, true content. Often this concept is personified (for example, Makarenko’s system, Sukhomlinsky’s system, etc.), sometimes correlated with one or another level of education (system of preschool, school, vocational, higher education etc.) or even with the educational activities of a specific educational institution. However, the concept of “pedagogical system” goes beyond the narrowly understood personalization (B. G. Gershunsky). The fact is that, with all the originality, uniqueness and multiplicity of pedagogical systems, they obey the general law of the organizational structure and functioning of the system as a process.
In this regard, the pedagogical system must be understood as a multitude of interconnected structural components, united by a single educational goal of personal development and functioning in an integral pedagogical process. The structural components of the pedagogical system are fundamentally adequate to the components of the pedagogical process, also considered as a system.
The pedagogical process from this point of view is a specially organized interaction between teachers and pupils (pedagogical interaction) regarding the content of education using teaching and educational means (pedagogical means) in order to solve educational problems aimed both at meeting the needs of society and the individual himself in its development and self-development.
Any process is a sequential change from one state to another. In the pedagogical process, it is the result of pedagogical interaction. That is why pedagogical interaction is an essential characteristic of the pedagogical process. It, unlike any other interaction, is an intentional contact (long-term or temporary) between a teacher and students, the consequence of which is mutual changes in their behavior, activities and relationships.
Pedagogical interaction includes in unity pedagogical influence, its active perception and assimilation by the pupil and the latter’s own activity, manifested in reciprocal direct or indirect influences on the teacher and on himself (self-education). The concept of “pedagogical interaction” is therefore broader than “pedagogical influence”, “pedagogical influence” and even “pedagogical attitude”, which is a consequence of the interaction between teachers and students (Yu. K. Babansky).
This understanding of pedagogical interaction allows us to identify two most important components in the structure of both the pedagogical process and the pedagogical system - teachers and students, who are the most active elements. The activity of participants in pedagogical interaction allows us to talk about them as subjects of the pedagogical process, influencing its progress and results.
This approach contradicts the traditional understanding of the pedagogical process as a specially organized, purposeful, consistent, systematic and comprehensive influence on the student with the aim of forming a personality with given qualities. The traditional approach identifies the pedagogical process with the activity of a teacher, pedagogical activity - a special type of social (professional) activity aimed at realizing the goals of education: transferring from older generations to younger generations the culture and experience accumulated by humanity, creating conditions for them personal development and preparation for fulfilling certain social roles in society. This approach consolidates subject-object relationships in the pedagogical process.
It seems that the traditional approach is a consequence of the uncritical, and therefore mechanistic, transfer into pedagogy of the main postulate of management theory: if there is a subject of management, then there must also be an object. As a result, in pedagogy, the subject is the teacher, and the object, naturally, is considered to be a child, a schoolchild, or even an adult studying under someone’s guidance. The idea of ​​the pedagogical process as a subject-object relationship was consolidated as a result of the establishment of authoritarianism as a social phenomenon in the education system. But if the student is an object, then not the pedagogical process, but only pedagogical influences, i.e. external activities directed at him. By recognizing the student as a subject of the pedagogical process, humanistic pedagogy thereby affirms the priority of subject-subject relations in its structure.
The pedagogical process is carried out in specially organized conditions, which are associated primarily with the content and technology of pedagogical interaction. Thus, two more components of the pedagogical process and system are distinguished: the content of education and the means of education (material, technical and pedagogical - forms, methods, techniques).
The interrelations of such components of the system as teachers and students, the content of education and its means, give rise to the real pedagogical process as a dynamic system. They are necessary and sufficient for the emergence of any pedagogical system.
The determinant of the emergence of pedagogical systems is the goal of education as a set of requirements of society in the sphere of spiritual reproduction, as a social order.
Determinant - prerequisite,
In the content of education, it is interpreted pedagogically in connection with, for example, the age of the students, the level of their personal development, the development of the team, etc.
Thus, the goal, being an expression of the order of society and interpreted in pedagogical terms, acts as a system-forming factor, and not an element of the pedagogical system, i.e. external force in relation to it. The pedagogical system is created with a goal orientation. The ways (mechanisms) of functioning of the pedagogical system in the pedagogical process are training and education. The internal changes that occur both in the pedagogical system itself and in its subjects - teachers and students - depend on their pedagogical instrumentation.
Education is a specially organized activity of teachers and students to realize the goals of education in the conditions of the pedagogical process. Training is a specific method of education aimed at personal development through the organization of students’ assimilation scientific knowledge and methods of activity. Being an integral part of education, teaching differs from it in the degree of regulation of the pedagogical process by normative requirements of both content and organizational and technical terms. For example, the state standard (level) of educational content must be implemented in the learning process. Training is also limited by time frame ( academic year, lesson, etc.), requires certain technical and visual teaching aids, electronic and verbal-sign media (textbooks, computers, etc.).
Education and training as ways of implementing the pedagogical process are thus characterized by educational technologies (or pedagogical technologies), in which expedient and optimal steps, stages, stages of achieving the stated goals of education are recorded. Pedagogical technology is a consistent, interdependent system of teacher actions associated with the use of one or another set of methods of education and training and carried out in the pedagogical process in order to solve various pedagogical problems: structuring and specifying the goals of the pedagogical process; transforming the content of education and educational material; analysis of intersubject and intrasubject connections; selection of methods, means and organizational forms of the pedagogical process, etc.
It is the pedagogical task that is the unit of the pedagogical process, for the solution of which pedagogical interaction is organized at each specific stage. Pedagogical activity within the framework of any pedagogical system can therefore be presented as an interconnected sequence of solving countless problems of varying levels of complexity, which inevitably includes students in interaction with teachers. The pedagogical task is a materialized situation of education and training ( pedagogical situation), characterized by the interaction of teachers and students with a specific goal. Thus, the “moments” of the pedagogical process can be traced from the joint solution of one problem to another.
Education and training determine the qualitative characteristics of education - the results of the pedagogical process, reflecting the degree of realization of the goals of education. In turn, the results of education as a pedagogical process are related to future-oriented strategies for the development of education.

The connection between pedagogy and other sciences and its structure

The place of pedagogy in the system of human sciences can be revealed in the process of considering its connections with other sciences. Throughout the entire period of its existence, it was closely connected with many sciences, which had an ambiguous influence on its formation and development. Some of these relationships arose a long time ago, even at the stages of identifying and formalizing pedagogy as a science, others are more recent formations. Among the first, connections between pedagogy and philosophy and psychology were formed, which today are a necessary condition for the development of pedagogical theory and practice.
The connection between pedagogy and philosophy is the most long-lasting and productive, since philosophical ideas produced the creation of pedagogical concepts and theories, set the perspective of pedagogical search and served as its methodological basis.
Interpretations of the connections between philosophy and pedagogy were of a rather rigid oppositional nature. On the one hand, pedagogy was considered a “testing ground” for the application and testing of philosophical ideas. In this case, it was considered as a practical philosophy. On the other hand, attempts have been made repeatedly to abandon philosophy in pedagogy.
Today, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to pedagogy is generally recognized, which is completely legitimate and is determined by the very essence of philosophical knowledge, ideological in nature and corresponding to the tasks being solved in understanding the place of man in the world. The direction of pedagogical search and the determination of the essential, target and technological characteristics of the educational process depend on the system of philosophical views (existential, pragmatic, neo-positivist, materialistic, etc.) that pedagogy researchers adhere to.
In addition, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to any science, including pedagogy, is manifested in the fact that it develops a system general principles and methods of scientific knowledge. The process of obtaining pedagogical knowledge is subject to the general laws of scientific knowledge studied by philosophy.
Philosophy is also a theoretical platform for understanding pedagogical experience and creating pedagogical concepts.
The connection between pedagogy and psychology is the most traditional. Requirements to understand properties human nature, its natural needs and capabilities, take into account mechanisms, laws mental activity and personal development, to build education (training and upbringing), in accordance with these laws, properties, needs, opportunities, were put forward by all outstanding teachers.
However, when analyzing the connections between pedagogy and psychology, it is important to distinguish between psychologism as a methodological position and psychology as a science, which was and remains the most important source of scientific substantiation of the educational process (V. V. Kraevsky). Psychologism is manifested in the fact that psychology is declared to be the only scientific basis, guiding teaching practice. However, as V.V. Davydov notes, although psychology should be taken into account, it is “not a dictator,” since the lives of teachers and children are determined by social and pedagogical conditions that determine the psychological patterns of personality development. These patterns are of a specific historical nature, and therefore, when social and pedagogical conditions change, the patterns of personality development also change. The connections between pedagogy and other sciences are not limited to philosophy and psychology, the common point of which is the study of man as an individual. Pedagogy is closely connected with the sciences that study him as an individual. These are sciences such as biology (human anatomy and physiology), anthropology and medicine.
The problem of the relationship between natural and social factors of human development is one of the central ones for pedagogy. It is also the most important for biology, which studies individual development person.
Pedagogy, considering man as a natural and social being, could not help but use the potential that accumulated in anthropology as a science that integrates knowledge about the phenomenon of man into a single theoretical construct that considers the nature of a conventional man in his multidimensionality and diversity.
Anthropology is a science that comprehensively studies biological nature person.
The connection between pedagogy and medicine led to the emergence of correctional pedagogy as a special branch of pedagogical knowledge, the subject of which is the education of children with acquired or congenital developmental disorders. It develops, in conjunction with medicine, a system of means by which a therapeutic effect is achieved and socialization processes are facilitated, compensating for existing defects.
The development of pedagogy is also associated with the sciences that study man in society, in the system of his social connections and relationships. Therefore, it is no coincidence that fairly stable interactions began to be established between pedagogy, sociology, economics, political science and other social sciences.
The relationship between pedagogy and economic sciences is complex and ambiguous. Economic policy has at all times been a necessary condition for the development of an educated society. Economic stimulation of scientific research in this field of knowledge remains an important factor in the development of pedagogy. The connection of these sciences served to isolate such a branch of knowledge as the economics of education, the subject of which is the specificity of action economic laws in the field of education.
The connections between pedagogy and sociology are also traditional, since both the first and second are concerned with planning education, identifying the main trends in the development of certain groups or segments of the population, the patterns of socialization and education of the individual in various social institutions.
The connection between pedagogy and political science is due to the fact that educational policy has always been a reflection of the ideology of the ruling parties and classes. Pedagogy seeks to identify the conditions and mechanisms for the formation of a person as a subject political consciousness, the ability to assimilate political ideas and attitudes.
An analysis of the connections between pedagogy and other sciences allows us to identify the following forms (R. G. Gurova):
the use by pedagogy of basic ideas, theoretical provisions, generalizing the conclusions of other sciences;
creative borrowing of research methods used in these sciences;
application in pedagogy of specific research results obtained in psychology, higher physiology nervous activity, sociology and other sciences;
participation of pedagogy in complex human research.
The development of connections between pedagogy and other sciences leads to the identification of new branches of pedagogy - borderline scientific disciplines. Today, pedagogy is a complex system of pedagogical sciences. Its structure includes:
general pedagogy, exploring the basic patterns of education;
age-related pedagogy- preschool, school pedagogy, adult pedagogy, studying age-related aspects of education and upbringing;
correctional pedagogy- deaf pedagogy (training and education of the deaf and hard of hearing), typhlopedagogy (training and education of the blind and visually impaired), oligophrenopedagogy (training and education of the mentally retarded and children with mental retardation), speech therapy (education and education of children with speech impairments);
private methods- subject didactics, exploring the specifics of applying general principles of learning to the teaching of individual subjects;
history of pedagogy and education, which studies the development of pedagogical ideas and educational practices in various historical eras;

