Cognitive aspect of language research. Cognitive aspect of the goals of teaching foreign languages ​​Cognitive aspect

Cognitive aspect of learning goal foreign languages associated with such categories as knowledge, thinking and understanding processes involved in the student’s familiarization with a foreign language and the culture of the people - its native speaker. When determining the essence of the cognitive aspect of the goal of teaching foreign languages, it is important to proceed from the understanding that language reflects the interaction between psychological, communicative, functional and cultural factors

(see: Chenki A., 1997, pp. 340-369).

It is known from cognitive science that human thinking is a process of processing (with the help of an important “processor” - the human cognitive system) and generating knowledge. Knowledge functions as an “impersonal phenomenon”, as a certain “field of meanings” to which human consciousness “partakes” through anamnesis. This process of cognition is a transition from a state of “ignorance” to a state of “knowledge” and involves “transforming a thing in itself into a thing for us,” i.e. destruction of the natural reality of an object - “tearing it out” from its usual habitat - abstraction from the unimportant characteristics of the object being studied - anthropomorphic interpretation of what is perceived.”

In epistemology 1 and cognitive science, there are two main types of knowledge: declarative and procedural. Declarative knowledge refers to knowledge (“ What-knowledge") acquired by an individual as a result of his social experience(empirical knowledge from the professional sphere or from everyday social and personal life: for example, food, transport) and in the learning process (academic knowledge from the field of scientific and technical education). This category of knowledge is not necessarily directly related to language and culture, but it is important for the implementation verbal communication. Procedural knowledge (“ How-knowledge") is a certain sequence of actions that should be performed. In other words, procedural knowledge is some general instructions about actions in certain situations (for example, instructions for using a household appliance). If the first group of knowledge can be verified as true and false, then the second can be assessed only on the basis of the success or failure of the action algorithm.

Regardless of what type of knowledge we are talking about, it can be divided into three groups: 1) individual knowledge, which is the property of the active subject, his speech and other activities; 2) cumulative collective knowledge-experience, which is formed and functions in a certain linguistic and cultural community according to the laws mental activity and interactions in ultra-large systems; 3) collective knowledge “registered” in the products of various human activities, which reflects only part of what is included in the first concept of knowledge (see: Zalevskaya A.A., 1996, p. 26). It follows that human linguistic knowledge does not exist on its own. They, being formed through his personal experience and refraction and being under the control of norms and assessments established in society, function in the context of his diverse experience. Therefore, for a native speaker to recognize a word means to include it in the context of previous experience, i.e. “in the internal context of diverse knowledge and relationships established in the corresponding culture as the basis for mutual understanding

1 Epistemology there is actually a theory of knowledge.

in the course of communication and interaction” (ibid., p. 26). The internal context is most naturally connected with individual knowledge, with access to a person’s individual picture of the world.

In the process of forming an individual picture of the world, a student studying a foreign language is based, firstly, on the cognitive means of his own culture (see: Baranov A.G., Shcherbina T.S., 1991), attracted to understand the means of a foreign culture, in secondly, on new knowledge about a foreign culture, formed in the course of its cognition, and, finally, on new knowledge about one’s own culture, created during the cognition of a foreign culture (see: Demyankov V.3., 1995). In turn, as already noted when describing the essence of language education as a result, the knowledge used in encoding and decoding any message is by no means limited to knowledge about the language. Only the body of knowledge about the world, social context statements, knowledge about the features of discourse and the laws of its planning and management, and much more

(see: Gerasimov V.I., Petrov V.V., 1995, p. 6) allow a person to master the “global semantic project” when constructing and perceiving foreign language utterances. The “global semantic project” is associated with the comprehension of the mental, spiritual essence of the speaker of the language being studied, the world in which he lives, and taking it into account in situations of intercultural communication.

To study and present knowledge, scientists use various knowledge structures, the most common ones include frames . Frames are deep invariants of certain fragments of knowledge (see: Kamenskaya O.L., 1990, p. 314), certain means of organizing experience and tools of cognition. Just frames, as he believes

C. Fillmore, are innate (for example, knowledge characteristic features human face). Other frames are acquired from experience or learning (for example, the meaning of social institutions). A special case is represented by those Frames whose existence completely depends on the linguistic expressions associated with them (for example, units of measurement, calendar, etc.). It follows that a person’s linguistic competence interacts with other types of knowledge and skills. This fact should be taken into account when teaching foreign languages, during which it is justified and inevitable to go beyond the boundaries of actual communicative knowledge and skills.

Appeal to frames as a supra-linguistic level, to an extra-linguistic situation always occurs when comprehending symbolic expressions. It is no coincidence that Charles Fillmore associates linguistically determined characteristics of the structure of knowledge with frames: “We can use the term frame, when we mean the specific lexical and grammatical support that a given language has for naming and describing categories and relationships found in schemes” (Fillmore Ch., 1983, p. 110). Therefore, when speaking about the cognitive aspect of the goal of teaching foreign languages, one should keep in mind the need and importance of forming in the minds of students basic cognitive structures that provide them with the perception and understanding of the language and world of another sociocultural community. “The essence of teaching intercultural communication is the construction in the cognitive system of the recipient (learner) of secondary constructions - knowledge that would correlate with the knowledge about the world of the speaker (a representative of another sociocultural community)” (Khaleeva I.I., 1989, p. 162) This knowledge form fragments of the linguistic picture of the world, that is, from “linguistic consciousness directly connected with the associative-verbal network of language,” and fragments of the conceptual picture.

The process of formation of basic cognitive structures is accompanied by a complication of connections established in the student’s mind between the elements of the linguocultures he assimilates. Due to this, its development is carried out, since mastering foreign languages ​​and cultures leads to a change in character; cognitive activity of a student, whose language development has a modifying effect on his cognitive development, on the formation of linguistic consciousness.

Penetration into a foreign world, a foreign culture is a complex and multifaceted process, which is accompanied by a period of formation of the student’s internal experience of sociocultural images. This can be explained by the fact that understanding involves not only the processing and interpretation of perceived data, but also the activation and use of internal, cognitive information, i.e. information about cognitive presuppositions (Dijk van T.A., Kintsch W., 1988, p. 158). Thus, in the process of a person’s perception of a foreign language utterance or a foreign fact of action and other information available to him (about specific events, situations and context, as well as cognitive presuppositions) are the basis for the formation in his memory of a mental representation of the discourse. In this case, he may have expectations of what will be said or presented before he actually hears or sees it, and this may make it easier for him to understand when he actually receives the relevant external information. “At each stage there is no fixed order of succession between the perceived data and their interpretation: interpretations can first be constructed and only later compared with the perceived data” (ibid., p. 158). Therefore, the cognitive aspect of the goal of teaching foreign languages ​​is associated with the development in students of the ability to flexibly use various types information, the ability to effectively construct mental representations even if the interpreted information is incomplete. The main thing is that understanding is not a passive construction of a representation of a certain linguistic image, but part of an interactive process in which a person who perceives a particular sociolinguocultural phenomenon actively interprets it. At the same time, the strategic analysis of the perceived or generated text depends not only on textual characteristics, but also on the characteristics of the student, his goals and knowledge about the world. “This means that the reader tries to reconstruct not only the intended meaning of the text, expressed by the author in various ways in the text or in the context, but also the meaning that is most relevant from the point of view of his interests and goals” (ibid., p. 164). And here factors such as imaginative perception, physical interaction, mental images and the role of realities in culture play a special role. J. Lakoff writes: “All these considerations support the point that our conceptual system depends on and is directly related to our physical and cultural experience” (Lakoff J., 1988, p. 48). And further: “.. .our conceptual system is based on and is understood through physical, social and other types of experience...” (ibid., p. 49).

