EntranceWhat kind of warriors were part of the Egyptian foot army? Pharaoh's warriors: who fought for great Egypt (8 photos)
Egypt since the period Ancient kingdom waged a huge number of wars of aggressive and defensive nature. For these purposes, a strong, united army of well-trained warriors was required.
The structure of the army of Ancient Egypt
In the Old Kingdom there were no regular troops yet; they consisted of mercenaries. Such mercenary soldiers were recruited only during military campaigns, and in peacetime they went about their usual activities. They were well paid.
Already in the era of the Middle Kingdom, the army was quite highly organized. Egypt's troops were structured, recruitment into the army took place on a voluntary basis. There was a high military position - jati, who commanded the army and fleet and oversaw the recruitment of warriors. At the same time, special detachments of career officers appeared; they carried out the special military orders of the pharaohs. At the same time, a guard was formed to protect the king.
According to ancient Egyptian law, a person with income, in order to become an aristocrat, had to take 8 soldiers into his service. They had to be constantly prepared and engaged in military training, without being burdened with regular work. Notable rich people formed squad-companies, which were subordinate to colonels. During the era of the New Kingdom, there were many foreign mercenaries in the army, and later they formed the basis of the Egyptian army.
Armament of the army of Ancient Egypt
The main strength of the Egyptian army was infantry troops and chariot detachments, and from the period of the Middle Kingdom a battle fleet began to appear. Most often, warriors armed themselves with a copper ax, mace, bow, spear or copper dagger. For protection, they used a shield made of wood, which was covered with fur. In the Middle Kingdom, due to the development of metal processing, the spear, sword and arrowhead became bronze. At this time, detachments of archers and spearmen appear.
Chapter VII
PHARAOH'S ARMY
I do not immediately intend to follow Senmut and Kenamon to Syria, since there is evidence from the ancient Egyptians that will give us a more authentic picture of the war in Asia than what I could come up with. I will quote this evidence a little later in this chapter. It is first necessary to consider the organization of the pharaoh's army, not only in the time of Thutmose III, but also in earlier and later times. I owe this information chiefly to R. O. Faulkner. Readers who wish to study this issue in more detail may refer to the interesting article “The Military Organization of the Egyptians,” which appears in the Journal of Egyptian Archeology, Volume 39.
During the Old Kingdom, on the eve of war, “local officials had to form that part of the troops that was under their command... Therefore, a fully mobilized army included a large number of militia-type units, where conscripts served military service and were engaged in military training" In other words, the recruiting system was very similar to the feudal system that existed in Europe during the Middle Ages. In Old Kingdom texts, an army unit is called a "battalion". We do not know its size, but if we believe the texts, the army numbered “many tens of thousands” of people, so such a unit can be equated to a division.
The disadvantage of this system, as in the Middle Ages, was that it gave too much power to local magnates. For example, during the period of unrest that followed the decline of the Old Kingdom, taking advantage of the absence of central authority, provincial rulers led internecine wars. However, in all likelihood, the pharaoh had a small army at his disposal. Otherwise, as Faulkner emphasizes, it would be difficult for the pharaoh to get out of a critical situation in the event of an attack on the country or in an uprising. Therefore, the king probably had a small, well-trained army, which was always on hand in case of need.
The walls of the Old Kingdom tombs at Saqqara and Deshabshah depict battle scenes; from them it can be judged that the Egyptian troops were well trained. Probably, an army of disciplined regular army soldiers and reinforced by militias played the main role on the battlefield. Most of what we know about military organization during the Old Kingdom comes from the chronicles of a certain Una, who describes the troops participating in the campaign in Asia. Una nowhere mentions the existence of a regular army,
but it does not mean that such an army did not exist. He simply notes that all kinds of manpower were used for conscription in Egypt. Therefore, he took for granted the existence of small military units constantly in service.
It should be remembered that in peacetime recruits were recruited to perform public works, for example, in quarries. “Generals” were sometimes called officials who performed duties of a non-military nature. Of the “generals” known to us from Dynasty I to VII, three commanded campaigns against Sinai,
three supervised work in the quarries in Wadi Hammamata, and one ... in Tura. Prince Kamtjenent, the son of King Isesi, was probably serving abroad, one Herdeni commanded a detachment of recruits, while another was at Elephantine commanding Nubian mercenaries.
Although the chronicles of the Old Kingdom era only mention "generals" or "commanders of the army", there were certainly military leaders of lower rank in the regular army. Indeed, we can find them in images of battle scenes in Saqqara and Deshabshah. They had insignia by which their rank and “arms branch” could be determined:
On a tablet from Sinai of King Djoser, a general carries a staff and an axe. In the depiction of the battle scene at Deshabshas, the military commander who oversaw the work of the sappers leans on a staff. There's a dagger strapped to his belt...
The conscription system, which has existed in Europe for barely two hundred years, has been known in Egypt since the early period of its history. Even five thousand years ago, young Egyptians were conscripted for military service. They served in the army for a time under the command of a local commander, and then returned to their ordinary life, but remained liable for military service in case of hostilities. During their service, the state fed and clothed them. We know nothing of whether they received any salary, but that they had a "recruit commander", "recruit inspectors" and "an overseer of the palace youth and recruits", presumably palace guards corresponding to our guard, we we know.
One of the main tasks of army units during the Old Kingdom and in a later period was to protect the borders of Egypt and the roads leading to Asia and Nubia. The functions of such garrison services included repelling Bedouin raids.