industrial pedagogy(military, sports, higher education, industrial, etc.).

The process of differentiation in pedagogical science continues. IN last years Its branches such as philosophy of education, comparative pedagogy, social pedagogy, etc. are making themselves known.

Mukhmatulina Alina 21 LiLR

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Pedagogy in the system of human sciences.

The word "pedagogy" is of Greek origin. This science got its name from the Greek word “paidagos” (paid - beat, gogos - lead). Literally translated it means “child breeding” or “child breeding”.

Pedagogy is the science of education.

The need to transfer social experience to younger generations arose simultaneously with the emergence of society and will exist at all stages of its development.

Teachers were originally slaves who accompanied their master's children to school. Later, teachers were civilian people who were engaged in instructing and teaching children.

Education is a process of targeted influence, the purpose of which is the accumulation by a child of the social experience necessary for life in society and the formation of a value system accepted by society.

Where there is education, the driving forces of development, age, typological and individual characteristics of those being educated are taken into account. Where there is education, the positive influences of the microenvironment are used to their full potential and the negative influences of the microenvironment are weakened. Where there is education, a person is sooner capable of self-education.

The process of education is aimed at the formation of socially important qualities of the individual, at creating and expanding the range of his relationships with the surrounding world - with society, with people, with himself. The wider, more diverse and deeper a person’s system of relationships to various aspects of life, the richer his own spiritual world.

It must be said that already in the ancient world, many public figures and thinkers were well aware and pointed out the enormous role of education, both in the development of society and in the life of every person. For example, according to the laws of Solon (between 640 and 635 - ca. 559 BC), it was necessary for the father to take care of the special training of his sons in one or another field of labor.

The formation and development of pedagogy as a science – the pre-scientific and scientific periods of its development.

Pre-scientific period. As education expanded and became more complex, a special branch of theoretical knowledge related to educational activities began to be developed more intensively. This branch of knowledge, as well as knowledge in other spheres of life and production, was first developed in the depths of philosophy. Already in the works of ancient Greek philosophers - Heraclitus (530-470 BC), Democritus (460-early 4th century BC), Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) and others - contained many deep thoughts on issues of education. The term “pedagogy” also originates from ancient Greece, which has become the name of the science of education.

Issues of education also occupied a significant place in the works of ancient Roman philosophers and orators. Interesting pedagogical ideas, for example, were expressed by Lucretius Car (c. 99-55 BC), Quintilian (42-118 BC) and others.

In the Middle Ages, problems of education were developed by philosopher-theologians, whose pedagogical ideas had a religious overtones and were permeated with church dogma.

Pedagogical thought received further development in the works of thinkers of the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries). The most prominent figures of this era are the Italian humanist Vittorio da Feltre (1378-1446), the Spanish philosopher and teacher Juan Vives (1442-1540), the Dutch thinker Erasmus of Rotterdam (1465-1536), etc.

They criticized the rote learning that flourished in education, and advocated a humane attitude towards children and the liberation of the individual from the shackles of oppression.

Scientific period. Despite the intensive development of educational theory, pedagogy continued to remain a part of philosophy. As a special science, pedagogy was first isolated from the system of philosophical knowledge at the beginning of the 17th century. Most researchers associate the establishment of pedagogy as an independent scientific discipline with the name of the great Czech teacher John Amos Comenius (1592-1670). The principles, methods, and forms of organizing educational work with children and moral education that he formulated became integral elements of subsequent scientific and pedagogical systems.

The works of such prominent figures as J. J. Rousseau (1712-1778), D. Diderot (1713-1784), C. A. Helvetius (1715-1771) in France, John Locke (1632) were invaluable for the development of scientific pedagogy. -1704) in England, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) in Switzerland, Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg (1790-1866) and Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) in Germany.

The founders of revolutionary demographic views in Russian pedagogy were V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870), N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) and V. A. Dobrolyubov (1836- 1861). The development of domestic scientific pedagogy was greatly influenced by the works of L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), N. I. Pirogov (1810-1881). A holistic, systematized disclosure of domestic pedagogical ideas was given in the works of K. D. Ushinsky (1824-1870). Great contributions to the development of Soviet pedagogy were made by N. K. Krupskaya (1869-1939), A. V. Lunacharsky (1875-1933), M. I. Kalinin (1875-1946), A. S. Makarenko (1888-1939) , V. A. Sukhomlinsky (1918-1970).

The fact that pedagogy has produced such a large number of major teachers is not accidental. Society with its intensive development of production, science and culture required increasing the literacy of the main producers.

Without this it could not develop. Therefore, the number of educational institutions is growing, the network of public schools is expanding, providing the necessary training to children, special educational institutions for training teachers are opening, and pedagogy is beginning to be taught as a special scientific discipline. All this gave a great impetus to the development of pedagogical theory.

The object and subject of pedagogy in the modern understanding.

Object of pedagogy. A. S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is “pedagogical fact (phenomenon).” At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy. Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. So, for example, an economist, studying the level of real capabilities of the “labor resources” produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their training. A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question of the goals and general purpose of education - what they are today and what they should be in the modern world. A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

The subject of pedagogy is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life.

On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

The structure of pedagogy: areas and branches of pedagogy, their characteristics.

Today, pedagogy is a complex system of pedagogical sciences. Its structure includes:

General pedagogy, which studies the basic laws of education;

Age-related pedagogy - preschool, school pedagogy, adult pedagogy - studying age-related aspects of training and education;

Correctional pedagogy - deaf pedagogy (training and education of the deaf and hard of hearing): typhlopedagogy (training and education of the blind and visually impaired), oligophrenopedagogy (training and education of the mentally retarded and children with mental retardation), speech therapy (education and education of children with speech impairments);

Particular methods (subject didactics), exploring the specifics of applying general principles of learning to the teaching of individual subjects;

History of pedagogy and education, which studies the development of pedagogical ideas and educational practices in different eras;

Industry pedagogy (general, military, sports, higher education, industrial, etc.)

The process of differentiation in pedagogical science continues. In recent years, such branches of pedagogy as philosophy of education, comparative pedagogy, social pedagogy, etc. have made themselves known.

The development of any field of scientific knowledge is associated with the development of concepts, which, on the one hand, indicate a certain class of essentially unified phenomena, and on the other, construct ut subject of this science. In the conceptual apparatus of a particular science, one can single out one central concept, which denotes no the entire field under study and distinguishes it from the subject areas of other sciences. The remaining concepts of the apparatus of a particular science, in turn, reflect the differentiation of the original, core concept.

A system of concepts, presented in their interrelation with each other, is nothing more than one developed concept that expresses the essence of the subject of a given science. For pedagogy, the role of such a core concept is played by the pedagogical process. It, on the one hand, denotes the entire complex of phenomena that are studied by pedagogy, and on the other hand, it expresses the essence of these phenomena. Analysis of the concept of “pedagogical process” therefore reveals the essential features of the phenomena of education as a pedagogical Process, in contrast to other related phenomena.

First of all, we note that since education as a subject of pedagogy is a pedagogical process, the phrases “educational process” and “pedagogical process” will be synonymous. In its first approximation to the definition, the pedagogical process is a movement from the goals of education to its results by ensuring the unity of teaching and upbringing. Its essential characteristic therefore is integrity as the internal unity of its components, their relative autonomy.

Consideration of the pedagogical process as an integrity is possible from the standpoint of a systems approach, which allows us to see in it, first of all, a system - a pedagogical system (Yu.K. Babansky).

The pedagogical system must be understood as a multitude of interconnected structural components, united by a single educational goal of personal development and functioning in a holistic pedagogical process.

The pedagogical process, therefore, is a specially organized interaction between teachers and students (pedagogical interaction) regarding the content of education using teaching and educational means (pedagogical means) in order to solve educational problems aimed at meeting the needs of both society and the individual himself in its development and self-development.

Any process is a sequential change from one state to another. In the pedagogical process, it is the result of pedagogical interaction. That is why pedagogical interaction is an essential characteristic of the pedagogical process. It, unlike any other interaction, is an intentional contact (long-term or temporary) between a teacher and students (pupil), the consequence of which is mutual changes in their behavior, activities and relationships.