The above gives grounds to assert that initially ideas about foreign language reality arise under the influence of the culture of the native language and are comprehended by the student of a non-native language solely as a result of staging his own life experience. One’s own experience, generalized impression, and developed associations create the basis for a characteristic opinion, behavior, or attitude. The method of perception that is formed when confronted with images of one’s native culture is used as a category of knowledge of reality, that is, as a cognitive category.

Structure and semantics constitute one part of a complex phenomenon - text. The other part lies in the consciousness and memory of a person. Only when both of these parts interact does the process of complete perception and understanding of a foreign language text by a non-native speaker occur. Understanding is a complex process. It includes not only the verbal text, but also what accompanies it and what conditions and stimulates it, i.e. background knowledge. At the same time, cognitive motives and the student’s cognitive activity have the greatest impact on the quality of mastering someone else’s linguistic culture and act as the main stimulus for the development of his individual picture of the world, which is based on knowledge about the world, knowledge from various fields, knowledge inherent in a particular culture and/or having universal character. As research shows, among the cognitive motives that encourage students to learn a non-native language and culture, the need for information about the cultural specifics of the country of the language being studied stands out (see: Kareeva L. A., 2000).

Cognition of another culture is carried out in the process of perceiving someone else’s nationally specific picture of the world, interpreting it with the help of images of one’s national consciousness. National-cultural specific fragments of an unfamiliar culture encountered along this path can be perceived as strange, alien, unusual. In this sense, as shown in the dissertation research of M. A. Bogatyreva (1998), it is unacceptable when in the educational process of a foreign language one approaches foreign cultural reality with ready-made measures and tailors it according to one’s own perception. This approach almost always leads to sociocultural bias, alienation, leading to a defensive reaction - a retreat to one’s own national values, or a devaluation of “one’s own” and a naive admiration for everything foreign. Teaching foreign languages ​​is designed to reduce such negative aspects of intercultural communication. Therefore, the interpretation of the life, attitude and uniqueness of another people should take place against the background of those life events in which schoolchildren take part. It is this approach that will develop the student’s worldview and prepare him to understand himself as a bearer of national values, to understand the relationships and interdependence of his people and the people of the country of the language being studied in solving global problems.

As noted above, the cognitive aspect of the goal of teaching foreign languages ​​is also associated with the formation in students of a broad understanding of the achievements of national cultures (their own and foreign language) in the development of universal human culture and the role of the native language and culture in the mirror of foreign culture. In this case, a special role is played by the provision that, while studying a foreign language, students receive a practical school of dialectics, because the work of comparing their native language and the foreign language being studied makes it possible to free themselves “from the captivity of their native language” (Shcherba L.V., 1947, p. 46). By studying a foreign language, a student learns in depth the ways of forming thoughts and thereby gets to know his native language better. As rightly noted by L.V. Shcherba, a foreign language, acting as a standard for comparison with the language being studied, allows the student to realize that there are other native language, ways of expressing thoughts, other connections between form and meaning. This statement, with a certain amount of amendment, also applies to the student’s mastery of a foreign culture.

By becoming familiar with a foreign language, a student learns:

a) world culture, national cultures and social subcultures of the peoples of the countries of the language being studied and their reflection in the way and lifestyle of people;

b) the spiritual heritage of countries and peoples, their historical and cultural memory;

c) ways to achieve intercultural understanding.

In his mind, a synthesis of knowledge is carried out both about the specifics of his native culture and foreign culture, and about the generality of knowledge about cultures and communication. However, in order to achieve this, the student must also master verbal, educational, including research, strategies for comprehending someone else's linguistic culture in comparison with his own (procedural knowledge). Therefore, the cognitive aspect of the goal of teaching foreign languages ​​also means developing in students the skills and abilities to use (creatively, economically and purposefully) rational techniques for mastering foreign languages ​​and cultures

(see: Bimmel P., 1997). From this point of view, this aspect is the actual developmental aspect of learning, and its content is associated primarily with the formation of students’ linguistic/speech abilities and mental processes that underlie the successful mastery of foreign language communicative activities. In other words, we are talking about the development of a student’s existential competence as one of the components of general competence. This competence includes the individual characteristics of a person, his character traits, belief system (for example, the image of himself and others), introversion and extroversion, i.e. all properties and qualities that distinguish a person in the process of social interaction. Existential competence is sensitive to the areas of intercultural communication, because a person’s readiness and desire to enter into this communication, his attitude towards his foreign communication partner ultimately determine the quality and results of mutual understanding and interaction.

Existential competence is a dynamic concept. Its components exist only in movement, in development, and this development is carried out only in the process of one or another practical and theoretical activity (see: Teplov B. M., 1961, pp. 13, 14). Moreover, on the one hand, this competence is the result of communicative activity, and on the other hand, it determines the success of its implementation.

In domestic linguodidactics and methods of teaching foreign languages, it is proven that existential competence, or more precisely, its components - individual psychological characteristics of a person, conducive to the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities in the field of a foreign language and their use in practical speech activity, are actually the so-called linguistic / speech abilities.

It has been experimentally proven that the common components of language abilities are well-developed mechanical memory, a high level of development of thinking, and the degree of development of speech skills developed on the basis of the native language. In the process of performing a certain type of speech activity, it is necessary to have sustained attention.

In the domestic methodology, attempts have been made to establish the role and place of each component in the structure of abilities for foreign language speech activity, i.e. identify leading and auxiliary ones among them. The idea was expressed that the main component of the structure of linguistic ability is a certain degree of development of mental operations: analysis - synthesis, speech guessing. As indicators of mental processes related directly to speech activity, the volume of operative memory and probabilistic forecasting were called. At the same time, the most significant, especially on initial stage teaching foreign languages, in the general balance of individual psychological characteristics that influence the success of mastering foreign languages ​​and performing foreign language speech activity, an indicator of the volume of operative memory is adopted (see: Zimnyaya I. A., 1970, p. 46). However, the practice of teaching foreign languages ​​indicates that the success of training and education using the means of the subject is determined by how consistently both leading and auxiliary components of abilities are taken into account.