During the Middle Kingdom, after the period of unrest and confusion that followed the collapse of the Old Kingdom, provincial rulers, or nomarchs, with a certain power, were allowed to maintain their own armies. However, as in the Middle Ages, they had to send a certain number of warriors to serve the pharaoh. Faulkner writes that the pharaoh's standing army was also recruited on the basis of conscription. In this regard, he draws our attention to a stele on which it is written that in the 25th year of the reign of Amenemhat III, an army scribe “went south to select recruits in the nome of Abydos, Southern Egypt.” Another stela mentions Nakhtesebekra, "who gave one man out of every hundred men to his master when he was recruiting warriors." The allocation of one percent of men to the army hardly placed a heavy burden on the population.
From the inscriptions of the Middle Kingdom we learn much more about the military organization of the Egyptians. For example, along with the rank of “general” we find there the rank of “commander of shock troops” and “mentor of servants.” Probably, selected warriors were recruited into the “shock troops”. They were used as assault units. The "servants" originally formed the pharaoh's non-military support staff. Over time, they became his personal bodyguard, whose duties included protecting the pharaoh during battles. They can be compared to the medieval “Life Guards”. The royal troops were under their command. Interesting autobiographical notes of the warrior Sebekhu, who lived during the time of Senusret III, have reached us. Using his example, he shows us how a “cadet” rises up the career ladder.
When Senwosret III came to the throne, Sebekha was appointed "bodyguard" and put in charge of a small group of seven people. Later, he becomes a “servant of the Ruler” (i.e., the king) and already commands a detachment of sixty people. He took part in the Pharaoh's Nubian campaign along with six other royal "servants". After returning from the campaign, he is promoted to “tutor of servants.” He already commands a hundred people. Apparently, all seven “servants” who accompanied the king on the campaign were from noble families.
The administrative and supply service was entrusted to numerous “army scribes.” One of them constantly chronicled the campaign. They varied in rank - from the junior, who was in charge of supplying a small unit, to the senior, who ensured the supply of an entire army. Their service can be compared with the pay service of the English army and the quartermaster service. However, in ancient Egypt, their duties also included recruiting recruits.
In the surviving records of the New Kingdom, that is, the period in which most of the events of this book take place, we can find detailed information about the organization and supply of the army and, more importantly, a chronicle of campaigns, giving us a vivid picture of the war in times of the pharaohs.
During the reign of the 18th dynasty, the Egyptians first became famous as a warlike people. Their triumph could be compared with the triumph of the French army during the French Revolution and subsequent victories of Napoleon. After the fall of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt was conquered by the Asian barbarians the Hyksosamp, or "shepherds." They were expelled by the warlike rulers of Thebes, whose heirs founded the 18th dynasty. Egypt's military glory began with the 18th dynasty. Determined to make their country impregnable to any invasion from Asia, the kings of the XVIII dynasty Ahmose, Amenhotep I, Amenhotep II and some Thutmose penetrated into Palestine and Syria, subjugated these countries and left strong garrisons there. The greatest of the kings, the "Napoleon of Ancient Egypt", was Thutmose III, who extended the power of Egypt to the Euphrates. Looking at the withered face of this great pharaoh in the Cairo Museum, it is difficult to believe that he was the greatest military genius of Ancient Egypt.
The pharaoh stood at the head of the army and usually took command on the battlefield; the position of vizier corresponded to the modern minister of war. He was assisted by a military council, to which he gave orders. However, during the campaign, before entering into battle, the king consulted with senior military leaders. In those days, the pharaoh had a large regular army created on a national basis. It was commanded by professional warriors. Faulkner writes:
The field army was divided into divisions, each of which was an army corps consisting of a division of chariots and infantry and numbering about 5,000 men. At the Battle of Kadet [the famous battle of Ramesses II], the divisions were commanded by the king's sons, but one division was under the personal command of the pharaoh. These divisions bore the names of the main gods of the kingdom.
The two main types of troops were infantry and charioteers. It is curious that cavalry did not yet exist, probably because horse breeding was too poorly developed to create cavalry. The Egyptians were introduced to chariots by the relatively recently invading Hyksos. They were used like modern tanks and armored vehicles, and infantry advanced under their cover.
The first blow was delivered by the chariots. The infantry advancing behind them exploited their tactical success or stopped the enemy's advance if the battle went poorly... The chariots also attacked the enemy at the moment of his defeat, in order to turn failure into complete defeat. We often see this phase of the battle in drawings where the pharaoh races in a chariot across the ground, strewn with the bodies of the dead and defeated.
Judging by the examples that have been preserved in Egyptian tombs (for example, in the tomb of Tutankhamun), chariots were light, springless, two-wheeled carts. Each of them contained two people - a charioteer and a warrior. The latter was armed with a bow, arrows and a shield. Egyptian chariots remind us very much of the chariots described in the poems of Homer. The charioteer was in great danger, since he had no weapons. His task was to maneuver the cart in such a way as to put it in the most advantageous position for firing from a bow at the enemy. The chariot was harnessed to two horses. The chariot units were divided into "squadrons", each of which consisted of twenty-five chariots. A position such as “head of the stable” was introduced; he was responsible for the condition of the horses. Since horseshoes had not yet been invented, there were no blacksmiths.
The infantry's weapons were very diverse. In addition to bows, archers had axes and clubs. Spearmen carried shields. Their spears reached a length of six feet and were used as pikes in the Middle Ages to build a palisade. The infantry included selected units, which were called “brave men of the pharaoh” or simply “brave men”. It was their duty to lead the attack. They are depicted storming the ramparts of Kadesh, the city taken by Thutmose III. There were special troops for garrison duty, as well as the famous Majai, "policemen".
