EntranceWeapons of the ancient Egyptians. Army in ancient Egypt
Looking through the archive of my publications on the history of armor and weapons published in VO, I discovered that among them there is not a single one on the history of the weapons of Ancient Egypt. But this is the cradle of European culture, which has given humanity a lot. As for the periodization of its history, it is traditionally divided into the Old Kingdom (XXXII century - XXIV century BC), the Middle Kingdom (XXI century - XVIII century BC) and the New Kingdom (XVII century . - XI century BC) Before Ancient kingdom Egypt had the Predynastic Period and then the Early Kingdom. After the New Kingdom there was also the Late Period, and then the Hellenistic Period, and between the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms, as a rule, there were also transitional periods filled with turmoil and rebellion. Often at this time, Egypt was subjected to attacks from nomadic tribes and warlike neighbors, so its history was by no means peaceful and military affairs in Egypt, which means that offensive and defensive weapons were always held in high esteem!
Already in the era of the Old Kingdom - the era of the pyramid-building kings in Egypt there was an army recruited from free peasants, individual units of which were armed with uniform weapons. That is, the army consisted of warriors with spears and shields, warriors with maces, small hatchets and daggers made of copper and bronze, and squads of archers with large bows, whose arrows were tipped with flint. The task of the army was to protect the borders and trade routes from attacks by the Libyans - the most significant among the tribes of the “Nine Bows” - the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt, the Nubians in the south and the nomadic Bedouins in the East. During the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu, the king's army captured 70,000 prisoners, which indirectly speaks of the number of Egyptian troops, the perfection of their tactics, and - their superiority in weapons!
Because in Egypt it is very hot in a special way " military uniform"or the ancient warriors did not have protective clothing. All their clothing consisted of a traditional skirt, a wig made of sheep's wool, which played the role of a helmet, protecting the head from the stunning blow of a mace and a shield. The latter was made from bull skin with the hair facing out, which was apparently joined in several layers and stretched over a wooden frame. The shields were large, covering a person right up to the neck and pointed at the top, as well as slightly smaller ones, rounded at the top, which the warriors held by straps attached to the back.
The warriors lined up in a phalanx and moved towards the enemy, covering themselves with shields and putting out spears, and the archers were behind the infantrymen and shot over their heads. Similar tactics and approximately the same weapons among the peoples with whom the Egyptians fought at that time did not require any greater perfection of weapons - more disciplined and trained warriors won, and it is clear that these were, of course, the Egyptians.
At the end of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian infantry, as before, was traditionally divided into archers, warriors with short-range striking weapons (clubs, clubs, axes, axes, darts, spears) who did not have shields, warriors with axes and shields, and spearmen. This “branch of troops” had shields 60-80 cm long and about 40-50 cm wide, like, for example, the figurines of warriors discovered in the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. That is, in the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians knew a deep formation of spearmen, covered with shields and built in several rows!
It is interesting that the Egyptian troops at this time consisted exclusively of infantry. The first case of the use of horses in Egypt was attested during excavations of the city of Buhen, a fortress on the border with Nubia. The find dates back to the era of the Middle Kingdom, but although horses were already known at that time, they were not widespread in Egypt. It can be assumed that a certain wealthy Egyptian purchased it somewhere in the East and brought it to Nubia, but it is unlikely that he used it as a means of draft.
As for the infantry archers, they were armed with the simplest bows, that is, made from one piece of wood. A compound bow (that is, assembled from different types of wood and covered with leather) would be too difficult for them to manufacture, and also expensive, to supply ordinary infantrymen with such a weapon. But one should not think that these bows were weak, because they had a length of 1.5 m or more, and in skillful hands they were very powerful and long-range weapons. English bows of the Middle Ages made of yew or maple, and 1.5 to 2 m long, were also simple, but they pierced steel armor at a distance of 100 m, and the English archer despised anyone who could not fire 10 - 12 arrows in a minute. True, there is one subtlety here. They did not shoot directly at the men-at-arms, or only shot at a very close range: almost point-blank! At a long distance they fired upward in volleys on command, so that the arrow fell on the knight from above and hit not so much himself as his horse. Hence the armor on top of the necks of knightly horses! So there is no doubt about the capabilities of Egyptian archers armed with bows of this size, and they could easily hit opponents not protected by metal armor at a distance of 75 - 100 m and up to 150 m under favorable conditions.
Ancient Egypt: weapons and armor of chariot warriors
Over its thousand-year history, Egypt has experienced not only ups, but also downs. So the era of the Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of the Hyksos nomads, its defeat and a period of decline. What helped them cope with the Egyptians was that they fought on two-wheeled high-speed chariots drawn by a pair of horses, which gave their troops unprecedented maneuverability and mobility. But soon the Egyptians themselves learned to breed and train horses, make chariots and fight with them. The Hyksos were expelled, Egypt experienced a new rise, and its pharaohs, no longer content with protecting their borders and expeditions for gold in Nubia, began wars with their neighbors in Asia, and also tried to penetrate the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon.