In the methodology of teaching foreign languages, there are a number of independent studies devoted to the search for optimal ways to develop the language abilities of students, and on this basis - to improve the quality of practical proficiency in the language being studied (see: Galskova N.D., 2000). Despite the fact that most of these studies were carried out in relation to the conditions of teaching foreign languages ​​at a university, their main results can be extrapolated to school conditions. These results include, in particular, the statement that the more properties and characteristics of a student’s personality are taken into account in the educational process, the more successful the process of mastering communicative competence. Taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students involves not only “adapting” the educational process to their capabilities. We are also talking about the optimal change and development of these characteristics, about the targeted formation of the individual characteristics of each student under the influence of a specially organized training.

Effective mastery by students of a new language and culture is determined by the degree of development of their skills:

1) organize your learning activities (for example, work individually, in pairs, in groups; check, evaluate and correct your work or the work of a fellow student, etc.);

2) activate intellectual processes (for example, recognize this or that language phenomenon, compare this phenomenon with a similar one in the native language, etc.);

3) prepare for educational process and actively participate in it (for example, taking notes, making a plan, using a dictionary, etc.);

4) organize communicative activities (for example, plan your statement, formulate your thoughts using a limited set of linguistic means, use gestures and facial expressions in oral communication, etc.).

It is important that the formation and improvement of these skills is carried out in close connection with the development of communication skills, with work on various aspects of the language. The student must realize and develop his own individual style of learning activity (for example, individual ways and techniques of mastering lexical or grammatical phenomena, cultural phenomena), master knowledge that makes it easier for him, for example, to understand texts (subject knowledge from other areas) or adequately perceive, for example, structural features of a particular grammatical phenomenon (knowledge of a grammatical rule). All this as a whole should allow schoolchildren to master certain strategies for working on language, which can be conditionally divided into two groups.

The first group includes strategies aimed directly at working with language material. These strategies allow the student to:

a) correctly select the necessary linguistic phenomena (using, for example, anticipation, putting forward and testing hypotheses, revealing the meanings of words by context, etc.);

b) optimize the processes of assimilation of language material (for example, highlighting keywords, underlining/highlighting any words, sentences, etc. in the text, searching for language patterns, using speech samples, etc.);

c) improve the functioning of memory (finding/selecting appropriate contexts for the use of a particular linguistic phenomenon, using clarity, repetition, recombination, etc.).

The second group includes the so-called metacognitive strategies. They consist of students’ abilities to plan their educational activities, monitor and evaluate the success of their results. The student’s reflexive abilities, which we wrote about above, are of particular importance. All that remains to be added here is the following.

In general, if we talk about the cognitive aspect of teaching foreign languages, we should keep in mind that reflexive abilities associated with the experience of learning someone else’s ethnolinguistic culture play an important role and have special potential (Diagram 10). If the process of cognition is of a so-called centrifugal nature, since the student, acquiring linguistic and cultural experience and becoming familiar with new facts, phenomena and processes, breaks out of the “captivity” of his monoculture, reflection of the acquired experience has a centripetal component: the acquired new experience is comprehended from the point of view of its significance, novelty, relevance, etc. for the student’s personality.

The cognitive aspect of foreign language learning goals is associated, first of all, with the formation of students’ linguistic/speech abilities and mental processes that underlie the successful mastery of foreign language communicative activities. As stated in psychology, human abilities, including the ability to communicate, are a dynamic concept. This means that any ability exists only in movement, in development, and this development is carried out only in the process of one or another practical and theoretical activity. Language abilities do not exist outside and before their manifestation in activity; they are formed depending on the specific conditions of this activity. Moreover, on the one hand, the ability to communicate verbally is the result of this activity, and on the other hand, it determines the success of its implementation.

When specifying the components of abilities for a particular activity, researchers proceed from the position that abilities are sets of mental properties that have a complex structure. The components of this structure are determined by the requirements of a specific activity. Therefore, linguistic/speech abilities should be understood as individual psychological characteristics of a person that are conducive to the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities in the field of a foreign language and their use in practical speech activity. In the theory of teaching foreign languages, it has been experimentally proven that the common components of language abilities are well-developed mechanical memory, a high level of development of thinking, and the degree of development of speech skills developed on the material of the native language. In the process of performing a certain type of speech activity, it is necessary to have sustained attention.

In the domestic methodology, an attempt is made to establish the role and place of each component in the structure of abilities for foreign language speech activity, i.e. identify leading and auxiliary ones among them. A number of scientists believe that the main component of the structure of linguistic ability is a certain degree of development of mental operations: analysis - synthesis, speech conjecture. Others put forward the capacity of working memory and probabilistic forecasting as indicators of mental processes related directly to speech activity. At the same time, the most significant, especially at the initial stage of learning a foreign language, in the overall balance of individual psychological characteristics that influence the success of mastering a foreign language and performing foreign language speech activity, is the indicator of the volume of operative memory. However, in our opinion, those researchers are right who believe that both the leading and auxiliary components of abilities form a unity that ensures the success of training and education.

In the methodology of teaching a foreign language, there are a number of independent studies devoted to the search for optimal ways to develop the language abilities of students and, on this basis, improve the quality of practical proficiency in the language being studied. Despite the fact that most of these studies were carried out in relation to the conditions of teaching a foreign language at a university, their main results can be extrapolated to school conditions. These results include, in particular, the statement that the more properties and characteristics of a student’s personality are taken into account in the educational process, the more successful the process of students mastering communicative competence is. At the same time, taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students implies not only “adaptation” of the educational process to their capabilities. We are also talking about the optimal change and development of these characteristics, about the targeted formation of the individual characteristics of each student under the influence of a specially organized training.

The cognitive aspect of the goal of learning a foreign language is also associated with the formation in students of a broad understanding of the achievements of national cultures (their own and foreign languages) in the development of universal human culture and the role of their native language and culture in the mirror of foreign culture. In this case, a special role is played by the provision that students, when studying a foreign language, receive a practical school of dialectics, because the work of comparing their native language and the foreign language being studied makes it possible to free themselves “from the captivity of their native language” (p. 46).

In the process of increasing the complexity of the connections established in the student’s mind between the elements of the linguistic cultures he assimilates, the student develops. Mastering a foreign language leads to a change in the nature of the student’s cognitive activity, whose language development has a modifying effect on his cognitive development, on the formation of linguistic consciousness. This is explained by the fact that the formation of linguistic consciousness is based on the common basis of human primary experience. On the basis of this experience, the cognitive core of the block of mental patterns of the individual cognitive system is formed, which underlies the material and spiritual activity of the individual and represents a constantly developing system of knowledge and beliefs of the individual. The level of cognitive (mental) models is built above the block of thought patterns. The basis of linguistic consciousness, the thesaurus block of the individual cognitive system, is associative semantic networks, which by nature are not linguistic, but cognitive.