At the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, donkeys were used to transport goods. However, Thutmose III adapted oxen-drawn carts to transport the boats with which they crossed the Euphrates. Subsequently, such carts became part of the equipment of the Egyptian army.
By this time, the hierarchy of military ranks had fully developed. Ordinary soldiers were simply called "members of the army." The lowest military rank was called “the greatest of fifty.” The next rank was called “commander of the hundred,” and then came “bearer of the standard.” During the Ramessids (late New Kingdom), these standard-bearers commanded detachments of two hundred infantry. Volunteers and conscripts were also called differently, apparently to emphasize the superiority of one over the other. However, the scribes were categorically opposed to military service (they were exempt from it).
We owe the notes that have come down to us to one of these scribes, reflecting his personal impression of military service in Syria. They were written slightly later than the reign of Thutmose III, but the conditions described by the scribe Gori were practically no different from those encountered by Senmut and Kenamon when they followed Menkheperre into Syria.
Ghori was a senior official who was well acquainted with the conditions in Syria. He addresses his letter to a subordinate, a certain Amenemope, “a scribe at the disposal of the army,” apparently the military commander for the administrative and economic department, responsible for feeding and supplying the troops. Amenemope apparently "flunked the job" and, in an attempt to cover it up, sent Gori a pompous letter boasting of his prowess and attempting to demonstrate his knowledge of local conditions.
Every word of Gori’s reply letter reveals to us an old, battle-hardened veteran, experienced and experienced. I am sure that behind his words, full of secret mockery, hides a kind heart. I imagine Gori sitting in his establishment in Thebes. The wars are already over (he is glad that it is all over, and he remembers, not without pleasure, those days when he “commanded the auxiliary troops ... Shardana, Kehek, Mashuash ...”, when he walked along the road to Meger, “where the sky is dark even during the day and... covered with leaves of cypresses and oaks, where the cedars reach the heavens with their tops,” recalls Jaffa, where he found “a beautiful girl looking after the grapes...”.
Here are a few excerpts from this living human document, translated by Adolf Ehrmann many years ago. But first, a few words of explanation. Amenemope apparently called himself Mahir- a hero, which greatly irritated the old veteran. He returns to this point repeatedly in his witty reply to a subordinate:
Your letter is overloaded with stilted words. Look, they will take revenge on you and put a much greater weight on your shoulders than you wanted.
"I'm a scribe Mahir", you say again. Let's say there is truth in your words. Then come out, we will test you.
A horse is harnessed for you, fast as a jackal... it is like a gust of wind when it flies outward. You let go of the reins [?] and grab the bow. We'll see what your hands do. I want to explain to you who the Mahir is and show you what he does.
Have you not gone to the land of Hatti or seen the land of Una? Do you not know the nature of Hedem and Igedia too? On which bank of the Sumur does the city lie?.. What does this river look like? Didn't you go to Kadesh and Tubihi? Did you go with auxiliary troops into an area populated by Bedouins?
Have you not walked on the road to Meger, where the sky is dark even during the day, since it is covered with cypresses [?], oaks and cedars, whose tops reach the heavens? There are more lions than panthers and hyenas [?], and it is surrounded on [all] sides by Bedouins.
Haven't you climbed Mount Sheva? You haven't walked when your hands are on... and your chariot is swinging on the ropes when your horse is pulling it with difficulty [?].
Please let me me to tell you about... You don’t want to climb and prefer to cross the river... You will see what kind of test you are subjected to Mahir when you carry your chariot on your shoulders...
When they call a halt in the evening, your body is squeezed out... and all your limbs are broken... You will wake up when the hour comes for... in... the night.
You must manage the team alone. Brother will not come to brother. Deserters [?] come to the camp, untie the horse... rummage [?] in the night, steal your clothes. Your groom woke up in the night and saw what they [?] did. He takes what is left and joins the villains. He will mix with the Bedouins and turn into an Asian. Ill-wishers come secretly to loot [?]. They appear when you are sleeping. When you wake up, you will not find a trace of them. They've already left with your things. Then you will become real Mahir and grab yourself by the ear.
Ghori then calls upon Amenemope to show his knowledge of Phenicia (modern-day Lebanon). Many of the cities he lists are still recognizable: Beritus (modern Beirut), Tire and Byblos. On my last visit to Lebanon, I read this passage on a hill overlooking the ancient port of Byblos, and looked down at the labyrinth of ruined walls that Ghori and his companions may have seen three thousand years ago.
I'll tell you about another mysterious city - Byblos. What does he look like? Their goddess - but more about her another time. You didn't go to him?
Tell me about Berithus, about Sidon and Sarepta. Where is the Nezen River located and what is Us like?
They say that another city lies in the sea. It's called Tyr. Water is carried to it in boats [?], and there is more fish there than sand.
I'll tell you about another test - the crossing of Seram. Then you will say: It stings more than a snake bite. The disease strikes Mahira…
...Make me go to Hamat, Deger and Deger-el, the cities where everyone walks Mahirs. Teach me their ways. Show me Yang. If someone goes to Eden, where will he turn his face? He will not turn away from those who teach [us], but will lead us [?] to them!
Show me how to pass through Megiddo, which lies above it. But you Mahir, who is not lacking in valor! Just like you Mahir capable [?] to go [?] at the head of the army! Go ahead, oh Marien, shoot!
Look, there [?]... in a gorge [?] 2000 cubits deep, the bottom of which is filled with boulders and rubble. You're going around [?]. You clutch the bow in your hand. You...to your left. You only allow your commanders to see what pleasing to their eyes until your hands become tired: “Abata Kemo ari, mahir naem.”