Particularly warlike pharaohs of the era of the advent of the New Kingdom were representatives of the Ramesses dynasty. The armament of warriors at this time became even more deadly, as metal processing technology was improved, and in addition to chariots, the Egyptians also learned a reinforced bow, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The power of such bows was truly great: it is known that pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Amenhotep II pierced copper targets with arrows fired from them.
Already at a distance of 50 - 100 m, it was apparently possible to pierce the armor of a warrior on an enemy chariot with an arrow with a metal leaf-shaped tip. Bows were stored in special cases on the sides of the chariots - one on each (one spare) or one at the side closest to which the shooter stood. However, it has now become much more difficult to use them, especially while standing on a chariot and, moreover, in motion.
That's why military organization The Egyptian army at this time also underwent major changes. In addition to the traditional infantry - "mesha", charioteers - "netheter" appeared. They now represented the elite of the army; all their lives they studied military craft, which became hereditary for them and was passed on from father to son.
The first wars in Asia brought the Egyptians rich booty. So, after taking the city of Megiddo, they got: “340 prisoners, 2041 horses, 191 foals, 6 breeding horses, 2 war chariots decorated with gold, 922 ordinary war chariots, 1 bronze armor, 200 leather armor, 502 war bows, 7 tent pillars decorated with silver and belonging to the king of Kadesh, 1929 head of cattle, 2000 goats, 20,500 sheep and 207,300 bags of flour.” The vanquished recognized the authority of the ruler of Egypt over themselves, took an oath of allegiance and pledged to pay tribute.
It is interesting that in the list of captured armor there is only one bronze and 200 leather ones, which suggests that the presence of chariots also required increased protection for those who fought on them, since these were very valuable professional warriors whom it was a pity to lose. But the fact that there is only one metal shell speaks of the extremely high cost of the protective weapons of that time, which only the princes and pharaohs of Egypt possessed.
The many chariots taken as trophies clearly indicate their wide distribution, not only among Asians, but also among the Egyptians themselves. Egyptian chariots, judging by the images and artifacts that have come down to us, are light carts for two people, one of whom drove the horses, and the other fired at the enemy with a bow. The wheels had wooden rims and six spokes, the bottom was wicker, with a very minimum of wooden guards. This allowed them to develop greater speed, and the supply of arrows in two quivers allowed them to conduct a long battle.
In the Battle of Kadesh - the largest battle between the troops of Egypt and the Hittite kingdom in 1274 BC. - thousands of chariots took part on both sides, and although it actually ended in a draw, there is no doubt that it was the chariots that played a very important role in it. But in addition to new bows, the Egyptians also had two new types of long daggers - with a massive leaf-shaped blade with an edge in the middle, and a blade rounded at the end, and piercing-cutting ones - with elegant, long blades with parallel blades that smoothly turned into an edge, and also with a convex rib. The handle of both was very comfortable, with two cone-shaped bells - up - the pommel and down - the crosshair.
Sickle-shaped (sometimes double-edged) bladed weapons, borrowed by the Egyptians from their enemies in Palestine and undergoing a number of modifications in Egypt - “khopesh” (“khepesh”), were also widely used, like maces, axes with a narrow blade and moon-shaped axes.
This is what the infantry of Ancient Egypt, including the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, might have looked like. In the foreground are two warrior-spearmen in head scarves, with printed protective aprons in the shape of a heart on top of a regular apron, possibly in quilted jackets, with sickle-shaped short swords made of bronze, and then warriors with a war club combined with an ax and an ax with a moon-shaped blade. The dart thrower has no defensive weapons at all. Two black warriors with bows in their hands are mercenaries from Nubia. Only one pharaoh has armor on his body, next to whom stands a signalman with a drum. Box of a set of soldiers from the Zvezda company. Oh, what we don’t have for boys now! And what kind of soldiers I had in childhood - heaven and earth!
Narmer palette. Depicts Pharaoh Narmer with a mace in his hands. (Cairo Museum)
The head of the mace of Pharaoh Nermer. (British Museum, London)
Darts and shield. Ancient Egypt. Middle Kingdom. Modern reconstruction. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Painted figurines of warriors from the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. (Cairo Museum)
The head of an Egyptian warrior's mace. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Ax of their tomb of Ahhotep. New kingdom. 18th Dynasty, 16th century BC. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Ancient Egyptian battle axe. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Reconstruction of a New Kingdom chariot. (Römer-Pelitzeus Museum. Lower Saxony, Hildesheim, Germany)
Egypt for a long time remained one of the greatest states of antiquity. Starting from the period of the Old Kingdom (2778-2220 BC), during the era of the pyramid-building kings, Egypt conducted constant fighting against neighbors, both offensive and defensive. Of course, in such “practical” conditions the strongest army in the region was born - fearless warriors pharaohs.