Cognition of another culture is carried out in the process of perceiving someone else’s nationally specific “picture of the world”, interpreting it with the help of images of one’s national consciousness. National-cultural specific fragments of an unfamiliar culture encountered along this path can be perceived as strange, alien, unusual. The consequence of this may be sociocultural alienation, leading to a defensive reaction - a retreat to one’s own national values ​​or a devaluation of one’s own and a naive admiration for everything foreign. Foreign language training is designed to reduce such negative aspects of intercultural communication. When becoming familiar with a foreign language, students must learn: a) world culture, national cultures and social subcultures of the peoples of the countries of the language being studied and their reflection in the way and lifestyle of people; b) the spiritual heritage of countries and peoples, their historical and cultural memory; c) ways to achieve intercultural understanding.

The cognitive aspect of the goals of learning a foreign language also means developing in students the skills and abilities to use rational techniques for mastering a foreign language. These techniques give them the opportunity to master a foreign language creatively, economically and purposefully. This means that students are able to:

1) organize your learning activities (for example, work individually, in pairs, in groups; check, evaluate and correct your work or the work of a fellow student, etc.);

2) activate intellectual processes (for example, recognize this or that language phenomenon, analyze it, compare it with a similar one in the native language, etc.);

3) prepare for the educational process and actively participate in it (for example, take notes, draw up a plan, use a dictionary, etc.);

4) organize communicative activities (for example, plan your statement, formulate your thoughts using a limited set of linguistic means, use gestures and facial expressions in oral communication, etc.).

It is important that the formation and improvement of these skills is carried out in close connection with the development of schoolchildren’s communicative skills, with work on various aspects of the language. At the same time, the student must realize and develop his own individual style of learning activity (for example, individual ways and techniques of mastering lexical or grammatical phenomena), master knowledge that makes it easier for him, for example, to understand texts (subject knowledge from other areas) or adequately perceive, for example, structural signs of a particular grammatical phenomenon (knowledge of a grammatical rule). All this as a whole should allow schoolchildren to master certain strategies for working on language, which can be conditionally divided into two groups.

The first group includes strategies aimed directly at working with language material. These are the so-called strategies that allow the student: a) to correctly select the necessary linguistic phenomena(using, for example, anticipation, putting forward and testing hypotheses, revealing the meanings of words by context, etc.); b) optimize the processes of mastering language material (for example, highlighting key words, underlining/highlighting any words, sentences, etc. in the text, searching for language patterns, using speech samples, etc.); c) improve the functioning of memory (finding/selecting appropriate contexts for the use of a particular linguistic phenomenon, using clarity, repetition, recombination, etc.).

The second group includes metacognitive (students planning their learning activities, monitoring, assessing the success of their results), social (ability to interact with communication partners, empathic abilities, etc.) and affective strategies (stress relief, encouragement, expression of emotions, intentions, etc. .).

Thus, the cognitive aspect of goals closely links teaching a foreign language as a means of intercultural communication with its intensive use as a tool for cognition, development and language acquisition.

Transcript

1 N.N. Boldyrev (Tambov State University named after G.R. Derzhavin) Cognitive aspect of language research The history of the development of domestic and world linguistics is a dynamic process of constant change of scientific directions and approaches associated with the setting of goals and objectives specific to the chosen direction, the promotion of new theories, the development of original principles, methods and techniques analysis. As a result, a certain system of scientific views on the object of research, its internal properties and the laws of their external manifestation is formed, which is distinguished by its own specifics. The specificity of the principles and methods of studying language in the cognitive aspect is due to the foregrounding of its cognitive function, the approach to language as a human cognitive ability. This perspective of considering a language, in turn, involves highlighting its main distinctive features that characterize it primarily from this point of view and determine the basic principles of its study in the right aspect. Such principles of studying language as a cognitive ability include: interdisciplinarity of the study itself, anthropocentricity, multi-levelness and structural and functional integrity of its object. These principles reveal the specifics of cognitive linguistics as a scientific direction and demonstrate its main differences from other areas. The first difference between the cognitive approach to language, which largely determines the content of all the above principles, is to overcome the rigid boundary between “internal” and “external” linguistics, outlined by F. de Saussure within the framework of the structural approach, which means going beyond the boundaries of the language system itself and appeal to various structures of knowledge and mental processes. In addition to observing, describing and stating linguistic facts themselves, which was characteristic of structural linguistics, the new scientific direction seeks to explain how language is structured and how it is used, how many physical, physiological and mental processes and phenomena are reflected in linguistic activity, i.e. . fulfill the main, explanatory function of science. Remaining within the language system, it is possible to reveal some formal connections and dependencies between its units, certain sound laws, but it is almost impossible to understand and explain how a language implements its basic functions, how meanings and meanings are formed, stored and transmitted, i.e. what language is for. Therefore, the very formation of cognitive linguistics was associated with taking into account and generalizing many data obtained in different fields scientific activity: in the field of psychology, philosophy, logic, information theory, physiology, medicine and other fields. This determined the interdisciplinary nature of the new scientific direction and became one of the main principles of language research in the cognitive aspect.

2 The interdisciplinarity of cognitive-linguistic research is determined by the goals and objectives facing them and is the main condition for their implementation. It is impossible to ignore, according to E.S. Kubryakova, information about what memory is, what perception is, on what principles the cognitive or conceptual system is organized in our consciousness, when it comes to the essential characteristics of language, about the general model of its organization as an integral element of the mind, the cognitive ability of man. The necessary access to other sciences in this case ensures the interdisciplinarity of the cognitive approach. This makes it possible for cognitive linguistics to solve its main task of showing the relationship and interaction of linguistic units and the underlying structures of knowledge, to model, as far as possible, these structures themselves, their content and connections, thereby making its feasible contribution to general theory intelligence. At the same time, it is impossible to obtain a complete understanding of the object while remaining within the narrow framework of one scientific field. The second difference in cognitive linguistics is due to the recognition of the central role of man in the processes of cognition and speech activity, i.e. anthropocentric principle of language organization. The cognitive approach to the study of language is based on the fact that a significant role in the formation of linguistic meanings belongs to a person as a bearer of certain experience and knowledge. It is a person, as a cognizing subject and as a subject speaking a certain language, who forms meanings, and does not reproduce them in a finished form, and it is the speaking subject who consciously makes the choice of linguistic means of expression to describe a particular situation. This means that you can access any fragment own experience in the process of forming the meaning of a linguistic sign, i.e. the use of both linguistic and non-linguistic encyclopedic knowledge. The only condition for successful communication is that this knowledge must be common (shared) for the interlocutors. The emergence of an anthropocentric approach in science as a whole is due to increased attention to the study of human consciousness, its role in solving various kinds of problems, including scientific ones. This, in turn, explains the increased interest in language, which acts as the only possible means of access to the work of consciousness, to understanding its basic principles and mechanisms. This approach and principle of research allows us to pose the problem of the relationship between language and thinking in a new way, going beyond the framework of philosophical teachings itself and turning directly to practical everyday language experience. It makes it possible to shift the emphasis from theoretical knowledge to everyday knowledge, which largely determines the everyday use of language. The very formulation of the question about the role of the human factor in language is not fundamentally new for linguistic research (see, for example, the works: [Serebrennikov 1988; Human factor in language 1991]). This problem has been studied from different positions: topic-rhematic division of a sentence and the concept of functional perspective, authorization of a statement and reflection of the observer’s position, anthropocentric nature of lexical 2