The meaning of the last Canaanite words, according to Ermai, is something like this: “You kill like a lion, O glorious Mahir" Gori demonstrates his knowledge here foreign language just as a veteran of the British 8th Army during a conversation may casually utter in Arabic or German a few words he heard during the war.
You claim the name... Mahir[among] the officers of Egypt. But your name is more like that of Kazardi, the chief of the Asher tribe, when a hyena found him in a turpentine tree.
Look, there is a narrow passage, made dangerous by the Bedouins hiding behind every bush. Some of them are four or five cubits tall. Their faces are fierce, their hearts know no pity, and they do not listen to pleas for mercy.
You are alone, you have no assistant, and there is no army behind you. You will not find a guide to show you the way. A trembling covers you, [the hair on your head] stands on end, your soul sinks into your heels. There are boulders and pebbles in your path. There is no convenient road there, because it is overgrown with... thorns and burrs.
On one side of you there is a deep gorge, on the other, mountains rise. You walk next to your chariot, drive [?] it and are afraid... to your horse. If your horse falls, your hand will fall and remain empty, and your... belt will fall off. You unharness your horse to fix your arm in the middle of a gorge. But you don’t know how to fix it and you don’t know how to fasten them together [?]...falls out of place. The horse is already too heavily [loaded] to put [this] on him. Your heart hurts, but you have to walk. The sky is clear, and you think that the enemy is hot on your heels. Then a trembling takes over you. Oh, will there be such an obstacle... that you can overcome! By then your horse will have lost its legs while you find a place to stay for the night. You have understood what it is to experience pain.
When you enter Jaffa, you will find a green meadow [i.e. that is, at the time when he is most beautiful]. You make your way to... and find a lovely girl guarding the vineyard. She will take you to her and show you the color of her womb. They will recognize you and bring a witness. Mahir will be tested again. You will sell your tunic of good Upper Egyptian linen [as a bribe to facilitate your escape]... Every night you sleep wrapped in woolen rags. You are dozing, you are passive. Your... your bow, your... knife and your quiver were sold, your bridle was cut in the dark.
Your horse was taken away and... on slippery ground. The road stretches ahead. The chariot is broken... your weapon fell to the ground and was buried in the sand...
But here Mahir finds his Egyptian comrades, but they do not recognize him, since he has lost his clothes and weapons.
You beg: “Give me food and drink - I am saved.” They turn their backs on you and don't listen to you. They don't pay attention to your story.
You are going to the forge. You are surrounded by blacksmiths and apprentices. They do whatever you want. They repair your chariot... They straighten your harness... They give... your whip and attach a strap to it. You go to the battlefield to accomplish a feat...
The last phrase, of course, is full of irony, since Amenemope must put his chariot in order so as not to make an unfavorable impression when returning to Egypt. That's where we'll leave him.
This document was written during the reign of Ramesses II. Over time, it entered school textbooks and became an exercise that young scribes had to master. The translation I have given here was completed a very long time ago. Ehrman had to omit many words, such as words describing parts of the chariot that he could not translate. In addition, he filled in the gaps in the manuscript at his discretion with the most appropriate words. However, I know of no other piece of ancient Egyptian literature that gives such a vivid and convincing picture of soldier's life during the time of the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty, that is, more than three thousand years ago.
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The Egyptian army was organized in the form of military settlements located in the most threatened areas: on the lower reaches of the Nile there were greatest number military settlements, since attacks from neighboring Asian states could be expected here; in Upper Egypt there were fewer military settlements, since the Ethiopians were not a serious enemy due to their fragmentation. Furthermore, the conquered Nubian tribes living along the banks of the Nile were obliged to supply Egypt with a certain number of soldiers for internal, “police” service.
During large campaigns, the pharaohs strengthened their army at the expense of conquered neighboring tribes.
The army of the Old Kingdom (3200-2400 BC) was staffed by warriors who had land plots, and partly by attracting black mercenaries. Permanent detachments of warriors were in the service of the pharaoh and large temples. For the campaigns, the army was gathered from Upper and Lower Egypt and from African countries. The pharaohs usually took one warrior from every 100 male population. Thus, the army numbered several tens of thousands of people.
The warriors of the Old Kingdom were armed with: a mace with a stone tip, a battle ax made of copper, a spear with a stone tip, and a battle dagger made of stone or copper. In an earlier period, the boomerang was widely used. The main weapons were a bow and a battle ax. As a defensive weapon, the warriors had a wooden shield covered with leather.
The army consisted of detachments. Sources that have reached us say that the soldiers were engaged in combat training, which was in charge of a special head of military training. Already during the period of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians used formation in ranks. All the soldiers in the ranks had the same weapons.
The fortresses of the Old Kingdom period were various shapes(circle, oval or rectangle). The fortress walls sometimes had round towers in the shape of a truncated cone with a platform at the top and a parapet. Thus, the fortress near the city of Abydos was built in the shape of a rectangle; the length of its larger and smaller sides reached 125 and 68 meters, respectively, the height of the walls was 7-11 meters, and the thickness in the upper part was 2 meters. The fortress had one main and two additional entrances. The fortresses in Semne and Kumme were already complex defensive structures that had ledges, walls and a tower.
When storming fortresses, the Egyptians used assault ladders with wooden disc wheels, which made them easier to install and move along the fortress wall. The breach in the fortress walls was made with large crowbars. This is how technology and methods of storming fortresses were born.