During the era of the Old Kingdom, Egypt gradually began to form a permanent army. For their service, soldiers received large plots of land, which served as an excellent incentive to truly love the country and fight for its well-being.
Ancient Kingdom Equipment
A simple warrior armed himself with a bow and arrows. For hand-to-hand combat, they used maces and copper battle axes; those who were poorer did not hesitate to use stone daggers and spears with stone tips. At that time, Egypt had only one branch of ground forces, infantry. However, even then these were not just scattered detachments - the commanders knew how to form soldiers in ranks, and when storming fortresses they skillfully used assault ladders.
Clear structure
Unlike many other nationalities of that time, the Egyptians knew how and loved the clear organization of any business. The army of Egypt during the Middle Kingdom was divided into detachments of 2,3 and 10 thousand soldiers. Recruitment into the army took place on a voluntary basis, which was also unusual - all of Egypt’s neighbors generally used the services of mercenaries, who were bought at the right time.
Middle Kingdom Specialization
The armament of Egyptian warriors was constantly evolving. Already during the Middle Kingdom, new, more advanced bows appeared with an arrow range of up to 180 meters. The organization of the entire army also changed, divided into detachments of spearmen and archers. All units had a certain number of soldiers: 6, 40, 60, 100, 400 and 600 soldiers.
Regular army and chariots
At some point, the Egyptian army turned into a regular conscript army. The youth had to serve a certain term, after which people returned to peaceful life. A significant strengthening of the army occurred through the use of mercenaries - most often the Egyptians used Nubians. In the middle of the 17th century BC, power in Lower Egypt was seized by the Hyksos, from whom the Egyptians learned about war chariots.
New Kingdom Equipment
The organization of the Egyptian army reached its peak during the New Kingdom. The army became not only regular, but also caste; the weapons of the warriors (straight and sickle-shaped swords were in use) were supplied by the state. Previously, a warrior was protected only by a helmet and a wooden shield, but now the majority could boast of reliable leather armor with sewn bronze plates. The infantry had already begun to give way to war chariots: the Egyptians realized that it was almost impossible to resist this force.
War chariots
In the middle of the New Kingdom era, war chariots took on leading roles. Each death machine was equipped with a driver and a shooter, and foreigners were not allowed to drive the war chariot. The warriors were forced to buy a very expensive chariot with their own money, but this was considered more of a privilege - at that time the army finally became caste.
Warrior caste
Even ancient authors divided the military caste of Egypt into the Kalasirians from the eastern Nile delta and the Hermotibii, who lived near the western delta. Their numbers were enormous: the Kalasirians numbered up to 250,000, the Hermotibii - 140,000. The pharaoh did not allow these castes to engage in other crafts: the son had to receive military skills from his father.
Looking through the archive of my publications on the history of armor and weapons published in VO, I discovered that among them there is not a single one on the history of the weapons of Ancient Egypt. But this is the cradle of European culture, which has given humanity a lot. As for the periodization of its history, it is traditionally divided into the Old Kingdom (XXXII century - XXIV century BC), the Middle Kingdom (XXI century - XVIII century BC) and the New Kingdom (XVII century . - XI century BC) Before the Old Kingdom in Egypt there was the Predynastic period and then the Early Kingdom. After the New Kingdom there was also the Late Period, and then the Hellenistic Period, and between the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms, as a rule, there were also transitional periods filled with turmoil and rebellion. Often at this time, Egypt was subjected to attacks from nomadic tribes and warlike neighbors, so its history was by no means peaceful and military affairs in Egypt, which means that offensive and defensive weapons were always held in high esteem!
Already in the era of the Old Kingdom - the era of the pyramid-building kings in Egypt there was an army recruited from free peasants, individual units of which were armed with uniform weapons. That is, the army consisted of warriors with spears and shields, warriors with maces, small hatchets and daggers made of copper and bronze, and squads of archers with large bows, whose arrows were tipped with flint. The task of the army was to protect the borders and trade routes from attacks by the Libyans - the most significant among the tribes of the “Nine Bows” - the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt, the Nubians in the south and the nomadic Bedouins in the East. During the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu, the king's army captured 70,000 prisoners, which indirectly speaks of the number of Egyptian troops, the perfection of their tactics, and - their superiority in weapons!
Since it is very hot in Egypt, the ancient warriors did not have any special “military uniform” or protective clothing. All their clothing consisted of a traditional skirt, a wig made of sheep's wool, which played the role of a helmet, protecting the head from the stunning blow of a mace and a shield. The latter was made from bull skin with the hair facing out, which was apparently joined in several layers and stretched over a wooden frame. The shields were large, covering a person right up to the neck and pointed at the top, as well as slightly smaller ones, rounded at the top, which the warriors held by straps attached to the back.