3 meanings of individual linguistic units, concept linguistic personality etc. Its novelty in the context of cognitive research is associated precisely with the appeal to the human knowledge system, with the interpretation of the meaning of any linguistic unit in the context of its entire conceptual system, the necessity and imperativeness of which is emphasized by many scientists working in this field, see, for example:. The latter presupposes the development of a special, multi-level theory of meaning, which, in turn, gives grounds to talk about the third cardinal difference (and research principle) of cognitive linguistics as a scientific direction in the whole multi-level approach to the semantics of linguistic units. This principle involves a revision of the basic provisions of traditional semantic theory and therefore deserves a more detailed discussion. In the history of domestic and foreign linguistics, many semantic theories have appeared, based on various principles and initial ideas about language: its nature, functions, system-structural and functional characteristics. Many of these theories, to one degree or another, developed ideas about the language system as set out by F. de Saussure, shifting their own emphasis towards the generative process (the process of generating a statement) or towards functioning. At the same time, the understanding of a linguistic unit as a unity of form and content remained unchanged, i.e. a two-level approach that limits the content of a linguistic unit to the area of ​​linguistic knowledge itself and its linguistic meaning. Other theories tried to reflect the complexity of the relationship between the surrounding world and human consciousness in its linguistic manifestation. The formation of the cognitive approach in the second half of the 20th century was marked precisely by the development of a multi-level theory of meaning of cognitive semantics, the distinctive feature of which is going beyond the boundaries of linguistic knowledge itself and turning to knowledge of a non-linguistic, encyclopedic nature and determining the role of this knowledge in the process of forming linguistic meanings and the meaning of statements . In accordance with the general goal of cognitive linguistics, the study of the cognitive function of language in all its manifestations (see more about this in: [Kubryakova 2004a; Boldyrev 2004]), the concepts of conceptualization and categorization, two of the most important cognitive processes associated with the formation of a system, become central to semantic theory knowledge in the form of concepts and categories (a certain picture of the world) in the human mind. Within the framework of this theory, the semantics of linguistic units (cognitive semantics) is considered as the result of a certain way of understanding the world based on the correlation of linguistic meanings with specific concepts and categories, i.e. as a reflection of the processes of conceptualization and categorization in language. This determined the leading position of cognitive semantics itself as a theory of conceptualization and categorization in language and as a special area of ​​research in cognitive linguistics. Thus, a fundamental departure was proclaimed from one of the main postulates of structural linguistics about the need for

There is a need to strictly exclude everything that belongs to the field of “external” linguistics from the program of language research. As a result, one of the key provisions of semantic theory about the contextual conditioning of the meanings of linguistic forms has undergone significant changes. In its interpretation, an understanding of the difference in question and, accordingly, the principle of cognitive studies of language of their multi-level nature are revealed. Within the framework of structural linguistics, the contextual conditioning of the definition of meaning is understood as an intralinguistic (paradigmatic and syntagmatic) context, i.e. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships between linguistic signs within a language system. The classic example is usually the word hand in English language or Hand (with the same semantics) in German, the scope of meaning of which, according to structuralists, is determined by the presence of other words: arm and Arm, respectively. In Russian, both of these meanings are covered by one word hand, since in Russian there is no separate word to express the concept “hand”, compare: hold the baby in your arms/by the hand in Russian and hold the baby in the arms/by the hand in English language. At the same time, attention is completely excluded from the fact of the presence in many languages ​​of words of general semantics, such as: relatives, parents, day, - the scope of the meaning of which is difficult to relate to the existence of words, such as: mother, father, day, night, respectively, or the German word Geschwister (brothers and sisters together), which does not exist in other languages ​​and whose meaning is not related to the scope of the words: Bruder and Schwester. For proponents of the cognitive approach, the context against which linguistic meaning is determined is external to the language system. Meanings are cognitive structures included in models of knowledge and opinion, specific conceptualizations (see:). For example, D. Bickerton believes that the value English word toothbrush (toothbrush) is determined by the meanings of other units in the linguistic system, such as: nailbrush (nail brush) and hairbrush (hair brush). A natural question arises whether a person who does not know the words nailbrush and hairbrush really understands the word toothbrush differently compared to those who know these words. Native speakers of Russian, for example, may not realize that in other languages ​​there is a special word for the hand or siblings together, or, conversely, there are no special words for distinguishing between the meanings of “blue” and “goluboy”, as for example in English , German and French. It is more likely that the word toothbrush derives its meaning from the function that a toothbrush has in everyday human experience (to brush teeth), rather than from a paradigmatic contrast with other words in the language system. In other words, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes clear only in the context of certain knowledge. At the same time, the question of whether this knowledge is verbalized in the language system in individual words or not is, in principle, not significant. For example, the meaning of the word five " highest mark" becomes - 4