The army of the Middle Kingdom (2200-1700 BC) was not much different from the army of the Old Kingdom. However, the weapons of the Egyptian warriors of the Middle Kingdom improved somewhat compared to the previous period, as metal processing became more advanced. Spears and arrows now had bronze tips. Impact weapons remained the same: a battle axe, a spear up to 2 meters long, a mace and a dagger. A spear, a boomerang, a sling with stones, and a bow were used as throwing weapons. A reinforced bow appeared, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The arrows had tips of various shapes and feathers; their length ranged from 55 to 100 centimeters. Arrows with a leaf-shaped tip, common in the Ancient East, initially flint, and then copper and bronze, were less effective weapons than the arrows with a faceted tip - bone or bronze, introduced by the Scythians in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BC. A aimed shot from a bow was effective at a distance of 150-180 meters; the best accuracy of the boomerang and throwing javelin was achieved at a distance of 50 meters. Shield upholstered in leather, half height human size continued to be the only protective equipment.
During the Middle Kingdom, the organization of the army was improved. The units now had a certain number: 6, 40, 60, 100, 400, 600 soldiers. The detachments numbered 2, 3,10 thousand soldiers. Units of uniformly armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers, who had a formation order for movement; They moved in a column of four soldiers in a row along the front and ten ranks deep.
There is evidence of incentives for ordinary soldiers for their length of service: they were allocated small plots of land. Military leaders were promoted for their merits, received land, livestock, slaves, or were awarded “Golden Praise” (like an order) and decorated military weapons.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom paid great attention to securing the borders of Egypt. Systems of defensive structures appeared. For example, three lines of fortresses were built to protect the southern border. The fortresses became more advanced: they now had battlements that covered the defending soldiers; protruding towers for shelling the approaches to the wall; a ditch that made it difficult to approach the wall. The fortress gates were protected by towers. Small exits were arranged for forays. Much attention was paid to supplying the fortress garrison with water: wells or hidden exits to the river were built.
Of the surviving remains of ancient Egyptian fortresses from this period, the most characteristic is the fortress at Mirgissa, built in the shape of a rectangle. This fortress had an internal wall 10 meters high with protruding towers located at a distance of 30 meters from each other, and a moat 8 meters wide. 25 meters from the inner wall there was an outer wall that surrounded the fortress on three sides; on the fourth side the cliff dropped steeply towards the river. The outer wall was surrounded by a 36 meter wide moat. In addition, forward walls were built on rocky ledges, adjacent to the corners of the fortress and making it possible to control the approaches from the river. Two other walls protected the main entrance to the fortress.
The pharaohs and their military leaders undertook numerous campaigns in Nubia, Syria and other countries with the aim of plundering them.
During the New Kingdom period (starting from 1560 BC), most of the soldiers of the Egyptian army were armed with swords, and the bow played a significant role in battle. Protective weapons were improved: in addition to the shield, the warrior also had a helmet and a leather armor with attached bronze plates. An important part of the army were war chariots. The chariot was a wooden platform measuring 1 x 0.5 meters on two wheels, to which a drawbar was tightly attached. The front part and sides of the chariot were covered with leather, which protected the legs of the combat crew, which consisted of a driver and one fighter, from arrows. Two horses were harnessed to the chariot.
The most ancient branch of Egyptian troops was the infantry. It constituted the main force of the Egyptian army. After the introduction of uniform weapons, the Egyptian infantry consisted of archers, slingers, spearmen, and warriors with swords. The presence of equally armed infantry raised the question of the order of its formation. An infantry formation appeared, its movements became rhythmic, which is strikingly evident in all images of Egyptian warriors of the New Kingdom period.
Among the equipment, we should note a special shield to protect the abdomen, which was made up of brightly colored pieces of leather sewn on top of each other, and a shirt-like robe trimmed with leather strips. A striped cap with metal protrusions or something like a helmet made of striped leather was put on a smoothly shaved head (Fig. on p. 42). This helmet also protected the back of the head and was sometimes worn over an ordinary cap.
The warriors had shields that were angular at the bottom, rounded at the top and equipped with a window for observation.
During the campaign, the Egyptian army was divided into several detachments that moved in columns. Reconnaissance was always sent ahead. When stopping, the Egyptians set up a fortified camp of shields. When storming cities, they used a formation called a turtle (a canopy of shields that covered the soldiers from above), a ram, a vine (a low canopy of vines covered with turf to protect soldiers during siege work) and an assault ladder.
A special body was in charge of supplying the troops. Products were issued from warehouses according to certain standards. There were special workshops for the manufacture and repair of weapons.
The Egyptian pharaohs had warships that were equipped with sails and a large number of oars. The bow of the ship was adapted for boarding and ramming an enemy ship.
The battle of Ramses III (about 1200 BC) at Migdal is known, which is interesting due to the interaction of the Egyptian fleet and ground forces. The battle formation of the ground forces on the right flank was covered by fortifications, and on the left it was supported by the fleet. The fleet of the Philistines (a people living on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea) and their allies was defeated by the Egyptian fleet, after which they fled and ground army Philistines.
In the Egyptian army one can see the beginnings of the organizational forms of the army and battle formations, which consisted of the thoughtful placement of chariots, squads of archers, spearmen and others on the battlefield. The battle was started by war chariots, followed by infantry; the third line again consisted of war chariots, serving as combat support.
Thus, combat practice gradually developed certain rules of warfare and combat, placing its own demands on the troops and command.
To be continued..
The Egyptian army was organized in the form of military settlements located in the most threatened areas: the lower Nile had the largest number of military settlements, since attacks from neighboring Asian states could be expected here; in Upper Egypt there were fewer military settlements, since the Ethiopians were not a serious enemy due to their fragmentation. Moreover, the conquered Nubian tribes living along the banks of the Nile were obliged to supply Egypt with a certain number of soldiers for internal “police” service.