Pedagogical interaction includes in unity the pedagogical influence, its active perception and assimilation by the student and the latter’s own activity, manifested in reciprocal direct or indirect influences on the teacher and on himself (self-education). The concept of “pedagogical interaction” is therefore broader than pedagogical influence, pedagogical influence and even pedagogical attitude, which is a consequence of the very interaction between teachers and students (Yu.K. Babansky).

This understanding of pedagogical interaction allows us to identify two most important components in the structure of both the pedagogical process and the pedagogical system - teachers And pupils, serving as their most active elements.

Subjects of the pedagogical process influencing its progress and results.

The traditional approach identifies the pedagogical process with the activity of a teacher, pedagogical activity - a special type of social (professional) activity aimed at realizing the goals of education: transferring from older generations to younger generations the culture and experience accumulated by humanity, creating conditions for their personal development and preparation for fulfilling certain social roles in society. This approach consolidates subject-object relationships in the pedagogical process.

It seems that it is a consequence of the uncritical, and therefore mechanistic, transfer into pedagogy of the main postulate of management theory: if there is a subject of management, then there must also be an object. As a result, in pedagogy, the subject is the teacher, and the object, naturally, is considered to be a child, a schoolchild, or even an adult studying under someone’s guidance. The idea of ​​the pedagogical process as a subject-object relationship was consolidated as a result of the establishment of authoritarianism as a social phenomenon in the education system. But if the student is an object, then not of the pedagogical process, but only of pedagogical influences, that is, external activity directed at him. By recognizing the student as a subject of the pedagogical process, humanistic pedagogy thereby affirms the priority of subject-subject relations in its structure.

The pedagogical process is carried out in specially organized conditions, which are associated primarily with the content and technology of pedagogical interaction. Thus, two more components of the pedagogical process and system are distinguished: the content of education and the means of education (material, technical and pedagogical - forms, methods, techniques).

The interrelations of such components of the system as teachers and students, the content of education and its means, give rise to the real pedagogical process as a dynamic system. They are necessary and sufficient for the emergence of any pedagogical system (A.I. Mishchenko).

The goal of education as a set of requirements of society in the field of spiritual reproduction, as a social order, is a determinant (prerequisite) for the emergence of pedagogical systems. Within the framework of these systems, it becomes an immanent (internal) characteristic of the content of education. In it, it is interpreted pedagogically in connection with taking into account, for example, the age of the students, the level of their personal development and the development of the team, etc. It is present in explicit and implicit form in the means, and in the teacher and students, the goal of education functions at the level of its awareness and manifestation in activity.

The goal, noted P.K. Anokhin, mediating real activity, not only characterizes its overall result, but also, as a law, determines the method and nature of human actions. The subjects of the pedagogical process represent the unity of purpose and activity, “the mode of transition from society to the individual” And vice versa.

Thus, the goal, being an expression of the order of society and interpreted in pedagogical terms, acts as a system-forming factor, and not an element of the pedagogical system, i.e. a force external to it.

It should be noted that the relationship between the concepts of “education” and “upbringing” is the subject of many discussions. However, the controversy surrounding this issue appears to be unproductive. It's all about the context and meaning in which they are used. Frequent use of the words “education” in literature And“education” as denoting opposite sides of the pedagogical process is not correct. Education How The purposeful process of socialization in any case includes education. However, the focus of education How The pedagogical process depends on the methods (mechanisms) of its implementation, and this is already the prerogative of education And training.

Consequently, education is a specially organized activity of teachers and students to realize the goals of education in the conditions of the pedagogical process. Training is a specific method of education aimed at personal development through organizing students’ acquisition of scientific knowledge and methods of activity.

Education and training constitute educational technologies, which record the appropriate steps, stages, stages of achieving the stated goals of education. Pedagogical technology is a consistent, interdependent system of actions of a teacher associated with the use of one or another set of methods of education and training carried out in the pedagogical process in order to solve various pedagogical problems.

A pedagogical task is a materialized situation of education and training, characterized by the interaction of teachers and students with a specific goal.

The structure of pedagogical science. System of pedagogical sciences

Developing, every science enriches its theory, fills

This process also affected pedagogy. Currently the concept

“pedagogy” refers to a whole system of pedagogical sciences. .

Pedagogy as a science is divided into a number of independent

pedagogical disciplines:

1. general pedagogy, explores basic patterns

human upbringing; reveals the essence, goals, objectives and

patterns of education, its role in the life of society and development

personality, the process of education and training.

2. age-related pedagogy studying characteristics

educating people on various stages age development; it is divided into pre-level (vocational, higher education and

3. special pedagogy – defectology, studying

features of development, training and education of abnormal children. which

in turn, breaks down into a number of branches: issues

is engaged in the upbringing and education of deaf and dumb children

deaf pedagogy, blind and visually impaired - typhlopedagogy, mentally retarded - oligophrenopedagogy, children with speech disorders with normal

hearing therapy;

4.private technique that studies the specifics of the application

general patterns of learning to teach

a certain subject ( foreign language, mathematics, biology, physics,

chemistry, etc.);

5. history of pedagogy, studying development

pedagogical ideas and practices of education in various historical

Such industries are intensively developing as independent

pedagogical science, as pedagogy of vocational education, pedagogy

higher education, military pedagogy, corrective labor pedagogy.

Such parts of pedagogy as school science, pedagogy are taking shape

family education, pedagogy of children's and youth organizations,

pedagogy of cultural and educational work.

The relationship between pedagogy and other areas of knowledge.

Pedagogy has very extensive and strong connections with various areas of human knowledge. Throughout its existence, pedagogy was closely connected with many sciences that influenced its formation and development.

Pedagogy and philosophy. This relationship is the most long-lasting and productive. Philosophical ideas produced the creation of new pedagogical concepts and theories, set the direction of pedagogical search and served as the methodological basis of pedagogy.

The connection between philosophy and pedagogy is dual. At times, pedagogy was recognized as a “testing ground” for the application and testing of philosophical ideas. In this case, it was considered as a practical philosophy. On the other hand, attempts have been made repeatedly to abandon philosophy in pedagogy. The dominance of these trends makes itself felt in modern ideas about the relationship between pedagogy and philosophy.

Thus, at various stages of development, pedagogy either abruptly broke off centuries-old connections and traditions, or, on the contrary, persistently turned to philosophy when more or less deep theoretical support was required. Periods of combining pedagogy with philosophy were followed by periods of fierce struggle. Stages of long-term indifference of these two sciences to each other were also noted.

The current state of these relations is also ambiguous. Among pedagogical researchers there are both consistent adherents of maintaining connections with philosophy, and, on the contrary, supporters of a complete rejection of it when studying pedagogical phenomena and patterns.

The direction of pedagogical search and the determination of the essential, target and technological characteristics of the educational process depend on the philosophical theory (existential, pragmatic, neo-positivist, materialistic, etc.) that pedagogy researchers adhere to. The methodological (guiding) function of philosophy in relation to any science, including pedagogy, is manifested in the fact that it develops a system of general principles and methods of scientific knowledge. Philosophy is a theoretical platform for understanding pedagogical experience and creating pedagogical concepts. Pedagogy cannot acquire the status of a science through experimentation and generalization of experience without their philosophical justification.

Pedagogy and psychology. The connection between these sciences is the most traditional. Pedagogy, in order to become a true science and effectively guide the activities of a teacher, must know a person and his characteristics. This was noted more than three centuries ago by the founder of pedagogy, J. A. Komensky. All outstanding teachers spoke about the need to understand the properties of human nature, its natural needs and capabilities, to take into account the mechanisms, laws of mental activity and personality development. It is possible to build education (training and upbringing) only in accordance with these properties, needs, and capabilities.

Initially, the relationship between pedagogy and psychology seemed very simple to many. If psychology reveals the “mechanisms of the soul,” then one can directly deduce from it how the child’s soul should be formed in accordance with the purpose of education. However, the connections between pedagogy and psychology turned out to be not as simple as previously thought.

For a long time, pedagogy, along with philosophy, also used psychology as a theoretical basis for the results of pedagogical research. Moreover, the most outstanding teachers of the past were primarily philosophers and psychologists.

The famous psychologist V.V. Davydov most accurately defines the connection between pedagogy and psychology. He argues that psychology must be taken into account, but it is “not a dictator.” He explained this by the fact that the lives of teachers and children are determined by social conditions. And the patterns of human development are of a specific historical nature and therefore, when social conditions change, they also change. And consequently, the patterns of the processes of training and education change.

Speaking about the connection between pedagogy and psychology, it is necessary to emphasize their two-sidedness. For a long period, these two sciences have provided mutual influence Each other. Significant changes in one immediately began to affect the other.

Pedagogy and biological sciences. Pedagogy is closely connected with the biological sciences, which study it as a biological species. These are sciences such as biology (human anatomy and physiology) and medicine. The problem of the relationship between natural and social factors of human development is one of the central ones for pedagogy, and biology helps to solve it.

A number of questions, the answers to which only biology can give, are relevant for modern pedagogy: what is determined by heredity in a person, what is the role of natural factors in individual experience, etc. Answers to these questions expand the range of tasks within the competence of pedagogy, since they allow us to determine biological reasons and conditions for achieving pedagogical influences.

Pedagogy and economics. The relationship between pedagogy and economic sciences is complex and ambiguous. Economic laws, with the help of which the state plans the development of all sectors of the economy, also apply to education. The system of economic measures carried out by the state had an inhibitory or activating effect on education and its demand by society, which, in turn, affected the development of pedagogical ideas and pedagogical science as an independent discipline.

Consequently, economic policy has at all times been a necessary condition for the development of an educated society. Economic stimulation of scientific research in this field of knowledge remains an important factor in the development of pedagogy.

Pedagogy and sociology. The connections between pedagogy and sociology are also traditional, since both the first and second are engaged in planning education, identifying the main trends in the development of certain groups or segments of the population, and the upbringing and development of people in various social institutions.