5 is understandable only in the context of general ideas about the system of knowledge assessments in domestic educational institutions, i.e. against the background of the concept “grade”, which must be activated by linguistic or other means (it is not at all necessary to know the names of other grades in order to understand that an A is the highest score). A foreigner who is not familiar with this system will not have a basis for understanding the named word if the corresponding concept is not activated (for example, in Europe, the USA and other countries, as is known, there are different systems ratings). For a person not associated with the education system, this word can also mean: “banknote”, “trolleybus, bus or tram number”, “brand of car, wine, beer, cigarettes”, etc., i.e. the meaning of this, like any other word, can be determined by different structures of knowledge. IN different countries There are, for example, their own systems for labeling goods (size can be indicated by numbers or letters), level of services (class, number of stars), types of cigarettes or cognac, etc. The course of these arguments leads to the natural conclusion that the meanings of words in a language system are correlated not so much with paradigmatic and syntagmatic contexts, but with certain cognitive contexts, cognitive structures, or blocks of knowledge that stand behind these meanings and ensure their understanding. By deliberately introducing this term of a generalizing, generic nature, “cognitive context,” we would like to specifically emphasize the commonality that distinguishes the cognitive approach as a separate scientific direction and unites the works of many authors who, however, use different terms to express similar concepts. In particular, speaking about such cognitive structures, or blocks of knowledge, R. Laneker uses the term “cognitive domains” (cognitive areas, spheres, or contexts), J. Fauconnier and J. Lakoff use the term “mental spaces,” and C. Fillmore calls them frames [Fillmore 1983; 1988]. Thus, the concept “assessment” and others discussed above is the cognitive context that ensures the understanding of the corresponding words (five, etc.). Recognition of the determining role of cognitive contexts in the processes of formation and understanding of linguistic meanings explains the need to involve both linguistic and non-linguistic (encyclopedic) knowledge in linguistic analysis, giving semantic theory a multi-level character. The fourth difference is the least discussed in cognitive linguistics and therefore also requires closer consideration. It is associated with the need to interpret speech-language as a single object of study. This understanding of language is due to the unity and interconnection of all its real dependencies on the objective world, mental processes and speech use. Acting as a means of a generalized, conceptual reflection of the world, as a “system of signs expressing concepts” [Saussure 1977: 54], language performs the function of a universal taxonomic system. However, this taxonomic system acquires significance only within the framework of the main purpose of language to be a means of communication. The very mode of existence of language, its specificity 5

6 how sign system is determined by the fact that it is “the unity of communication and generalization” (according to L.S. Vygotsky). Even in the systemic aspect, language reflects the signs of its functioning, since it relates, as E. Coseriu once successfully noted, to target-type phenomena that are determined by their function. Accordingly, language must be understood functionally, “first as a function, and then as a system, since language functions not because it is a system, but, on the contrary, it is a system in order to fulfill its function and correspond to a certain purpose” [Coseriu 1963: 156]. The idea of ​​a two-dimensional mode of language: as a complex of categories existing in potentia, and as a continuously repeating process [Baudouin de Courtenay 1963: 77], - in the practice of linguistic research often leads to an artificial division of the single object of language-speech. Techniques and methods for analyzing language sometimes receive ontological status, i.e. are considered as a property of the language itself. As a result, as V.M. Pavlov notes, “a completely justified and necessary for research purposes procedure of “level-by-level” analysis of an object, which requires distinguishing between levels, results in their separation in a theoretical representation of the object, claiming on ontological adequacy, instead of ending with an attempt to synthesize its multi-level definitions" [Pavlov 1984: 45]. “Where reason has not connected anything before, it has nothing to decompose,” emphasized I. Kant. Dividing the whole into its component parts, we often lose sight of the specifics of the whole, especially since the selection of these particular parts, and not others, in many cases is determined by the purpose of the study or by the initial ideas about the nature of the object being studied. Indeed, the data for determining the meanings of linguistic forms, considered as a specially organized system, are extracted from speech material. Let us recall the well-known statement of E. Benveniste that it is in speech that language is formed and shaped, that “there is nothing in language that would not have been in speech before” [Benveniste 1974: 140]. S.D. Katsnelson spoke similarly: “Outside the functioning of language, linguistic material does not exist” [Katsnelson 1972: 102]. The research procedure here reflects the direction of the real dependence in the object itself. Forgetting this, as V.M. Pavlov rightly emphasizes, entails the presentation of real dependencies in a simplified, one-sided form: the meaning of a linguistic form appears as an absolutely original linguistic reality, which is given to all speech implementations of this form and determines the semantic community and unity of all its specific uses. As a result of such an artificial division, one may get the not entirely correct impression that the original linguistic semantic value is determined in its content exclusively by the reflective function of the sign, oriented toward extra-linguistic reality, which, in essence, is what takes place with the variant-invariant approach to language. Accordingly, the chain of dependencies in this case acquires a one-way direction: from the “piece” of action - 6

7 telnosti through its conceptual image, fixed in the meaning of a linguistic sign, to the meanings of the same sign in its specific speech manifestations. The legitimacy of such a research approach to language and linguistic meanings raises certain doubts. Despite the fact that this approach does not completely exclude the reverse influence of “speech meanings” on linguistic ones, but only considers it possible to abstract from such modifications and not take them into account in the analysis process, such a distraction does not seem entirely justified. In practice, it leads to the oblivion of the very mechanisms of language use, and it is in them that its essential properties are revealed. The very possibility of the influence of “speech meanings” on the linguistic meanings of a sign indicates that the basis of this interaction is not a random, but a regular, essential dependence. Even in its static aspect, this dependence appears as a generalization of speech meanings in a linguistic meaning, as “unity in diversity.” Using a philosophical definition, we can say that the universal in its dialectical understanding “is realized in reality in the form of a law that connects the diversity of phenomena into a single whole, into a system” [Ilyenkov 1960]. Therefore, the center of linguistic research should be the study of the interrelations of all components of a linguistic sign that belong to it in language and in speech, and the meaning of a linguistic sign should be considered taking into account “two directions of connections “feeding” the content of its generalizing function” - with a fragment of reality (through through mental reflection) and “with its actual semantic contents in all the diversity of its speech implementations” [Pavlov 1984: 53]. In light of the above, it seems correct to accept the point of view of E. Coseriu, who argued that one should not look for a way out of the existing antinomy “language - speech”, trying to determine what is primary. This antinomy actually takes place in speech activity, and there is no reason to consider one of the poles as primary. From these positions, the advantages of the cognitive-discursive approach proposed by E.S. Kubryakova are obvious, which makes it possible to simultaneously cover both speech and language, especially since, as E. Coseriu notes, “language is given in speech, while speech is not given in language ". Understanding language and speech as a conceptual and, therefore, structural-functional unity to a certain extent allows us to resolve the well-known contradiction between the meaning and meaning of a linguistic unit. The unified conceptual basis of all ways of understanding a word in the process of its use indicates that only its main, basic meaning, which reveals its representative connection with a certain concept, is of paramount importance. This connection is presented in the dictionary definition as a certain meaningful characteristic of the concept represented by a given word. It is due to this connection and on its basis that a given word can convey other characteristics of the concept that were not initially presented in the dictionary definition, i.e. form and convey various meanings in specific communication conditions: a window has opened, the truth has opened, a view has opened 7