During large campaigns, the pharaohs strengthened their army at the expense of conquered neighboring tribes.
The army of the Old Kingdom (3200-2400 BC) was staffed by warriors who had land plots, and partly by attracting black mercenaries. Permanent detachments of warriors were in the service of the pharaoh and large temples. For the campaigns, the army was gathered from Upper and Lower Egypt and from African countries. The pharaohs usually took one warrior from every 100 male population. Thus, the army numbered several tens of thousands of people.
The warriors of the Old Kingdom were armed with: a mace with a stone tip, a battle ax made of copper, a spear with a stone tip, and a battle dagger made of stone or copper. In an earlier period, the boomerang was widely used. The main weapons were a bow and a battle ax. As a defensive weapon, the warriors had a wooden shield covered with leather.
The army consisted of detachments. Sources that have reached us say that the soldiers were engaged in combat training, which was in charge of a special head of military training. Already during the period of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians used formation in ranks. All the soldiers in the ranks had the same weapons.
Fortresses of the Old Kingdom period had various shapes (circle, oval or rectangle). The fortress walls sometimes had round towers in the shape of a truncated cone with a platform at the top and a parapet. Thus, the fortress near the city of Abydos was built in the shape of a rectangle; the length of its larger and smaller sides reached 125 and 68 meters, respectively, the height of the walls was 7-11 meters, and the thickness in the upper part was 2 meters. The fortress had one main and two additional entrances. The fortresses in Semne and Kumme were already complex defensive structures that had ledges, walls and a tower.
When storming fortresses, the Egyptians used assault ladders with wooden disc wheels, which made them easier to install and move along the fortress wall. The breach in the fortress walls was made with large crowbars. This is how technology and methods of storming fortresses were born.
The army of the Middle Kingdom (2200-1700 BC) was not much different from the army of the Old Kingdom. However, the weapons of the Egyptian warriors of the Middle Kingdom improved somewhat compared to the previous period, as metal processing became more advanced. Spears and arrows now had bronze tips. Impact weapons remained the same: a battle axe, a spear up to 2 meters long, a mace and a dagger. A spear, a boomerang, a sling with stones, and a bow were used as throwing weapons. A reinforced bow appeared, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The arrows had tips of various shapes and feathers; their length ranged from 55 to 100 centimeters. Arrows with a leaf-shaped tip, common in the Ancient East, initially flint, and then copper and bronze, were less effective weapons than the arrows with a faceted tip - bone or bronze, introduced by the Scythians in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BC. A aimed shot from a bow was effective at a distance of 150-180 meters; the best accuracy of the boomerang and throwing javelin was achieved at a distance of 50 meters. A shield covered in leather, half the height of a man, continued to be the only protective equipment.
During the Middle Kingdom, the organization of the army was improved. The units now had a certain number: 6, 40, 60, 100, 400, 600 soldiers. The detachments numbered 2, 3,10 thousand soldiers. Units of uniformly armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers, who had a formation order for movement; They moved in a column of four soldiers in a row along the front and ten ranks deep.
There is evidence of incentives for ordinary soldiers for their length of service: they were allocated small plots of land. Military leaders were promoted for their merits, received land, livestock, slaves, or were awarded “Golden Praise” (like an order) and decorated military weapons.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom paid great attention to securing the borders of Egypt. Systems of defensive structures appeared. For example, three lines of fortresses were built to protect the southern border. The fortresses became more advanced: they now had battlements that covered the defending soldiers; protruding towers for shelling the approaches to the wall; a ditch that made it difficult to approach the wall. The fortress gates were protected by towers. Small exits were arranged for forays. Much attention was paid to supplying the fortress garrison with water: wells or hidden exits to the river were built.
Of the surviving remains of ancient Egyptian fortresses from this period, the most characteristic is the fortress at Mirgissa, built in the shape of a rectangle. This fortress had an internal wall 10 meters high with protruding towers located at a distance of 30 meters from each other, and a moat 8 meters wide. 25 meters from the inner wall there was an outer wall that surrounded the fortress on three sides; on the fourth side the cliff dropped steeply towards the river. The outer wall was surrounded by a 36 meter wide moat. In addition, forward walls were built on rocky ledges, adjacent to the corners of the fortress and making it possible to control the approaches from the river. Two other walls protected the main entrance to the fortress.
The pharaohs and their military leaders undertook numerous campaigns in Nubia, Syria and other countries with the aim of plundering them.
During the New Kingdom period (starting from 1560 BC), most of the soldiers of the Egyptian army were armed with swords, and the bow played a significant role in battle. Protective weapons were improved: in addition to the shield, the warrior also had a helmet and a leather armor with attached bronze plates. An important part of the army were war chariots. The chariot was a wooden platform measuring 1 x 0.5 meters on two wheels, to which a drawbar was tightly attached. The front part and sides of the chariot were covered with leather, which protected the legs of the combat crew, which consisted of a driver and one fighter, from arrows. Two horses were harnessed to the chariot.
The most ancient branch of Egyptian troops was the infantry. It constituted the main force of the Egyptian army. After the introduction of uniform weapons, the Egyptian infantry consisted of archers, slingers, spearmen, and warriors with swords. The presence of equally armed infantry raised the question of the order of its formation. An infantry formation appeared, its movements became rhythmic, which is strikingly evident in all images of Egyptian warriors of the New Kingdom period.