The warriors lined up in a phalanx and moved towards the enemy, covering themselves with shields and putting out spears, and the archers were behind the infantrymen and shot over their heads. Similar tactics and approximately the same weapons among the peoples with whom the Egyptians fought at that time did not require any greater perfection of weapons - more disciplined and trained warriors won, and it is clear that these were, of course, the Egyptians.
At the end of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian infantry, as before, was traditionally divided into archers, warriors with short-range striking weapons (clubs, clubs, axes, axes, darts, spears) who did not have shields, warriors with axes and shields, and spearmen. This “branch of troops” had shields 60-80 cm long and about 40-50 cm wide, like, for example, the figurines of warriors discovered in the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. That is, in the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians knew a deep formation of spearmen, covered with shields and built in several rows!
It is interesting that the Egyptian troops at this time consisted exclusively of infantry. The first case of the use of horses in Egypt was attested during excavations of the city of Buhen, a fortress on the border with Nubia. The find dates back to the era of the Middle Kingdom, but although horses were already known at that time, they were not widespread in Egypt. It can be assumed that a certain wealthy Egyptian purchased it somewhere in the East and brought it to Nubia, but it is unlikely that he used it as a means of draft.
As for the infantry archers, they were armed with the simplest bows, that is, made from one piece of wood. A compound bow (that is, assembled from different types of wood and covered with leather) would be too difficult for them to manufacture, and also expensive, to supply ordinary infantrymen with such a weapon. But one should not think that these bows were weak, because they had a length of 1.5 m or more, and in skillful hands they were very powerful and long-range weapons. English bows of the Middle Ages made of yew or maple, and 1.5 to 2 m long, were also simple, but they pierced steel armor at a distance of 100 m, and the English archer despised anyone who could not fire 10 - 12 arrows in a minute. True, there is one subtlety here. They did not shoot directly at the men-at-arms, or only shot at a very close range: almost point-blank! At a long distance they fired upward in volleys on command, so that the arrow fell on the knight from above and hit not so much himself as his horse. Hence the armor on top of the necks of knightly horses! So there is no doubt about the capabilities of Egyptian archers armed with bows of this size, and they could easily hit opponents not protected by metal armor at a distance of 75 - 100 m and up to 150 m under favorable conditions.
Ancient Egypt: weapons and armor of chariot warriors
Over its thousand-year history, Egypt has experienced not only ups, but also downs. So the era of the Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of the Hyksos nomads, its defeat and a period of decline. What helped them cope with the Egyptians was that they fought on two-wheeled high-speed chariots drawn by a pair of horses, which gave their troops unprecedented maneuverability and mobility. But soon the Egyptians themselves learned to breed and train horses, make chariots and fight with them. The Hyksos were expelled, Egypt experienced a new rise, and its pharaohs, no longer content with protecting their borders and expeditions for gold in Nubia, began wars with their neighbors in Asia, and also tried to penetrate the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon.
Particularly warlike pharaohs of the era of the advent of the New Kingdom were representatives of the Ramesses dynasty. The armament of warriors at this time became even more deadly, as metal processing technology was improved, and in addition to chariots, the Egyptians also learned a reinforced bow, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The power of such bows was truly great: it is known that pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Amenhotep II pierced copper targets with arrows fired from them.
Already at a distance of 50 - 100 m, it was apparently possible to pierce the armor of a warrior on an enemy chariot with an arrow with a metal leaf-shaped tip. Bows were stored in special cases on the sides of the chariots - one on each (one spare) or one at the side closest to which the shooter stood. However, it has now become much more difficult to use them, especially while standing on a chariot and, moreover, in motion.
This is why the military organization of the Egyptian army also underwent major changes at this time. In addition to the traditional infantry - "mesha", charioteers - "netheter" appeared. They now represented the elite of the army; all their lives they studied military craft, which became hereditary for them and was passed on from father to son.
The first wars in Asia brought the Egyptians rich booty. So, after taking the city of Megiddo, they got: “340 prisoners, 2041 horses, 191 foals, 6 breeding horses, 2 war chariots decorated with gold, 922 ordinary war chariots, 1 bronze armor, 200 leather armor, 502 war bows, 7 tent pillars decorated with silver and belonging to the king of Kadesh, 1929 head of cattle, 2000 goats, 20,500 sheep and 207,300 bags of flour.” The vanquished recognized the authority of the ruler of Egypt over themselves, took an oath of allegiance and pledged to pay tribute.
It is interesting that in the list of captured armor there is only one bronze and 200 leather ones, which suggests that the presence of chariots also required increased protection for those who fought on them, since these were very valuable professional warriors whom it was a pity to lose. But the fact that there is only one metal shell speaks of the extremely high cost of the protective weapons of that time, which only the princes and pharaohs of Egypt possessed.