8, etc. At the same time, the lexical meaning of a word itself activates the corresponding concept, and its grammatical and contextual characteristics configure the conveyed meaning, indicating which part of the conceptual content is involved in communication. The philosophical and psychological justification for the ontological unity of all aspects of language and its interrelations is the concept of category as the main form and organizing principle of the processes of thinking and cognition. This concept is based on the ability to typify phenomena (abstracting function), common to different aspects of the activity of human consciousness. Being equally characteristic of thinking, psyche and language, this function links into a single chain the processes of translating non-verbal information into words, as well as reverse processes decoding words based on prototypical connections between events and concepts representing them, between concepts and words representing them, i.e. between categories of events and linguistic categories (see for more details: [Boldyrev 2006]). Thus, the study of language in the cognitive aspect necessarily involves its implementation at an interdisciplinary level with the maximum use of all modern data about man and language obtained in various fields of knowledge, as well as taking into account such basic characteristics of the object of study itself as its anthropocentric orientation, its multi-level nature semantics and its structural and functional integrity. References Benveniste E. General linguistics. M.: Progress, Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works in general linguistics. T.1. M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Boldyrev N.N. Conceptual space of cognitive linguistics // Issues of cognitive linguistics Boldyrev N.N. Language categories as a format of knowledge // Issues of cognitive linguistics Ilyenkov E.V. Universal //Philosophical Encyclopedia. T.1. M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, Kant I. Critique of Pure Reason. M.: Mysl, Katsnelson S.D. Typology of language and speech thinking. L.: Science, Coseriu E. Synchrony, diachrony and history // New in linguistics. Issue III. M.: Progress, Kubryakova E.S. Language and knowledge: Towards acquiring knowledge about language: Parts of speech from a cognitive point of view. The role of language in understanding the world. M.: Languages Slavic culture, Kubryakova E.S. On the principles of cognitive science and current problems of cognitive linguistics // Issues of cognitive linguistics. 2004a. 1. Pavlov V.M. Temporal and aspectual features in the semantics of “temporal forms” of the German verb and some questions of the theory of grammatical 8

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This is an activity aimed at learning new information students with maximum activity in accordance with the goals and objectives. During the learning process, a controlled change in human behavior occurs. From the point of view of cognitive psychology training is the management of the process of acquiring new knowledge, the formation of abilities and, in general, cognitive structures, the organization cognitive activity student. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of training, “teaching” and “teaching”. Learning - it is an internal process of changing a person’s cognitive and personal structures. Teaching - this is a kind of intermediate result of learning, meaning the conscious use of acquired knowledge in specific behavioral situations. Education - This is an effective level of learning, characterized by the acquisition of new experience. As stated above, training has a systemic and structural organization. The following structural components can be distinguished in this system.

1. Motivational, or incentive, component. It includes cognitive needs and formed on their basis motives for learning. Learning is always a process of active interaction between student and teacher. As a result of their active communication, educational activities are actually carried out. Very often, interest acts as a motive for educational activities. During training, this motive undergoes changes. At the first stages of learning, interest is most often focused on the external characteristics of learning: visual and organizational features. Then interest is transferred to the result of the activity, i.e. actually “what can I do? " And at the last stage it is transferred to the learning process - it becomes interesting to actually learn, to gain new knowledge. Having an interest in learning evokes positive emotions and stimulates student activity.

2. Software-oriented component. The main element of this component is awareness of the purpose of learning, as an anticipation of the final result and formation of an indicative basis for activity. During the learning process, the student must develop elements of individual experience in the form of knowledge and skills. During training, individual knowledge is formed into a system abstract concepts, representing a subjective model of reality. The formation of such a model is the learning goal for the student, the achievement of which begins with the receipt and assimilation of information, which subsequently forms the information-oriented basis of the activity. On this basis, a training action program is developed.

3. Effective and operational component. This component is based on the actions and operations through which learning activities are implemented. In the structure of educational activities, actions to understand the content are highlighted educational material and actions of practicing educational material; These are the so-called executive learning activities. In addition to executive activities, educational activities include tests, allowing for assessment and adjustment of executive actions. These educational actions are carried out through the activation of higher mental functions and abilities, which in teaching practice are often also called actions: mental, perceptual, mnemonic, etc. A specific way of carrying out educational actions are operations (for example, a calculation operation, mastering a specific type of problem solution, an analysis operation literary work and so on.).

Learning is easier for those who have a better memory, faster thinking, who can quickly figure things out, discover a non-standard solution, etc. Consequently, the first thing we must teach our future “excellent student” is the ability to remember well and quickly, to think, to be able to understand an abstract thought, to “see” the non-obvious. Simply put, training must begin with the development of general mental abilities. Abilities can be developed through appropriate training in appropriate exercises.

Exercise is the main form of implementation of educational activities. In order to master any activity, a person needs to repeat it many times. Exercise is an active process of systematically and purposefully performing an action in order to assimilate and improve it. The quantity and quality of exercises depend on the learning goals and the difficulty of the task. Behaviorists have been actively involved in the problem of exercise. They investigated the “law of exercise.” Its essence is that, under equal conditions for carrying out an activity, repetition of a specific action facilitates the assimilation of new behavior, leads to an increase in the speed of its implementation and a decrease in errors. It was subsequently discovered that this law has limitations. Not under all conditions does repeated repetition contribute to the effective strengthening of a skill or the acquisition of new knowledge. For example, when forming a number of intellectual knowledge and creative abilities, the classical exercise is ineffective. However, when developing most motor skills, repetition is a very important factor.

The exercise will be successful if the following conditions are met.

1. The student’s awareness of the purpose of the exercise and the indicators of the correctness of its implementation.

2. A clear understanding of the rules for performing the exercise.

3. The student’s understanding of the sequence and technique of performing the exercise.

4. Repeated execution of exercised actions.

5. Availability feedback while doing the exercises. The student must constantly know at what level of improvement he is, and determine this according to accessible and understandable criteria.

6. Constant monitoring and analysis of the causes of errors made by the student.

7. Formation of the student’s self-control skills and the results of their actions.

8. Gradual complication of exercises in the direction of increasing the difficulty of tasks. In general, exercises allow

actively develop many skills, especially perceptual-motor and intellectual ones.

The above components are connected in unified system training. The system-forming variable of learning is the social relationship between teacher and student and their forms of cooperation. In other words, learning is always a joint activity. On various stages learning, a restructuring of both the psychological learning system and joint learning activities takes place. During the latter there is a transition from pragmatic to cognitive perception world and the formation of an individual-subjective system for mastering new knowledge. As a result, the student acquires independent learning skills.

In the process of learning activities, the student assimilates elements of individual experience that provide him with mental and personal development. This type of training is called developmental training. To implement developmental learning, it is important that the child understands the purpose and subject of his activity. Sign consciousness teaching is decisive. The implementation of conscious educational activity is carried out with the help of actions aimed at solving special educational tasks. The main function of the educational task is the child’s mastery of generalized methods of action. Through the system of educational tasks, the formation theoretical generalized thinking. Solution tasks are carried out by a number of special educational activities. Learning activities have the following structure of learning actions:

Transformation of the initial situation to highlight a generalized essence in it (for example, awareness of the conditions mathematical problem and highlighting the defining information blocks in it);

Transformation of the selected relation into an abstract model (formulation of the basic logical relations of the problem into an equation);

Correlation of the selected model with general principle solutions (determination of universal laws and formulas, the use of which is necessary to solve the equation);

Identification and construction of a series of tasks of a given type (determining what type a given task belongs to);

Monitoring the implementation of previous actions (checking the correctness of the decision);

Assessment of mastering the general method of solution (solving a test problem or independently constructing a problem of this type).