Summarizing the question of the connection between pedagogy and other human sciences, it is necessary to note the following:

it is impossible to derive a system of pedagogical knowledge from any one science;

Data from other sciences are necessary for the development of pedagogical theory and practical recommendations, but are not sufficient;

the same data (for example, from psychology or physiology) can be used in different and even opposite ways, depending on what goals are realized in the educational process;

Pedagogy does not simply borrow and use data from other sciences, but processes them in order to understand the pedagogical process more fully and deeply and develop ways of its optimal organization.

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Subject and object of pedagogy

Introduction

1. Basic concepts of pedagogy

2. Object of pedagogy

3. Subject of pedagogy

4. Connection of pedagogy with other sciences

5. Development of pedagogy as a science

6. Methods scientific research

Conclusion

Bibliography

person personality individuality pedagogical science

Introduction

Modern pedagogy occupies a special place in the system of human sciences. It studies and solves problems of upbringing, training, education and development of a person that arise at different stages of his life in various conditions of socio-economic and scientific and technological development a society that constantly poses new challenges in the field of education and upbringing.

The subject of pedagogy is the holistic humanistic process of upbringing and education, the development of a socially active personality, preparing him for life and work, social activity, taking into account the socio-economic situation in the country.

The object of study and research in pedagogy is the real process of transferring the socio-historical experience and culture of mankind to a new generation, ways of increasing it, humanistic education, training and education of a person at different stages of his life, the formation of social and interpersonal relationships.

The peculiarity of the subject and object of pedagogy is that in the first place comes, firstly, the process of forming highly humanistic relationships between the teacher and students, including mutual trust, respect, mutual exactingness, concern for the comprehensive development of everyone, taking into account individuality, and, secondly, secondly, the organization of the educational process, which would ensure the creative assimilation of social experience and modern culture in the main types of activity (man, technology, familiar system, nature, art education), the development of a creative personality, as well as humanization, democratization and humanitarization of training and education.

1. Basic concepts of pedagogy

Three fundamental concepts of pedagogy: education, training and education. The question of their relationship is controversial, but historically, upbringing includes training and education. Personality formation is a process of development and formation in the specific conditions of society.

Personality- the social essence of a person, acquired in the course of communication and activity and expressed in achieving the required level of activity and self-awareness.

The relationship between MAN - PERSONALITY - INDIVIDUALITY: a person is a biological entity, a person is a social entity, individuality is the originality and uniqueness inherent in both biological and social entities.

Personality formation- the process of personality formation as a result of the objective influence of heredity, environment, targeted education and the individual’s own activity.

Development- an objective process of internal consistent quantitative and qualitative changes in the physical, mental and spiritual forces of a person, ensuring the realization of his life potential, essence and purpose.

Driving forces of development: internal contradictions between the capabilities of the individual and his needs, external contradictions between the capabilities of the individual and the requirements of society.

Development factors: internal (hereditary genotype, psychophysiological properties), external (upbringing, environment).

Upbringing - transfer of historical and cultural experience from generation to generation. Educational relationships are a type of relationship between people aimed at human development through upbringing, education, and training. Self-education - the process of a person’s assimilation of the experience of previous generations through internal mental factors that ensure development.

Education - personal culture, the process of introducing a person to the values ​​of science, art, religion, morality, law, economics. Education is the basis for personal development. Gessen Sergei Iosifovich (1887-1950): “Genuine education does not lie in the transfer of cultural content, which is a feature of the educational generation, but only in communicating to it that movement, continuing which it could develop its own new content of culture.” The formation of a creative personality according to Hesse as the main goal of education.

Education

formation of a person’s way of thinking and acting in society.

the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities.

Self-education - a system of internal self-organization for assimilating the experience of generations, aimed at one’s own development.

Education

two-way process of learning and teaching

the process of transferring and assimilating knowledge, abilities, skills, methods cognitive activity.

Teaching - the child discovers the world. Teaching - guidance of the pedagogical process of the child’s cognitive and educational activities.

Thus, pedagogical activity includes managing the student’s activities and managing the process of interaction with the student.

Self-study- the process of a person directly gaining generational experience through his own aspirations and his own chosen means. Contents of education - a system of knowledge, skills and abilities, mastery of which lays the foundation for the development and formation of a person’s personality.

Enlightenment - dissemination of scientific knowledge about man and the world as a whole (in the 20th century, education was expressed in the form of dissemination of knowledge in the fields of economics, law and justice, art, pedagogy and psychology).

Education system - There is general and special education. General - primary and secondary (knowledge, abilities and skills necessary for everyone). Special - secondary special and higher (knowledge, abilities and skills necessary for a certain profession).

Pedagogical problem - a question that objectively arose in pedagogical theory and practice regarding the processes of teaching and upbringing.

Pedagogical task - the result of the teacher’s awareness of the purpose of teaching or education, as well as the conditions and methods of its implementation in practice (translation from “ignorance” to “knowledge”, from “misunderstanding” to “understanding”, etc.).

Pedagogical activity is defined as the solution of pedagogical problems. Because Pedagogical activity is joint (the profession “person” - “person”), then it is built according to the laws of interaction between teacher and student.

2. Object of pedagogy

A.S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is the “pedagogical fact (phenomenon).” At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.
Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

3. Subject of pedagogy

Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. For example, an economist, studying the level of real capabilities of the “labor resources” produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their training. A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question about the goals and general purpose of education - what are they today and what should they be in the modern world? A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

4. The connection between pedagogy and other sciences

Modern pedagogy has come a long way in development and has turned into an extensive system of scientific knowledge with clearly defined branches, of which there are about 20 (the number may vary).

All of them are “subsidiaries” and are generally based on the structure and principles of general pedagogy. They are divided into general pedagogical and functional:

General pedagogical:

· Preschool pedagogy.

· Special pedagogy (defectology).

· School pedagogy.

· Pedagogy of the deaf (deaf and mute).

· Typhlopedagogy (blind, visually impaired).

· Oligophrenopedagogy.

· Comparative pedagogy stands out separately (comparing teacher education systems in different countries ah) and the history of pedagogy.

Functional:

Pedagogy of higher schools (technical colleges).

Pedagogy of vocational and technical education.

Military pedagogy.

Engineering.

· Medical.

· Cultural and educational.

· Pedagogy of advanced training.

Connection with other sciences that study man: philosophy, social psychology, ethics, aesthetics, physiological genetics, hygiene and all sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology).

The connection between pedagogy and philosophy is the most long-lasting and productive, since philosophical ideas produced the creation of pedagogical concepts and theories, set the perspective of pedagogical search and served as its methodological basis.

Interpretations of the connections between philosophy and pedagogy were of a rather rigid oppositional nature. On the one hand, pedagogy was considered a “testing ground” for the application and testing of philosophical ideas. In this case, it was considered as a practical philosophy. On the other hand, attempts have been made repeatedly to abandon philosophy in pedagogy.

Today, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to pedagogy is generally recognized, which is completely legitimate and is determined by the very essence of philosophical knowledge, ideological in nature, and the tasks being solved in understanding man’s place in the world, identifying his relationships with the world. The direction of pedagogical search and the determination of the essential, target and technological characteristics of the educational process depend on the system of philosophical views (existential, pragmatic, neo-positivist, materialistic, etc.) that pedagogy researchers adhere to.

The connection between pedagogy and psychology is the most traditional. Pedagogy, in order to become a true science and effectively guide the activities of a teacher, must take into account the reality with which a person deals in his unique and specific development. This was noted more than three centuries ago by the founder of pedagogy, Ya.A. Comenius. He wrote that even a carpenter, in order to make a table, must know and take into account the type of wood, its properties, and processing methods. Is a person really so simpler than a tree that some teachers consider it possible to “shape” him without knowing either the nature, the properties of his soul, or the methods of influencing it.

Initially, the relationship between pedagogy and psychology seemed very simple to many. If psychology reveals the “mechanisms of the soul,” then one can directly deduce from it how the child’s soul should be formed in accordance with the purpose of education. This is explained by the fact that pedagogy, until it had sufficiently accumulated its own scientific content, used psychology as a theoretical basis for pedagogical practice. Moreover, the most outstanding teachers of the past were primarily philosophers and psychologists. The connections between pedagogy and other sciences are not limited to philosophy and psychology, the common point of which is the study of man as an individual. Pedagogy is closely connected with the sciences that study him as an individual. These are sciences such as biology (human anatomy and physiology), anthropology and medicine.

The connection between pedagogy and medicine led to the emergence of correctional pedagogy as a special branch of pedagogical knowledge, the subject of which is the education of children with acquired or congenital developmental disorders. It develops, in conjunction with medicine, a system of means by which a therapeutic effect is achieved and positions, roles, and values ​​are acquired that facilitate socialization processes that compensate for existing defects or reduce their severity.

The development of pedagogy is also associated with the sciences that study man in society, in the system of his social connections and relationships. Therefore, it is no coincidence that fairly stable interactions began to be established between pedagogy, psychology, sociology, economics, political science and other social sciences.

The relationship between pedagogy and economic sciences is complex and ambiguous. Economic policy has at all times been a necessary condition for the development of an educated society. Economic stimulation of scientific research in this field of knowledge remains an important factor in the development of pedagogy. The connection of these sciences served to isolate such a branch of knowledge as the economics of education, the subject of which is the specifics of the operation of economic laws in the field of education.

The connections between pedagogy and sociology are also traditional, since both the first and second are concerned with planning education, identifying the main trends in the development of certain groups or segments of the population, the patterns of socialization and education of the individual in various social institutions. The connection between pedagogy and political science is due to the fact that educational policy has always been a reflection of the ideology of the ruling parties and classes, reproducing it in conceptual schemes and theories. Pedagogy seeks to identify the conditions and mechanisms of a person’s formation as a subject of political consciousness, the possibility of assimilating political ideas, attitudes, and a political worldview.

School - from Greek. - “leisure” - rest from work. In Dr. In Greece, the conversations of the most experienced were called schools, knowledgeable people with children and teenagers.

Today, school is a special educational institution.

With the development of society, the education system developed and changed. In the heyday of the primitive communal system, with the division of society, the nature and content of education was determined depending on the property status of people. Education was divided into mental and physical.