The many chariots taken as trophies clearly indicate their wide distribution, not only among Asians, but also among the Egyptians themselves. Egyptian chariots, judging by the images and artifacts that have come down to us, are light carts for two people, one of whom drove the horses, and the other fired at the enemy with a bow. The wheels had wooden rims and six spokes, the bottom was wicker, with a very minimum of wooden guards. This allowed them to develop greater speed, and the supply of arrows in two quivers allowed them to conduct a long battle.
In the Battle of Kadesh - the largest battle between the troops of Egypt and the Hittite kingdom in 1274 BC. - thousands of chariots took part on both sides, and although it actually ended in a draw, there is no doubt that it was the chariots that played a very important role in it. But in addition to new bows, the Egyptians also had two new types of long daggers - with a massive leaf-shaped blade with an edge in the middle, and a blade rounded at the end, and piercing-cutting ones - with elegant, long blades with parallel blades that smoothly turned into an edge, and also with a convex rib. The handle of both was very comfortable, with two cone-shaped bells - up - the pommel and down - the crosshair.
Sickle-shaped (sometimes double-edged) bladed weapons, borrowed by the Egyptians from their enemies in Palestine and undergoing a number of modifications in Egypt - “khopesh” (“khepesh”), were also widely used, like maces, axes with a narrow blade and moon-shaped axes.
This is what the infantry of Ancient Egypt, including the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, might have looked like. In the foreground are two warrior-spearmen in head scarves, with printed protective aprons in the shape of a heart on top of a regular apron, possibly in quilted jackets, with sickle-shaped short swords made of bronze, and then warriors with a war club combined with an ax and an ax with a moon-shaped blade. The dart thrower has no defensive weapons at all. Two black warriors with bows in their hands are mercenaries from Nubia. Only one pharaoh has armor on his body, next to whom stands a signalman with a drum. Box of a set of soldiers from the Zvezda company. Oh, what we don’t have for boys now! And what kind of soldiers I had in childhood - heaven and earth!
Narmer palette. Depicts Pharaoh Narmer with a mace in his hands. (Cairo Museum)
The head of the mace of Pharaoh Nermer. (British Museum, London)
Darts and shield. Ancient Egypt. Middle Kingdom. Modern reconstruction. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Painted figurines of warriors from the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. (Cairo Museum)
The head of an Egyptian warrior's mace. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Ax of their tomb of Ahhotep. New kingdom. 18th Dynasty, 16th century BC. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Ancient Egyptian battle axe. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Reconstruction of a New Kingdom chariot. (Römer-Pelitzeus Museum. Lower Saxony, Hildesheim, Germany)
Of armor and weapons published in VO, I discovered that among them there is not a single one on the history of the weapons of Ancient Egypt. But this is the cradle of European culture, which has given humanity a lot. As for the periodization of its history, it is traditionally divided into the Old Kingdom (XXXII century - XXIV century BC), the Middle Kingdom (XXI century - XVIII century BC) and the New Kingdom (XVII century . - XI century BC) Before the Old Kingdom in Egypt there was the Predynastic period and then the Early Kingdom. After the New Kingdom there was also the Late Period, and then the Hellenistic Period, and between the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms, as a rule, there were also transitional periods filled with turmoil and rebellion. Often at this time, Egypt was subjected to attacks from nomadic tribes and warlike neighbors, so its history was by no means peaceful and military affairs in Egypt, which means that offensive and defensive weapons were always held in high esteem!
Already in the era of the Old Kingdom - the era of the kings who built the pyramids in Egypt there was an army recruited from free peasants, individual units of which were armed with uniform weapons. That is, the army consisted of warriors with spears and shields, warriors with maces, small hatchets and daggers made of copper and bronze, and squads of archers with large bows, whose arrows were tipped with flint. The task of the army was to protect the borders and trade routes from attacks by the Libyans - the most significant among the tribes of the “Nine Bows” - the traditional enemies of Ancient Egypt, the Nubians in the south and the nomadic Bedouins in the East. During the reign of Pharaoh Snefru, the king's army captured 70,000 prisoners, which indirectly speaks of the number of Egyptian troops, the perfection of their tactics, and - their superiority in weapons!
Since it is very hot in Egypt, the ancient warriors did not have any special “military uniform” or protective clothing. All their clothing consisted of a traditional skirt, a wig made of sheep's wool, which played the role of a helmet, protecting the head from the stunning blow of a mace and a shield. The latter was made from bull skin with the hair facing out, which was apparently joined in several layers and stretched over a wooden frame. The shields were large, covering a person right up to the neck and pointed at the top, as well as slightly smaller ones, rounded at the top, which the warriors held by straps attached to the back.