Educational activities built according to this scheme ensure changes not only in the intellectual sphere of the student, but also in his personal behavior. This is due joint the nature of the student’s activities with the teacher and other students. Learning thus takes on a developmental character.

In educational psychology, an analysis of the “development-training” problem was carried out by L.S. Vygotsky. He developed the concept of zones of proximal development. The main postulate of the concept is that the child is an independent subject of activity, actively interacting with the external environment. The task of training is to create environmental conditions that provide the most progressive interaction. L.S. Vygotsky distinguishes two levels of development:

1. Zone relevant development, i.e. level mental development allowing the child to carry out completely independent actions.

2. Zone nearest development, i.e. the level of activity of mental properties that allows you to carry out actions with the help of adults. This help is actually training.

It is active behavior in the “zone of proximal development” that allows the child to move to a new level of independent behavior. As learning progresses, the “zone of proximal development” becomes the “zone of actual development,” and a new level of mental activity, included in a more complex system of interaction with adults, forms a new “zone of proximal development.” Thus, cyclical learning “leads” development.

Modern views on the problem of developmental education are based on the concept of L.S. Vygotsky. Different authors consider different aspects of development. In the “school of creativity” technology, the emphasis is on the development of special creative abilities. One of the classical theories of developmental education is a specifically organized system of education, in which, through comparison, differentiation and induction, the child finds the correct knowledge. An important point in this process is the inclusion of the child’s emotional level. Interest in learning activities (caused by its specific organization) activates a cognitive need, which becomes dominant in the child. Cognitive need belongs to the category of unsatisfiable needs. Her satisfaction evokes positive emotions that activate interest. It, in turn, stimulates further implementation of educational activities. This is how purposeful development occurs. I.S. Yakimanskaya proposed the concept of “personally-oriented developmental training.” It focuses on the formation of a child’s subjective experience of life. Selectiveness of attitude towards the surrounding world ensures unique personal development. The teacher’s task is to help the child self-determinate, self-actualize, and reveal himself as much as possible. This is the essence of developmental influence. All of these concepts are based on the active, active nature of developmental learning. Active interaction child leads to internal changes not only in the cognitive sphere, but also child's personality.

Particular attention in the modern school attracts the problem of the relationship between training - development - education. The question of external influence on the development process has traditionally been related to the field of education. From the point of view of modern conceptual ideas about the essence of the learning process, it is not entirely correct to raise the question of the influence of upbringing and training on the development. Education and training are a single process aimed at shaping the individual experience of the subject. In traditional ideas, education was assigned to activities aimed at forming a system of scientific knowledge, and upbringing was assigned to activities aimed at the formation of personal and moral attitudes. Modern approach to the organization of educational activities within the framework of humanistic technologies, models of personal growth and free classes allows us to more adequately interpret in conceptual schemes the real situation of the formation and development of personality. At the same time, in everyday life these two concepts continue to be “separated”, which is reflected in the general ideas about “ schooling" and "family education".

So, education is the same as teaching, but not scientific knowledge, but moral categories, social skills and community norms, traditions and rituals. The result of such formative influence should be a socialized personality. The process of education is subject to all the laws of learning. The fundamental methodological basis of the education system remains the concept of L.S. Vygotsky about the “zone of proximal development”. Education is, first of all, the formation of a holistic and self-sufficient personality. The meaning of individual personal development Each student is indisputable in the development of society. Modern, most civilized views on this issue are implemented primarily in the concepts of the humanistic direction. On their basis in the USA, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, “personal growth schools” have become widespread, the essence of which is to increase attention specifically to the process of personal formation; the efforts of teachers, programs and methods used are aimed at this. Considering the uniqueness of the child’s personality, the question of individual approach (individual principle) in training and education.

An individual approach can be considered as a teaching principle that focuses on the individual characteristics of the child and requires the creation of psychological and pedagogical conditions for the development of his unique personality. The problem of individualization is one of the oldest in educational psychology. From the point of view of the uniqueness of the individual, the educational system must be adapted to each child. The teacher interacts with only one student. From the point of view of mass education, the education system should be extremely universal. A teacher teaches a group of children at the same time. These two conflicting goals in real practice learning enter into a compromise relationship. For example, a teacher groups his students by ability into “strong,” “average,” and “weak.” It varies the tasks, requirements and pace of learning activities depending on the group they are aimed at. Thus, while maintaining the requirements of the program, the teacher partly adapts it to the capabilities of specific children.

The first attempt to put this idea on a scientific basis was the Dalton Plan, developed in 1919 by the American educator E. Parkhurst. It was purely educational technology, in which students worked according to individual program, independently, everyone at their own pace. A modern version of the “Dalton Plan,” but improved in a humanistic direction, is implemented in the “free class theory.” The domestic scientifically based technology of an individual approach is presented in the concept of I.S. Yakimanskaya. For each student a individual educational program. It must take into account both the level of abilities and the personality of the child quite subtly. Similar developments are presented in the “technology of individualized learning” by Inge Unt and the “adaptive learning system” by A.S. Granitskaya.

One of the most important goals of an individual approach to a child is the construction of an adequate “I-concept”. "I-concept" - relative sustainable system ideas about himself, on the basis of which the child builds his relationships with others. A child’s self-perception is a determining factor in the development of his personality and the success of educational activities. A child who perceives himself as successful, capable, and in control of the situation is formed into a self-confident, purposeful, balanced person. In the opposite case, we see a depressed, complex, passive, often embittered person. To form and then maintain a student’s self-confidence, the ability to withstand failures, and an optimistic assessment of one’s capabilities is one of the tasks of the teacher and a requirement of educational activities. It is very important to form in a child a healthy sense of his place in the world. To solve this problem, it is necessary to proceed from the following rules when implementing an individual approach:

The student must be treated with respect, constantly emphasizing his self-worth;

The combination of the listed rules, applied to a specific student, will ensure the creation of a feeling in him personal significance and your own positive social status. An important point is the formation creative conformism, those. acceptance by the student of different points of view on the same issue as having the right to exist.

The strategy of an adult influencing a child includes three stages. At the first stage, the child focuses on the “closest” adult, perceiving him as a role model. On the second, the child perceives any adult as an equal partner. In the third, the child critically evaluates the adult world, choosing his own example to follow. Educational influences must be built taking into account the stages of the child’s behavior. You cannot build your relationship with a student on the basis of your own unquestioned authority and unquestioning obedience. It is necessary to provide him with relative freedom both in his educational activities and in his views on the world.