Among the equipment, we should note a special shield to protect the abdomen, which was made up of brightly colored pieces of leather sewn on top of each other, and a shirt-like robe trimmed with leather strips. A striped cap with metal protrusions or something like a helmet made of striped leather was put on a smoothly shaved head (Fig. on p. 42). This helmet also protected the back of the head and was sometimes worn over an ordinary cap.
The warriors had shields that were angular at the bottom, rounded at the top and equipped with a window for observation.
During the campaign, the Egyptian army was divided into several detachments that moved in columns. Reconnaissance was always sent ahead. When stopping, the Egyptians set up a fortified camp of shields. When storming cities, they used a formation called a turtle (a canopy of shields that covered the soldiers from above), a ram, a vine (a low canopy of vines covered with turf to protect soldiers during siege work) and an assault ladder.
A special body was in charge of supplying the troops. Products were issued from warehouses according to certain standards. There were special workshops for the manufacture and repair of weapons.
The Egyptian pharaohs had warships that were equipped with sails and a large number of oars. The bow of the ship was adapted for boarding and ramming an enemy ship.
The battle of Ramses III (about 1200 BC) at Migdal is known, which is interesting due to the interaction of the Egyptian fleet and ground forces. The battle formation of the ground forces on the right flank was covered by fortifications, and on the left it was supported by the fleet. The fleet of the Philistines (a people living on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea) and their allies was defeated by the Egyptian fleet, after which the Philistine land army fled.
In the Egyptian army one can see the beginnings of the organizational forms of the army and battle formations, which consisted of the thoughtful placement of chariots, squads of archers, spearmen and others on the battlefield. The battle was started by war chariots, followed by infantry; the third line again consisted of war chariots, serving as combat support.
Thus, combat practice gradually developed certain rules of warfare and combat, placing its own demands on the troops and command.
Looking through the archive of my publications on the history of armor and weapons published in VO, I discovered that among them there is not a single one on the history of the weapons of Ancient Egypt. But this is the cradle of European culture, which has given humanity a lot. As for the periodization of its history, it is traditionally divided into the Old Kingdom (XXXII century - XXIV century BC), the Middle Kingdom (XXI century - XVIII century BC) and the New Kingdom (XVII century . - XI century BC) Before the Old Kingdom in Egypt there was the Predynastic period and then the Early Kingdom. After the New Kingdom there was also the Late Period, and then the Hellenistic Period, and between the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms, as a rule, there were also transitional periods filled with turmoil and rebellion. Often at this time, Egypt was subjected to attacks from nomadic tribes and warlike neighbors, so its history was by no means peaceful and military affairs in Egypt, which means that offensive and defensive weapons were always held in high esteem!
Already in the era of the Old Kingdom - the era of the pyramid-building kings in Egypt there was an army recruited from free peasants, individual units of which were armed with uniform weapons. That is, the army consisted of warriors with spears and shields, warriors with maces, small hatchets and daggers made of copper and bronze, and squads of archers with large bows, whose arrows were tipped with flint. The task of the army was to protect the borders and trade routes from attacks by the Libyans - the most significant among the tribes of the “Nine Bows” - the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt, the Nubians in the south and the nomadic Bedouins in the East. During the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu, the king's army captured 70,000 prisoners, which indirectly speaks of the number of Egyptian troops, the perfection of their tactics, and - their superiority in weapons!
Because in Egypt it is very hot in a special way " military uniform"or the ancient warriors did not have protective clothing. All their clothing consisted of a traditional skirt, a wig made of sheep's wool, which played the role of a helmet, protecting the head from the stunning blow of a mace and a shield. The latter was made from bull skin with the hair facing out, which was apparently joined in several layers and stretched over a wooden frame. The shields were large, covering a person right up to the neck and pointed at the top, as well as slightly smaller ones, rounded at the top, which the warriors held by straps attached to the back.
The warriors lined up in a phalanx and moved towards the enemy, covering themselves with shields and putting out spears, and the archers were behind the infantrymen and shot over their heads. Similar tactics and approximately the same weapons among the peoples with whom the Egyptians fought at that time did not require any greater perfection of weapons - more disciplined and trained warriors won, and it is clear that these were, of course, the Egyptians.
At the end of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian infantry, as before, was traditionally divided into archers, warriors with short-range striking weapons (clubs, clubs, axes, axes, darts, spears) who did not have shields, warriors with axes and shields, and spearmen. This “branch of troops” had shields 60-80 cm long and about 40-50 cm wide, like, for example, the figurines of warriors discovered in the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. That is, in the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians knew a deep formation of spearmen, covered with shields and built in several rows!
It is interesting that the Egyptian troops at this time consisted exclusively of infantry. The first case of the use of horses in Egypt was attested during excavations of the city of Buhen, a fortress on the border with Nubia. The find dates back to the era of the Middle Kingdom, but although horses were already known at that time, they were not widespread in Egypt. It can be assumed that a certain wealthy Egyptian purchased it somewhere in the East and brought it to Nubia, but it is unlikely that he used it as a means of draft.
As for the infantry archers, they were armed with the simplest bows, that is, made from one piece of wood. A compound bow (that is, assembled from different types of wood and covered with leather) would be too difficult for them to manufacture, and also expensive, to supply ordinary infantrymen with such a weapon. But one should not think that these bows were weak, because they had a length of 1.5 m or more, and in skillful hands they were very powerful and long-range weapons. English bows of the Middle Ages made of yew or maple, and 1.5 to 2 m long, were also simple, but they pierced steel armor at a distance of 100 m, and the English archer despised anyone who could not fire 10 - 12 arrows in a minute. True, there is one subtlety here. They did not shoot directly at the men-at-arms, or only shot at a very close range: almost point-blank! At a long distance they fired upward in volleys on command, so that the arrow fell on the knight from above and hit not so much himself as his horse. Hence the armor on top of the necks of knightly horses! So there is no doubt about the capabilities of Egyptian archers armed with bows of this size, and they could easily hit opponents not protected by metal armor at a distance of 75 - 100 m and up to 150 m under favorable conditions.