The warriors lined up in a phalanx and moved towards the enemy, covering themselves with shields and putting out spears, and the archers were behind the infantrymen and shot over their heads. Similar tactics and approximately the same weapons among the peoples with whom the Egyptians fought at that time did not require any greater perfection of weapons - more disciplined and trained warriors won, and it is clear that these were, of course, the Egyptians.
At the end of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian infantry, as before, was traditionally divided into archers, warriors with short-range striking weapons (clubs, clubs, axes, axes, darts, spears) who did not have shields, warriors with axes and shields, and spearmen. This “branch of troops” had shields 60-80 cm long and about 40-50 cm wide, like, for example, the figurines of warriors discovered in the tomb of the nomarch Mesehti. That is, in the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians knew a deep formation of spearmen, covered with shields and built in several rows!
It is interesting that the Egyptian troops at this time consisted exclusively of infantry. The first case of the use of horses in Egypt was attested during excavations of the city of Buhen, a fortress on the border with Nubia. The find dates back to the era of the Middle Kingdom, but although horses were already known at that time, they were not widespread in Egypt. It can be assumed that a certain wealthy Egyptian purchased it somewhere in the East and brought it to Nubia, but it is unlikely that he used it as a means of draft.
As for the infantry archers, they were armed with the simplest bows, that is, made from one piece of wood. A compound bow (that is, assembled from different types of wood and covered with leather) would be too difficult for them to manufacture, and also expensive, to supply ordinary infantrymen with such a weapon. But one should not think that these bows were weak, because they had a length of 1.5 m or more, and in skillful hands they were very powerful and long-range weapons. English bows of the Middle Ages made of yew or maple, and 1.5 to 2 m long, were also simple, but they pierced steel armor at a distance of 100 m, and the English archer despised anyone who could not fire 10 - 12 arrows in a minute. True, there is one subtlety here. They did not shoot directly at the men-at-arms, or only shot at a very close range: almost point-blank! At a long distance they fired upward in volleys on command, so that the arrow fell on the knight from above and hit not so much himself as his horse. Hence the armor on top of the necks of knightly horses! So there is no doubt about the capabilities of Egyptian archers armed with bows of this size, and they could easily hit opponents not protected by metal armor at a distance of 75 - 100 m and up to 150 m under favorable conditions.
Ancient Egypt: weapons and armor of chariot warriors
Over its thousand-year history, Egypt has experienced not only ups, but also downs. So the era of the Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of the Hyksos nomads, its defeat and a period of decline. What helped them cope with the Egyptians was that they fought on two-wheeled high-speed chariots drawn by a pair of horses, which gave their troops unprecedented maneuverability and mobility. But soon the Egyptians themselves learned to breed and train horses, make chariots and fight with them. The Hyksos were expelled, Egypt experienced a new rise, and its pharaohs, no longer content with protecting their borders and expeditions for gold in Nubia, began wars with their neighbors in Asia, and also tried to penetrate the territory of modern Syria and Lebanon.
Particularly warlike pharaohs of the era of the advent of the New Kingdom were representatives of the Ramesses dynasty. The armament of warriors at this time became even more deadly, as metal processing technology was improved, and in addition to chariots, the Egyptians also learned a reinforced bow, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The power of such bows was truly great: it is known that pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Amenhotep II pierced copper targets with arrows fired from them.
Already at a distance of 50 - 100 m, it was apparently possible to pierce the armor of a warrior on an enemy chariot with an arrow with a metal leaf-shaped tip. Bows were stored in special cases on the sides of the chariots - one on each (one spare) or one at the side closest to which the shooter stood. However, it has now become much more difficult to use them, especially while standing on a chariot and, moreover, in motion.
This is why the military organization of the Egyptian army also underwent major changes at this time. In addition to the traditional infantry - "mesha", charioteers - "netheter" appeared. They now represented the elite of the army; all their lives they studied military craft, which became hereditary for them and was passed on from father to son.
The first wars in Asia brought the Egyptians rich booty. So, after taking the city of Megiddo, they got: “340 prisoners, 2041 horses, 191 foals, 6 breeding horses, 2 war chariots decorated with gold, 922 ordinary war chariots, 1 bronze armor, 200 leather armor, 502 war bows, 7 tent pillars decorated with silver and belonging to the king of Kadesh, 1929 head of cattle, 2000 goats, 20,500 sheep and 207,300 bags of flour.” The vanquished recognized the authority of the ruler of Egypt over themselves, took an oath of allegiance and pledged to pay tribute.
It is interesting that in the list of captured armor there is only one bronze and 200 leather ones, which suggests that the presence of chariots also required increased protection for those who fought on them, since these were very valuable professional warriors whom it was a pity to lose. But the fact that there is only one metal shell speaks of the extremely high cost of the protective weapons of that time, which only the princes and pharaohs of Egypt possessed.