Slave system. In Ancient Greece, education acts in the hands of the ruling class as a tool for establishing and strengthening class positions.

Feudal society. Two ruling classes: the clergy (church feudal lords) and the nobility (secular feudal lords). Each class creates its own system of upbringing and education. The content and methodology of church education stemmed from the task of equipping a person with knowledge of the dogmas of the church, which provided religious illumination of the feudal system. Secular feudal lords were brought up in a spirit of contempt for physical labor and serfs. Despite the differences, both of these systems served the same purpose: strengthening and preserving the feudal serf system.

Capitalist system. The bourgeoisie needs people capable of managing production under technical conditions, and the workers are also fighting to get an education. Education is divided into 2 systems:

· Public education system for workers (lower school, vocational education).

· Education for the privileged class (classical gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges).

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

The subject of pedagogy is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life.

On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it carries out in organic unity.

The theoretical function of pedagogy is implemented at three levels:

descriptive, or explanatory - the study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;

diagnostic - identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;

prognostic - experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality.

The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.

The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation: projective, associated with the development of appropriate methodological materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and defining the “normative or regulatory” plan of pedagogical activity, its content and character;

transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction; reflexive, which involves assessing the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practical activity.

5 . Development of pedagogy as a science

I period - pedagogical knowledge of the pre-scientific period, systematized on the basis of empirical experience of upbringing and education in the form of folk wisdom of generations. IN modern conditions the system of this knowledge is referred to as folk pedagogy, the basis of which is family education, public education, folk art, folk wisdom(aphorisms, catchphrases, commandments, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, traditions and customs).

Period II - the emergence of theoretical pedagogical concepts for building an integral system of secular education. This period is characterized primarily by pedagogical ideas and provisions contained in the philosophical systems of antiquity. We find thoughts about the upbringing of a person, the formation of his personality in the philosophical works of Confucius ( Ancient China), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Democritus ( Ancient Greece), Quintiliana (Ancient Rome).

During the Middle Ages, pedagogical ideas developed within the framework of theology - theology. At this time, Thomism arose (Thomas Aquinas), which was later reflected in the works of philosophical thought in many Western countries.

During the Renaissance, pedagogical thoughts about education were reflected in the works of the philosophers of early socialism-utopianism F. Rabelais, M. De Montaigne, G. More, T. Campanella, de Filtre.

Pedagogy as a science was isolated from philosophy at the beginning of the 18th century by the English philosopher Francis Bacon. In the work “On the Dignity and Augmentation of the Sciences,” listing existing sciences, also named pedagogy as a separate science.

But the independent development of pedagogy as a science is associated with the name of Jan Amos, Comenius (1592-1670), the Czech scientist author of the “Great Didactics”. In his works, he outlined his views on the role of education, approaches to determining the content, principles, forms and methods of teaching, which immediately became widely used in fraternal schools in Ukraine and Belarus and is still used today.

Ukraine at that time was experiencing the flourishing of statehood, schools, and pedagogy (Doyakovsky, church-parafial, fraternal, Sichev, Cossack and regimental schools developed). The secondary level of education was represented by Slavic-Greek-Latin schools and colleges, the highest - by academies (Kievo-Mohyla, Ostrog). During the development of capitalism, pedagogical concepts were developed by scientists from different countries: in France - D. Diderot, C. Helvetius, J. J. Rousseau “Emile or on Education”, in Switzerland - Pestalozzi “Mingred and Gertrude”, “Book for Mothers”, in Germany - Diesterwerg "Guide for Teachers". The main idea of ​​the enlighteners of the late 18th century. - beginning of the 19th century. It was that the main thing in education is to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the child’s natural inclinations.

Among the Ukrainian educators, G. S. Skovoroda stood out, who opposed church-scholastic and feudal-aristocratic education. In his works, he defended the ideas of nature-appropriate education, teaching native language, comprehensive development of the child and sought to make education accessible to all segments of the population.

A special contribution to science was made by K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) “On nationality in public education”, “Man as a subject of education”. The main pedagogical ideas are knowledge of the laws of upbringing, the process of formation of a person in a person, humanism and democratization of the system of education and upbringing, the psychological and pedagogical foundations of the lesson. He created textbooks " Child's world", "Native Word", which children were taught. And also contributed by H.D. Alchevskaya, S. Rusova.

III period - the formation and development of modern pedagogy as a scientific system, the methodological basis of which was a dialectical approach to the theory of development of the individual, society, a holistic, comprehensive approach to the formation of personality, represented by the works of such famous modern teachers as A.S. Makarenko, Sukhotin, S.T. Shatsky, A. Pinkevich, N.N. Pistrak, S.H. Chadrov, G.S. Kostyuk. Their concepts reflected new approaches to the education of a comprehensively developed personality in a team through collective labor. Innovative teachers Guzik, Ilyin, Shchetinin, Shatalov made a great contribution. They put forward the idea of ​​new relationships, developed a theory of cooperation between teacher and student and tested the idea of ​​teaching without coercion, learning ahead of schedule, large blocks, new forms of work and the formation of the intellectual background of the class, based on differentiation and individualization of learning based on the fact that each student is an individual , individuality with its own capabilities.

6 . Scientific Research Methods

There are 2 groups of scientific research methods:

Experimental-empirical (methods of observation, accumulation of scientific materials and scientific facts, methods of highlighting, generalizing and disseminating pedagogical experience, methods of ascertaining checking (clarifying) and transformative experiment, method of natural and laboratory experiments, test method, questioning method (personal, anonymous, open and closed), interviewing).

Theoretical (method of analysis, synthesis, comparison, modeling, graph diagram, modeling of teacher activities, joint activities)

Method of pedagogical observations: involves a targeted and systematic perception of the work experience of the teacher and student in natural conditions. This method helps to accumulate, study, and record factual material. You can draw conclusions and form judgments on problems. Requirements: clear, targeted, systematic, planned, objective, widespread, expected result.

Interview method: to find out the student’s attitude to a particular pedagogical phenomenon. Preparing a research interview requires an outline and targeted questions. When planning a conversation, the researcher must determine in advance the number of participants in the conversation, methods for recording results, and methods for testing hypotheses.

Questionnaire: A written survey method for obtaining a large number of responses quickly. There are open and closed. Must be tested on a small group for possible adjustments

Method of pedagogical experiment: there are ascertaining, formative, and control types.

The method of studying and generalizing the transfer of experience is based on the study and generalization of practice best schools, teachers.

The method of theoretical analysis makes it possible to make deep scientific generalizations on the most important issues of training and education, and to find new patterns.

Conclusion

Modern pedagogy actively comprehends such pedagogical concepts, as “the world of life”, “the meaning of being”, “personal choice”, “meeting”, “pedagogical atmosphere”, “space”, “time”, etc. Refusal of strict normativity, one-dimensionality, strictly defined determination allows to comprehend in a new way, develop a pedagogical phenomenon, and find forms of education and development that are adequate to the requirements of modern times and the characteristics of the children's and youth community.

Pedagogy focuses its attention on high-quality education and upbringing of the younger generation, timely identification and multiplication of natural genetic inclinations, early manifested talent, in order to then “fit” the developing talent into a functional social institution. Therefore, for pedagogy it is important to form in a developing person the abilities of active creativity, socially new qualities that meet the dynamic and future-oriented changes in society. The intensification of education and the formation of personal qualities are increasingly merging with an urgent universal need - the humanistic socialization of the individual. In pedagogy, the emphasis is shifted from the cultural-educational model, in which the assimilation of the systematized foundations of science dominates, to the socio- and culture-forming role of education and upbringing. Improving the educational system and expanding the scope of social pedagogy is accompanied by “the rejection of authoritarian pedagogy and the highlighting of the student’s personality, the satisfaction of his needs, the development of his individual virtues, abilities and talents.”

Like any science, pedagogy includes factual material obtained as a result of long-term observations, experiments and experiences in the field of teaching and upbringing. On this basis, scientific generalizations of factual material are carried out, expressed in concepts, principles, methods, theories and patterns; assumptions and hypotheses are implemented that predict new ways to solve pedagogical problems, taking into account modern social trends. Pedagogy as a developing science contains hypothetical provisions that require scientific and practical confirmation.

In modern conditions, pedagogy is considered as the science and practice of teaching and educating a person at all age stages of his personal and professional development, since modern system education and upbringing concerns almost all people and pedagogy includes all levels - from preschool to vocational training and advanced training courses. Since the object of training and education is a person, pedagogy belongs to the human sciences, it occupies a dominant place in the systems of human studies and the humanities.

Bibliography

1. Bordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy. Textbook for universities - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007.

2. Zhuravlev V.I. Pedagogy in the system of human sciences. - M.: Enlightenment. 2009.

3. Mardakhaev L.V. Fundamentals of social and pedagogical technology: Textbook 2007.

4. Shchedrovitsky G. P. Pedagogy and logic. - M., 2007.

5. Slastenin V., Isaev I. et al. Pedagogy: Textbook, 2009

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Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Object of pedagogy
Rubric (thematic category)	Education

Subject of pedagogy

Subject, object and functions of pedagogy

The subject of pedagogy is special function society - education.

But not only pedagogy studies education. It is studied by other sciences, such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics, etc. So, for example, an economist, determining the level of capabilities of “human resources” produced by the education system, tries to calculate the costs of their preparation. A sociologist finds out whether the modern education system is good at preparing people who adapt to the social environment, help scientific and technological progress, and various social transformations. A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist wants to know how effective government education policies are, etc.

The contribution of many sciences to the study of education is very valuable, but these sciences do not address the important, defining aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding structure. And this is understandable, since the study of these elements determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

The subject of pedagogy is education as an integral pedagogical process. In this case, pedagogy is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of teacher education.

In this regard, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of organizing education, forms and methods that improve the activities of the teacher and different kinds student activities, as well as strategies and ways of their interaction.