Ancient Egypt: weapons and armor of chariot warriors
Over its thousand-year history, Egypt has experienced not only ups, but also downs. So the era of the Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of the Hyksos nomads, its defeat and a period of decline. What helped them cope with the Egyptians was that they fought on two-wheeled high-speed chariots drawn by a pair of horses, which gave their troops unprecedented maneuverability and mobility. But soon the Egyptians themselves learned to breed and train horses, make chariots and fight with them. The Hyksos were expelled, Egypt experienced a new rise, and its pharaohs, no longer content with protecting their borders and expeditions for gold in Nubia, began wars with their neighbors in Asia, and also tried to penetrate the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon.
Particularly warlike pharaohs of the era of the advent of the New Kingdom were representatives of the Ramesses dynasty. The armament of warriors at this time became even more deadly, as metal processing technology was improved, and in addition to chariots, the Egyptians also learned a reinforced bow, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The power of such bows was truly great: it is known that pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Amenhotep II pierced copper targets with arrows fired from them.
Already at a distance of 50 - 100 m, it was apparently possible to pierce the armor of a warrior on an enemy chariot with an arrow with a metal leaf-shaped tip. Bows were stored in special cases on the sides of the chariots - one on each (one spare) or one at the side closest to which the shooter stood. However, it has now become much more difficult to use them, especially while standing on a chariot and, moreover, in motion.
That's why military organization The Egyptian army at this time also underwent major changes. In addition to the traditional infantry - "mesha", charioteers - "netheter" appeared. They now represented the elite of the army; all their lives they studied military craft, which became hereditary for them and was passed on from father to son.
The first wars in Asia brought the Egyptians rich booty. So, after taking the city of Megiddo, they got: “340 prisoners, 2041 horses, 191 foals, 6 breeding horses, 2 war chariots decorated with gold, 922 ordinary war chariots, 1 bronze armor, 200 leather armor, 502 war bows, 7 tent pillars decorated with silver and belonging to the king of Kadesh, 1929 head of cattle, 2000 goats, 20,500 sheep and 207,300 bags of flour.” The vanquished recognized the authority of the ruler of Egypt over themselves, took an oath of allegiance and pledged to pay tribute.
It is interesting that in the list of captured armor there is only one bronze and 200 leather ones, which suggests that the presence of chariots also required increased protection for those who fought on them, since these were very valuable professional warriors whom it was a pity to lose. But the fact that there is only one metal shell speaks of the extremely high cost of the protective weapons of that time, which only the princes and pharaohs of Egypt possessed.
The many chariots taken as trophies clearly indicate their wide distribution, not only among Asians, but also among the Egyptians themselves. Egyptian chariots, judging by the images and artifacts that have come down to us, are light carts for two people, one of whom drove the horses, and the other fired at the enemy with a bow. The wheels had wooden rims and six spokes, the bottom was wicker, with a very minimum of wooden guards. This allowed them to develop greater speed, and the supply of arrows in two quivers allowed them to conduct a long battle.
In the Battle of Kadesh - the largest battle between the troops of Egypt and the Hittite kingdom in 1274 BC. - thousands of chariots took part on both sides, and although it actually ended in a draw, there is no doubt that it was the chariots that played a very important role in it. But in addition to new bows, the Egyptians also had two new types of long daggers - with a massive leaf-shaped blade with an edge in the middle, and a blade rounded at the end, and piercing-cutting ones - with elegant, long blades with parallel blades that smoothly turned into an edge, and also with a convex rib. The handle of both was very comfortable, with two cone-shaped bells - up - the pommel and down - the crosshair.
Sickle-shaped (sometimes double-edged) bladed weapons, borrowed by the Egyptians from their enemies in Palestine and undergoing a number of modifications in Egypt - “khopesh” (“khepesh”), were also widely used, like maces, axes with a narrow blade and moon-shaped axes.
This is what the infantry of Ancient Egypt, including the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, might have looked like. In the foreground are two warrior-spearmen in headscarves, with printed protective aprons in the shape of a heart on top of a regular apron, possibly in quilted jackets, with sickle-shaped short swords made of bronze, and then warriors with a war club combined with an ax and an ax with a moon-shaped blade. The dart thrower has no defensive weapons at all. Two black warriors with bows in their hands are mercenaries from Nubia. Only one pharaoh has armor on his body, next to whom stands a signalman with a drum. Box of a set of soldiers from the Zvezda company. Oh, what we don’t have for boys now! And what kind of soldiers I had in childhood - heaven and earth!
Narmer palette. Depicts Pharaoh Narmer with a mace in his hands. (Cairo Museum)
The head of the mace of Pharaoh Nermer. (British Museum, London)
Darts and shield. Ancient Egypt. Middle Kingdom. Modern reconstruction. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Painted figurines of warriors from the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. (Cairo Museum)
The head of an Egyptian warrior's mace. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Ax of their tomb of Ahhotep. New kingdom. 18th Dynasty, 16th century BC. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Ancient Egyptian battle axe. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Reconstruction of a New Kingdom chariot. (Römer-Pelitzeus Museum. Lower Saxony, Hildesheim, Germany)