The many chariots taken as trophies clearly indicate their wide distribution, not only among Asians, but also among the Egyptians themselves. Egyptian chariots, judging by the images and artifacts that have come down to us, are light carts for two people, one of whom drove the horses, and the other fired at the enemy with a bow. The wheels had wooden rims and six spokes, the bottom was wicker, with a very minimum of wooden guards. This allowed them to develop greater speed, and the supply of arrows in two quivers allowed them to conduct a long battle.
In the Battle of Kadesh - the largest battle between the troops of Egypt and the Hittite kingdom in 1274 BC. - thousands of chariots took part on both sides, and although it actually ended in a draw, there is no doubt that it was the chariots that played a very important role in it. But in addition to new bows, the Egyptians also had two new types of long daggers - with a massive leaf-shaped blade with an edge in the middle, and a blade rounded at the end, and piercing-cutting ones - with elegant, long blades with parallel blades that smoothly turned into an edge, and also with a convex rib. The handle of both was very comfortable, with two cone-shaped bells - up - the pommel and down - the crosshair.
Sickle-shaped (sometimes double-edged) bladed weapons, borrowed by the Egyptians from their enemies in Palestine and undergoing a number of modifications in Egypt - “khopesh” (“khepesh”), were also widely used, like maces, axes with a narrow blade and moon-shaped axes.
This is what the infantry of Ancient Egypt, including the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, might have looked like. In the foreground are two warrior-spearmen in head scarves, with printed protective aprons in the shape of a heart on top of a regular apron, possibly in quilted jackets, with sickle-shaped short swords made of bronze, and then warriors with a war club combined with an ax and an ax with a moon-shaped blade. The dart thrower has no defensive weapons at all. Two black warriors with bows in their hands are mercenaries from Nubia. Only one pharaoh has armor on his body, next to whom stands a signalman with a drum. Box of a set of soldiers from the Zvezda company. Oh, what we don’t have for boys now! And what kind of soldiers I had in childhood - heaven and earth!
Narmer palette. Depicts Pharaoh Narmer with a mace in his hands. (Cairo Museum)
Reconstruction of a New Kingdom chariot. (Römer-Pelitzeus Museum. Lower Saxony, Hildesheim, Germany)
Surprisingly, the ancient Egyptians knew and used boomerangs very similar to those used and used by the indigenous people of Australia. These two boomerangs from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun are very similar to the Australian ones and differ from them only in their decoration! (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Pharaoh Tutankhamun on a chariot. Painting on wood, length 43 cm. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Golden dagger of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. (Egyptian Museum, Cairo)
Pharaoh on a chariot. Wall painting at the Abu Simbel Temple.
Relief from the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut depicting Egyptian soldiers of the 18th dynasty, 1475 BC. e. Limestone, painting. (Egyptian Museum Berlin)
The Egyptian army was organized in the form of military settlements located in the most threatened areas: on the lower reaches of the Nile there were greatest number military settlements, since attacks from neighboring Asian states could be expected here; in Upper Egypt there were fewer military settlements, since the Ethiopians were not a serious enemy due to their fragmentation. Furthermore, the conquered Nubian tribes living along the banks of the Nile were obliged to supply Egypt with a certain number of soldiers for internal, “police” service.
During large campaigns, the pharaohs strengthened their army at the expense of conquered neighboring tribes.
The army of the Old Kingdom (3200-2400 BC) was staffed by warriors who had land plots, and partly by attracting black mercenaries. Permanent detachments of warriors were in the service of the pharaoh and large temples. For the campaigns, the army was gathered from Upper and Lower Egypt and from African countries. The pharaohs usually took one warrior from every 100 male population. Thus, the army numbered several tens of thousands of people.
The warriors of the Old Kingdom were armed with: a mace with a stone tip, a battle ax made of copper, a spear with a stone tip, and a battle dagger made of stone or copper. In an earlier period, the boomerang was widely used. The main weapons were a bow and a battle ax. As a defensive weapon, the warriors had a wooden shield covered with leather.
The army consisted of detachments. Sources that have reached us say that the soldiers were engaged in combat training, which was in charge of a special head of military training. Already during the period of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians used formation in ranks. All the soldiers in the ranks had the same weapons.
The fortresses of the Old Kingdom period were various shapes(circle, oval or rectangle). The fortress walls sometimes had round towers in the shape of a truncated cone with a platform at the top and a parapet. Thus, the fortress near the city of Abydos was built in the shape of a rectangle; the length of its larger and smaller sides reached 125 and 68 meters, respectively, the height of the walls was 7-11 meters, and the thickness in the upper part was 2 meters. The fortress had one main and two additional entrances. The fortresses in Semne and Kumme were already complex defensive structures that had ledges, walls and a tower.
When storming fortresses, the Egyptians used assault ladders with wooden disc wheels, which made them easier to install and move along the fortress wall. The breach in the fortress walls was made with large crowbars. This is how technology and methods of storming fortresses were born.