A. S. Makarenko in 1922 ᴦ. expressed an idea about the features of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that “many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is a pedagogical fact (phenomenon). At the same time, the person is not excluded from the attention of the researcher. But, being one of the human sciences, pedagogical science involves research into the effectiveness of professional practical activities of pedagogical processes and phenomena aimed at the formation and development of personality.

For this reason, pedagogy has as its object not an individual person, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of educational and pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. We can say that the object of pedagogy is the reality that determines the development of man in the process of social activity. These phenomena are called education. This is the subject of pedagogy.

Pedagogy considers the following problems:

1) the essence and pattern of personality development and their influence on education;

2) the purpose of education;

4) methods of education.

Functions of pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogical science are undoubtedly determined by its subject. This refers to the definition of theoretical and technological tasks posed in the process of identifying the principles and patterns of pedagogical activity. These are theoretical and technological functions that pedagogy carries out in a limited form.

The theoretical function is carried out at three levels: 1) descriptive - involves the study of the innovative experience of scientists and teachers; at a descriptive, or, as it is also called, explanatory, level, it studies the foundations of innovative pedagogical experience.

2) diagnostic level - involves identifying the state of pedagogical processes, the effectiveness of the teacher and students, establishing cause-and-effect relationships;

3) predictive level - represents experimental studies of the pedagogical process, as well as the construction on their basis of models for transforming reality. The prognostic level of the theoretical function reveals the essence of pedagogical processes and scientifically substantiates the proposed changes. At this level, certain theories of training and education are created, as well as models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of pedagogical practice.

The technological function is also carried out at three levels of implementation:

1) projective level - involves the formation of criteria and principles for constructing a teaching aid, compilation methodological developments(curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), which embody theoretical concepts and determine the “normative or regulatory” (V.V. Kraevsky) plan pedagogical work;

2) transformative level – studies and implements the experience of pedagogical science;

3) reflective level – involves determining the degree of influence of research results on practice educational activities and subsequent correction.

4. Objectives and methods of pedagogy

There are theoretical and practical tasks of pedagogy that should be distinguished. Pedagogy solves some important theoretical problems:

1) determination of the laws of the process of training, upbringing and education;

2) study and generalization of the experience of pedagogical activities of various schools;

3) development and implementation of new methods, forms, systems of training and management of educational structures;

4) study and implementation of research results into teaching practice;

5) setting goals and planning education for the near and distant future.

Theoretical tasks are entirely practical in educational institutions.

K. D. Ushinsky, for example, argued that sciences in general only discover facts and laws and do not develop their practical activities and applications. While pedagogy differs in this regard. For this reason, Ushinsky saw the task of pedagogy in the “study of man in all manifestations of his nature with a special application to the art of education.”

The practical tasks of pedagogy are to “open up the means for education in a person of such a character that would withstand the pressure of all the accidents of life, would save a person from their harmful corrupting influence and would give him the opportunity to extract only good results from everywhere” (Ushinsky K. D. ., “On nationality in public education” (1857)).

Today there are many different scientific methods of pedagogy. The main ones are:

1) pedagogical observation;

2) exploratory conversation;

3) study of school documentation and student activity products;

4) pedagogical experiment;

5) study and generalization of advanced pedagogical experience.

Pedagogical observation, as the main source of accumulation of knowledge, facts and information, is used in any research activities. This technique is especially important in pedagogical activities, when it is impossible to describe the process otherwise.

A pedagogical experiment is a scientific research method that allows you to confirm or reject any theoretical calculations experimentally. The purpose of the goals of the pedagogical experiment determines the following types of experiments:

1) ascertaining;

2) creative and transformative;

3) control;

4) natural.

Branches of pedagogical science

General pedagogy – involves the study of criteria, methods and forms of education. In this case, it is extremely important to take into account the general age characteristics and conditions for obtaining education in educational institution. The sections of general pedagogy are the theory of education, the theory of learning and the theory of organization and management in the education system.

Preschool pedagogy – deals with the study of the patterns of upbringing of preschool children.

Pedagogy secondary school– studies the content, forms, methods of teaching and educating schoolchildren.

Special pedagogy (defectology) is a special science that studies the development and patterns of education and upbringing of children with physical or psychical deviations in development.

Pedagogy of vocational and secondary special education – deals with the study and development of issues of training and education of students in vocational schools and secondary specialized institutions.

Corrective labor pedagogy - studies the problem of re-education of offenders of all ages.

Higher education pedagogy deals with the issues of training and education of university students.

Pedagogy, as an independent scientific discipline, cannot develop without interacting with other sciences. So, for example, in the development of pedagogical theory, philosophy plays an important methodological role, which determines the initial data in the study of pedagogical processes. Psychology influences the solution of specific issues of training and education, touching on the development of work and rest regimes (especially age and pedagogical psychology, studying the patterns of mental processes of children based on age͵ in the conditions of training and upbringing). Sociology, which studies society as a complex integral mechanism, provides pedagogy with a large amount of practical material for the logical organization of the process of teaching and upbringing.

However, in this lecture we got acquainted with the main historical stages pedagogical science, subject, object, functions, tasks and methods of pedagogy.

The object of pedagogy is the concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Object of Pedagogy” 2017, 2018.

Ticket number 1. Pedagogy as a science, its object and subject. Objectives and structure of pedagogical science. Categorical apparatus of pedagogy.

Research results: interpretation, presentation. Ethical principles for conducting human research.

3. Develop an algorithm for conducting a combined lesson and give its pedagogical analysis

No. 1 Object, subject and tasks of pedagogy, its main categories, the relationship of categories.

Pedagogy is the science of human upbringing at all age stages of its development. Object In pedagogy, education (in the broad pedagogical sense) is considered to be a consciously and purposefully carried out process. Subject of pedagogy- contradictions, patterns, relationships, technology, organization and implementation of the educational process that determine the development of personality. Functions of pedagogy:

Analytical function – solving the following problems: 1) theoretical study, description and explanation of the essence, contradictions, patterns, cause-and-effect relationships of the education process; 2) analysis, generalization, interpretation and evaluation of teaching experience.

Prognostic function: 1) ensuring scientifically based goal setting, planning and development of the education system; 2) ensuring effective management of educational policy.

Projective-constructive function: 1) development of new educational technologies(content, forms, methods, means of education and training) pedagogical systems, the foundations of innovative pedagogical activity; 2) implementation of the results of pedagogical research into practice; 3) scientific and methodological support for the management of educational structures. Main categories of pedagogy: education, training, education.

Concept "upbringing " This is a specially organized, purposeful, systematic process of interconnected activities of the teacher and the student, during which a system of knowledge, skills, methods of creative activity, as well as a certain system of views and beliefs of the individual (training, education) is formed. .

Education – This is a specially organized, purposeful, systematic process of interconnected activity between a teacher and a student, aimed at students’ assimilation of a system of knowledge, abilities, skills, and the development of their mental strength and abilities. (teaching - educating, educating - educating)

Education – this, on the one hand, is a holistic process of training and education of a personality during which its formation and development occurs, on the other hand, it is the result of training and education, i.e. that volume of systematized knowledge, ways of thinking, personal qualities.

Development- This is a complex, contradictory, spasmodic process of quantitative and qualitative changes in a person, during which a person improves existing properties and qualities of his personality, and also acquires new properties and qualities.

Formation – is a process of personality development under the influence of internal and external factors (purposeful and spontaneous, positive and negative)

Correlation and interconnection of basic concepts:

training - education - upbringing - socialization - formation - development

Pedagogy got its name from the Greek word “paidagogos” (paid - child, gogos - lead), which means child rearing or child teaching.

The object of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy– this is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Objectives of pedagogical science - conduct research, and the practical tasks of the school, university - to carry out the upbringing and education of schoolchildren and students.

The results are training, education, and personal development in its specific parameters.

First of all, we note that since education as a subject of pedagogy is a pedagogical process, then the phrases " educational process" and "pedagogical process" will be synonymous. In its first approximation to the definition, the pedagogical process is the movement from the goals of education to its results by ensuring the unity of teaching and upbringing. The pedagogical process, therefore, is a specially organized interaction between teachers and students (pedagogical interaction ) regarding the content of education using teaching and educational means (pedagogical means) in order to solve educational problems aimed at meeting the needs of both society and the individual himself in his development and self-development.

Pedagogical interaction includes in unity the pedagogical influence, its active perception and assimilation by the student and the latter’s own activity, manifested in reciprocal direct or indirect influences on the teacher and on himself (self-education). The concept of “pedagogical interaction” is therefore broader than pedagogical influence, pedagogical influence and even pedagogical attitude, which is a consequence of the very interaction between teachers and students.

Education as a category of pedagogy is a specially organized activity of teachers and students to realize the goals of education in the conditions of the pedagogical process. Training is a specific method of education aimed at personal development through organizing students’ acquisition of scientific knowledge and methods of activity. Being an integral part of education, teaching differs from it in the degree of regulation of the pedagogical process by normative requirements, both substantive and organizational and technical.

Ticket number 2

Pedagogy in the system of sciences. The connection between pedagogy and other sciences. System of pedagogical sciences.

Ticket number 3

1. The concept of methodology of pedagogical science. Methodological
teacher culture. Methods and logic of pedagogical research:
empirical and theoretical.

Develop an algorithm for conducting a problem lesson in the context of a developmental education system.

Psychology of teacher personality. The teacher as a subject of pedagogical activity. Levels of teacher professionalism. Pedagogical leadership styles. Teacher's professional profile.

Pedagogical leadership styles.

Teacher's professional profile.

TEACHER'S PROFESSIOGRAM - a list of requirements for his personality, abilities, skills and psychological and physical capabilities. The teacher must have good health, constantly take care of keeping yourself in shape. A teacher needs mental, aesthetic, expressive, organizational and especially communicative abilities. The profession of a teacher presupposes the needs for cooperation, achievement, creativity, self-knowledge, and emotional contacts. The image of a teacher’s “I” should include an idea of ​​one’s own qualities and properties, self-assessment of one’s communication with students, the desired *I*, and self-esteem. Distinctive features teachers are: observation, tolerance, restraint, sense of humor, kindness, organization, optimism, independence, responsibility, sociability, readiness for sympathy, sympathy, empathy, the ability to understand the moods of students, study and take into account their individual and age abilities.

Ticket number 4

1.The concept of management and pedagogical management. Basic
functions of pedagogical management. Principles of management of pedagogical systems.

2. Validity. Scientific problem. Hypotheses: types, types, content.

3.Situation. Children are usually happy to go to school. And every student wants to be successful at school. But not everyone does this. There are laggards.

Why is it especially important to ensure student success at the initial stage of education?

Hypothesis and its types

A hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or natural connections of any phenomena of nature, society and thinking.

There are false hypotheses, for example, before Copernicus there was a hypothesis about the immobility of the Earth. Copernicus wrote about the mathematicians of that time: “Indeed, if the hypotheses they accepted were not false, then, without any doubt, the consequences obtained from them would be justified.”

Types of hypotheses

Depending on the degree of generality, scientific hypotheses can be divided into general, specific and individual.

General hypothesis- this is a scientifically based assumption about the laws and regularities of natural and social phenomena, as well as the patterns of human mental activity. They are put forward to explain the entire class of phenomena described, to deduce the natural nature of their relationships at any time and in any place. A general hypothesis, once proven, becomes a scientific theory.

Partial hypothesis - this is a scientifically based assumption about the origin and patterns of some objects isolated from the entire class of objects of nature, social life or thinking under consideration. Examples of particular hypotheses: hypotheses about the origin of viruses, the causes of malignant tumors, including the hypothesis about oncogenic RNA containing viruses, etc.

Unit hypothesis a - a scientifically based assumption about the origin and patterns of individual facts, specific events and phenomena. The doctor builds individual hypotheses during the treatment of a particular patient, selecting individual doses of the medicine needed for him.

In the course of proving a general, particular or single hypothesis, the researcher or any other person builds working hypotheses, that is, assumptions that are most often put forward at the beginning of the study and do not yet pose the task of clarifying the causes or patterns of the phenomenon under study. I.P. Pavlov often changed his working hypotheses.

Exist different types of hypotheses, determined by their cognitive significance. The primary, or working, hypothesis determines the direction of the research, its main objectives, criteria for classification and evaluation of facts. Such hypotheses are most often used when the area under study is poorly developed. They play a supporting role in the collection of material and its initial classification. The research results obtained on the basis of a working hypothesis create the prerequisites for further knowledge and help formulate a scientific, or real, hypothesis. This hypothesis arises at a deeper level theoretical basis and has a more precise form of expression. It makes an assumption about the existing relationships between phenomena or their patterns, about the existence of a certain phenomenon, property or result. To build such a hypothesis, good knowledge of pedagogical theories, reliance on previously discovered facts and natural connections between pedagogical phenomena. In experimental research, an assumption may express the relationship between a dependent and an independent variable. The differences between the primary working hypothesis and the real one are relative. In the process of cognition, the first passes into the second.

Based on the nature of the content, we can distinguish descriptive hypotheses that are typical for studies conducted at the empirical level. They are limited to the assumption of a functional connection between pedagogical influences and their final results, a description of the causes and possible consequences. They lead the researcher to assume that one of the means (or a group of them) will be more effective than others, but without explaining the mechanism of this phenomenon. Even the designated functional connections between phenomena are presented in an undifferentiated way, which deprives the researcher of the opportunity to verify them. Thus, in the doctoral dissertation, where the subject is the process of optimizing physical education and sports activities using functional music, the hypothesis believed “that through targeted musical stimulation and regulation of mental states, functional activity and motor activity, it is possible to significantly optimize the process of conducting physical education and sports activities, solving them the tasks are much easier, better and faster than usual."

Explanatory hypotheses fix possible consequences of certain causes, and also characterize the conditions under which these consequences are mandatory, i.e. It is explained due to what factors and conditions this consequence is possible, what is the mechanism of their manifestation. An example of this is the hypothesis used in another doctoral dissertation, the subject of which was related to the definition of the socio-psychological mechanism of the formation of physical culture and sports activity of students in the process of physical education. It states that “the effectiveness of the formation and management of students’ physical activity in a university environment will depend entirely on the knowledge and consideration of the objective patterns of the mechanisms of formation and functioning of the motivational components of an individual’s physical activity and the socio-pedagogical factors of their formation in a university environment; the degree of interrelation between substantive and structural components of the system of subjective and objective factors of students' physical education activity; the level of implementation of the complex functioning of socio-pedagogical factors in the formation of students' physical education activity in the conditions of interaction of all components of the management and pedagogical system of physical education at the university."

Hypotheses theoretical in nature are associated with the assumption of the natural nature of the position being proven in the course of the study. They require a series of procedures confirming that the connection that exists between factors and conditions is of a natural nature. This hypothesis is characterized by the following doctoral dissertation, the subject of which is designated as “the theory and practice of using funds physical culture in social support of the population." Her hypothesis provided that "social support of the population by means of physical culture will receive legal status in the life of society and effective implementation if: the process of social education is closely related to education, providing the individual with the necessary knowledge and practical skills that create the effect of psycho-emotional and somatic well-being; in progress social support organizational and pedagogical conditions are provided that promote the internalization by the individual of the values ​​of general and physical culture; the content, forms, methods of correctional and rehabilitation processes are adequate to the capabilities and social expectations of the individual; professional training of specialists corresponds to the subject of work in the field of social support, and the functioning of the specialist workforce is based on legal and resource support.”

In the course of research, it is often necessary to build a number of hypotheses at different levels, reflecting successive steps in scientific knowledge. Unfortunately, in many studies, the hypothesis is put forward after the work is completed. Why is this happening?

Firstly, when trying to answer the problems posed in the study, the authors often look at the problem through someone else’s eyes, unwittingly falling under the influence of the literature they have read, and use the explanation that has already been made in science. Secondly, which is typical for novice researchers, the circle of knowledge in the field under study and the entire science about it is relatively narrow; They do not understand many of its connections. Thirdly, personal experience practical work Each teacher has a unique and unique approach, which also affects the formation of a scientific hypothesis. Finally, the hypothesis is often drawn up hastily and is not given due attention during experimental work. This leads to the fact that a scientific hypothesis, as a rule, is primitive or states generally known truths and therefore is always confirmed by the researcher’s data. And in a rigorously carried out scientific study, some of the hypothesis is confirmed and some is rejected.

There are different ways to build a hypothesis. When a hypothesis is based on some data and ideas from other researchers, it is necessary to check what is true and what is inaccurate about it. But predominantly the hypothesis should be drawn up only after in-depth study theory and practice of the state of the issue under study, after the introductory experiment. In the course of the study, new hypotheses should be clarified and new provisions should emerge. Therefore, it is important to show how the hypothesis and the methodology for testing it change with each new stage of research.

Ideally, hypotheses of the inductive type (based on analysis of experience) should be combined with hypotheses of the deductive type, which are built on the basis of the main theoretical principles modern science and change with the accumulation of knowledge and facts. At the same time, it is necessary to be wary of falsely constructing a hypothesis based on insufficiently tested, although generally accepted, ideas, or on the basis of subjective perception of experience and facts. False hypotheses cause significant harm to research: they create the appearance of scientific arguments, increasing the number of errors and misconceptions, which later, in the course of further research, will be refuted by others. A sign of an erroneous hypothesis is the desire to prove generally known truths or provisions, in which, instead of searching for positive material, the hypothesis aims to discover negative material (although various facts will be discovered in the study).

Essence of the hypothesis

A hypothesis, like a concept, judgment, and inference, which are discussed in previous chapters, reflects the objective world. And in this it is similar to the mentioned forms of thinking. However, the hypothesis differs from them. Its specificity lies not in what it reflects in the material world, but in how it reflects, i.e. presumably, probably, and not categorically, unreliably. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the term “hypothesis” itself, translated from Greek, means “assumption”.

It is known that when defining a concept through the closest genus and species difference, it is necessary to indicate the essential features that distinguish a given species from other species included in the same closest genus. The closest genus for a hypothesis as a certain result of cognitive activity “is the concept of “assumption”. What is the specific difference between this type of assumption - a hypothesis - and other types of assumption, say, conjecture, fantasy, assumption, prediction, everyday assumption or guessing? It seems that the specific The difference for a hypothesis should be sought in the answer not to the question “What is the proposal about”, but to the question “What is the proposal.”

Based on this, it is necessary to highlight the following significant signs of the hypothesis.

Firstly, a hypothesis is a special form of development of scientific knowledge. The construction of hypotheses in science makes it possible to move from individual scientific facts related to a phenomenon to their generalization and knowledge of the laws of development of this phenomenon.

Secondly, the construction of a scientific hypothesis is always accompanied by an assumption related to the theoretical explanation of the phenomena under study. It always appears in the form of a separate judgment or a system of interrelated judgments about the properties of individual facts or the natural connections of phenomena. This judgment is always problematic; it expresses probabilistic theoretical knowledge. Sometimes a hypothesis arises from deduction. For example, the hypothesis of K.A. Timiryazev's theory of photosynthesis was initially derived deductively from the law of conservation of energy.

Thirdly, a hypothesis is a well-founded assumption based on specific facts. Therefore, the emergence of a hypothesis is a non-chaotic and not subconscious, but a natural and logically harmonious cognitive process that leads a person to obtain new knowledge about objective reality. For example, new heliocentric system N. Copernicus, revealing the idea of ​​the Earth’s rotation around the Sun and outlined by him in his work “On Rotation celestial spheres", based on real facts and proved the inconsistency of the geocentric concept dominant at that time.

These essential features in their totality are quite sufficient to use them to distinguish a hypothesis from other types of assumption and determine its essence. A hypothesis (from the Greek gypothesis - basis, assumption) is a probabilistic assumption about the cause of any phenomena, the reliability of which is subject to current state production and science cannot be tested and proven, but which explains these phenomena, inexplicable without it; one of the methods of cognitive activity.

It is important to keep in mind that the term "hypothesis" is used in two meanings. Firstly, a hypothesis is understood as the assumption itself that explains the observed phenomenon (hypothesis in the narrow sense). Secondly, as a method of thinking in general, including putting forward an assumption, its development and proof (hypothesis in the broad sense).

The second, in fact, is a complex process of thought leading from ignorance to knowledge. The study of the logical form of this process is one of the tasks of logic. “With the complete elimination of the hypothesis,” noted K.A. Timiryazev, “science would turn into a pile of bare facts.”

A hypothesis is often constructed as an assumption about the cause of past phenomena, about a natural order that has already ceased, but its assumption explains a certain set of phenomena that are well known from history or observed at the present time. Our knowledge, for example, about the formation solar system, about the state of the earth's core, about the origin of life on Earth, etc.

A hypothesis ceases to exist in two cases: firstly, when it, having received confirmation, turns into reliable knowledge and becomes part of the theory; secondly, when the hypothesis is refuted and becomes false knowledge.

A hypothesis is a system of concepts, judgments and conclusions. Moreover, unlike them, the structure is complex, synthetic in nature. Not a single concept, judgment, or inference in its content constitutes a hypothesis. Let us turn, for example, to the well-known hypothesis of Academician A.I. Oparin about the origin of life on Earth. Its provisions are not limited to any one proposition, for example, that life arose in water or began with the appearance of complex supramolecular protein structures. This hypothesis, like any other, tries to explain the process of the emergence of life on Earth in all its complexity. Naturally, this cannot be done with one judgment or conclusion. Even a narrower hypothesis concerning a single phenomenon, for example, the hypothesis about the authorship of a newly discovered artistic painting, consists not of one judgment, but of a whole system of judgments and inferences that substantiates the likelihood of the hypothesis put forward. Moreover, the nature of such judgments is based on the views of various experts (specialists) in their field of knowledge.

The following elements are distinguished in the structure of the hypothesis.

First, the basis of a hypothesis is a set of facts or reasonable statements on which the assumption is based.

Secondly, the form of a hypothesis is a set of inferences that leads from the basis of the hypothesis to the main assumption.

Thirdly, assumption (or hypothesis in the narrow sense of the word) - conclusions from facts and statements that substantiate the hypothesis.

Being the same in logical structure, hypotheses nevertheless differ in their content and functions. There are several types of hypotheses based on the following grounds:

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Scientific research

The process of study, experimentation, conceptualization, and theory testing involved in the acquisition of scientific knowledge.

Stages of scientific research

Research begins by posing a problem based on what is unknown. At the next stage, the scientist analyzes the available information on the problem being studied. It may turn out that this problem has already been solved or that there are similar studies that have not led to a definitive result. If a scientist doubts the results obtained earlier, he reproduces the study using the methodology proposed by his predecessors, then analyzes the methods and techniques that they used to solve this or similar problems. The most creative moment of research lies in the invention of an original technique. Often, a methodological discovery transforms a scientific field and gives rise to a new direction.

The next very important stage is the formulation of assumptions - hypotheses. To test them, a scientific research plan is constructed, which includes:

Selecting a research object - a person or group of people with whom the experiment will be conducted or who will be observed;

Clarification of the subject of research - part of reality (psychological) that will be studied in the object of research;

Choosing a place and time for research;

Determining the order of experimental tests in order to reduce the influence of interference on the result of the experiment.

Carrying out research according to the planned plan is the next stage. During a real experiment, deviations from the design always arise, which must be taken into account when interpreting the results and repeating the experiment.

After recording the results of the experiment, a primary analysis of the data, their mathematical processing, interpretation and generalization are carried out. Initial hypotheses are tested for reliability. New facts or patterns are formulated. Theories are refined or discarded as unsuitable. Based on the refined theory, new conclusions and predictions are made.

Types of Scientific Research

A distinction is made between empirical and theoretical research, although the distinction is conditional. As a rule, most studies are of a theoretical and empirical nature. Any research is carried out not in isolation, but within the framework of a holistic scientific program or for the purpose of developing a scientific direction. Research by its nature can be divided into:

Fundamental and applied;

Monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary;

Analytical and complex

Basic research aimed at understanding reality without taking into account the practical effect of applying knowledge. Applied research is carried out in order to obtain knowledge that must be used to solve a specific practical problem.

Monodisciplinary research is carried out within the framework of a separate science (in this case, psychology). Interdisciplinary research requires the participation of specialists from various fields and is carried out at the intersection of several scientific disciplines. This group includes genetic research, research in the field of engineering psychophysiology, as well as research at the intersection of ethnopsychology and sociology.

A single-factor or analytical study is aimed at identifying one aspect of reality that is most significant, in the opinion of the researcher. Complex research is carried out using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists strive to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied.

Research based on the purpose of its conduct can be divided into several types:

Search engines;

Critical;

Clarifying;

Reproducing.

The first type includes exploratory research. Although the name sounds tautological, it implies an attempt to solve a problem that no one has posed or solved using a similar method. Sometimes similar studies are called “poke-method” studies: “Let’s try this, maybe something will work out.” Scientific works This kind of research is aimed at obtaining fundamentally new results in a little-studied area.

The second type is critical research. They are carried out in order to refute an existing theory, model, hypothesis, law, etc. or to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality. Critical Studies are carried out in those areas where a rich theoretical and empirical knowledge has been accumulated and there are proven methods for carrying out experiments.

Most research conducted in science is exploratory research. Their goal is to establish the boundaries within which the theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, in comparison with the original experimental sample, the research conditions, object, and methodology change. Thus, it is recorded to which area of ​​reality the previously obtained theoretical knowledge extends.

And finally, the last type is replication research. Its goal is to accurately repeat the experiment of its predecessors to determine the validity, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained. The results of any study must be repeated in a similar experiment conducted by another scientific worker with appropriate competence. The general structure of scientific research consists of:

Problem justifying the choice of topic study of the state of the issue setting the goal and objectives of the study theoretical research experimental research comparison of results determination of the economic effect conclusions and recommendations preparation of a report reviewing, discussion implementation, publication, patenting analysis of the results of practical implementation setting new tasks.

The problem is understood as complex issue, a major scientific problem, the solution of which makes a significant contribution to the development of a scientific direction, the improvement of social production, and the social structure of society. Complex problems are solved with the involvement of scientific directions, sometimes from various branches of science. Smaller problems are solved within one industry, group of specialists, or individual specialty.

The problem breaks down into separate topics. The topic is developed within one specialty, sometimes at the junction of two or three. The choice of topic must be carefully thought out and justified, which requires an in-depth study of the state of the issue. On this basis, the purpose and objectives of the study can be clearly stated. Sometimes, due to the lack of sufficient information in the literature on the issue under study or the presence of contradictory information, in order to correctly formulate the problem, it is necessary to conduct preliminary observations or experiments (search experiment).

The data obtained allow us to move on to theoretical research, the results of which, based on speculative conclusions, usually require experimental verification. To formulate final conclusions and recommendations, the results of theoretical and experimental research, establish the economic effect expected from the implementation of proposals and recommendations into practice. The final stage research work– preparation of the report, its review and discussion. After this, new scientific and practical results can be formalized for publication in print, patenting, and implementation into production. As a rule, work on the topic does not end there, since implementation into production requires supervision, clarification of the resulting economic effect, expansion of the scope of implementation in national economy(replication).

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1. Managerial culture of the leader. The personality of the director of a modern secondary school. Leader activity styles. Organizational forms of management activities.

Distribution of powers

1. He concentrates everything within himself (excessive centralization of power). 2. Delegates some of them to employees. 3.Prefers to act on the instructions of senior superiors

Responsibility.

1. Closes on itself. 2.Shares with subordinates in accordance with the scope of delegated powers. 3. Reduces its responsibility by shifting it to employees

Making decisions

1. Single-handedly accepts and cancels. 2. Involves subordinates in preparing and making decisions. 3.Bypasses the decision, constantly puts it off or shifts it to others

Attitude towards the independence of subordinates

1.Imposes his opinion, suppresses any dissent 2.Provides and encourages independence to subordinates in the scope of their qualifications and functions 3.Leaves subordinates to themselves, since he himself lacks this quality and is easily influenced by others

Guidance Methods

1. Command and administrative in the form of orders, instructions, instructions 2. More often seeks advice, convinces, stimulates, and serves as an example of politeness. 3. Persuades or asks, may use intimidation, but only in words.

Control of work performed

1.In a rigid form. Interferes in all actions of subordinates. 2.Notes the successes of performers, ensures a fair assessment of the work of subordinates 3.Spontaneously, from time to time, there is no control system

Attitude towards criticism.

1. Painful, does not accept criticism addressed to him. He considers the critic to be a personal enemy. 2. Does not take offense, reacts adequately, always listens. 3. He listens to criticism, but it does not affect his work or behavior.

Attitude to innovation

1. Conservative, recognizes only his own initiative. 2.Supports the initiative of others and welcomes any innovations. 3. Avoids all kinds of undertakings, is afraid of initiative because he is afraid of responsibility

Contact with subordinates

1. Consciously limits contacts with subordinates, keeps them at a distance. 2. Communicates regularly and informs about problems. 3. Experiences difficulties in communication, communicates occasionally, without much desire

Tact in communication

1. The address is strictly official, but in some cases it may not take into account moral standards and humiliate the individual. 2. Polite and friendly, does not humiliate the dignity of the individual, respectful attitude towards people. 3.Indifferent in communication, does not see personality

Assessing your own qualities

1. Considers himself indispensable, opposes himself to the team, refuses self-correction, reduced self-control. 2. Does not demonstrate superiority in any way, does not oppose himself to the team, adequate self-esteem. 3. Tolerates the position of a dependent and follows the lead of his subordinates, since he considers his leadership to be something of a duty.