The army of the Middle Kingdom (2200-1700 BC) was not much different from the army of the Old Kingdom. However, the weapons of the Egyptian warriors of the Middle Kingdom improved somewhat compared to the previous period, as metal processing became more advanced. Spears and arrows now had bronze tips. Impact weapons remained the same: a battle axe, a spear up to 2 meters long, a mace and a dagger. A spear, a boomerang, a sling with stones, and a bow were used as throwing weapons. A reinforced bow appeared, which increased the range of the arrow and its accuracy. The arrows had tips of various shapes and feathers; their length ranged from 55 to 100 centimeters. Arrows with a leaf-shaped tip, common in the Ancient East, initially flint, and then copper and bronze, were less effective weapons than the arrows with a faceted tip - bone or bronze, introduced by the Scythians in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BC. A aimed shot from a bow was effective at a distance of 150-180 meters; the best accuracy of the boomerang and throwing javelin was achieved at a distance of 50 meters. Shield upholstered in leather, half height human size continued to be the only protective equipment.
During the Middle Kingdom, the organization of the army was improved. The units now had a certain number: 6, 40, 60, 100, 400, 600 soldiers. The detachments numbered 2, 3,10 thousand soldiers. Units of uniformly armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers, who had a formation order for movement; They moved in a column of four soldiers in a row along the front and ten ranks deep.
There is evidence of incentives for ordinary soldiers for their length of service: they were allocated small plots of land. Military leaders were promoted for their merits, received land, livestock, slaves, or were awarded “Golden Praise” (like an order) and decorated military weapons.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom paid great attention to securing the borders of Egypt. Systems of defensive structures appeared. For example, three lines of fortresses were built to protect the southern border. The fortresses became more advanced: they now had battlements that covered the defending soldiers; protruding towers for shelling the approaches to the wall; a ditch that made it difficult to approach the wall. The fortress gates were protected by towers. Small exits were arranged for forays. Much attention was paid to supplying the fortress garrison with water: wells or hidden exits to the river were built.
Of the surviving remains of ancient Egyptian fortresses from this period, the most characteristic is the fortress at Mirgissa, built in the shape of a rectangle. This fortress had an internal wall 10 meters high with protruding towers located at a distance of 30 meters from each other, and a moat 8 meters wide. 25 meters from the inner wall there was an outer wall that surrounded the fortress on three sides; on the fourth side the cliff dropped steeply towards the river. The outer wall was surrounded by a 36 meter wide moat. In addition, forward walls were built on rocky ledges, adjacent to the corners of the fortress and making it possible to control the approaches from the river. Two other walls protected the main entrance to the fortress.
The pharaohs and their military leaders undertook numerous campaigns in Nubia, Syria and other countries with the aim of plundering them.
During the New Kingdom period (starting from 1560 BC), most of the soldiers of the Egyptian army were armed with swords, and the bow played a significant role in battle. Protective weapons were improved: in addition to the shield, the warrior also had a helmet and a leather armor with attached bronze plates. An important part of the army were war chariots. The chariot was a wooden platform measuring 1 x 0.5 meters on two wheels, to which a drawbar was tightly attached. The front part and sides of the chariot were covered with leather, which protected the legs of the combat crew, which consisted of a driver and one fighter, from arrows. Two horses were harnessed to the chariot.
The most ancient branch of Egyptian troops was the infantry. It constituted the main force of the Egyptian army. After the introduction of uniform weapons, the Egyptian infantry consisted of archers, slingers, spearmen, and warriors with swords. The presence of equally armed infantry raised the question of the order of its formation. An infantry formation appeared, its movements became rhythmic, which is strikingly evident in all images of Egyptian warriors of the New Kingdom period.
Among the equipment, we should note a special shield to protect the abdomen, which was made up of brightly colored pieces of leather sewn on top of each other, and a shirt-like robe trimmed with leather strips. A striped cap with metal protrusions or something like a helmet made of striped leather was put on a smoothly shaved head (Fig. on p. 42). This helmet also protected the back of the head and was sometimes worn over an ordinary cap.
The warriors had shields that were angular at the bottom, rounded at the top and equipped with a window for observation.
During the campaign, the Egyptian army was divided into several detachments that moved in columns. Reconnaissance was always sent ahead. When stopping, the Egyptians set up a fortified camp of shields. When storming cities, they used a formation called a turtle (a canopy of shields that covered the soldiers from above), a ram, a vine (a low canopy of vines covered with turf to protect soldiers during siege work) and an assault ladder.
A special body was in charge of supplying the troops. Products were issued from warehouses according to certain standards. There were special workshops for the manufacture and repair of weapons.
The Egyptian pharaohs had warships that were equipped with sails and a large number of oars. The bow of the ship was adapted for boarding and ramming an enemy ship.
The battle of Ramses III (about 1200 BC) at Migdal is known, which is interesting due to the interaction of the Egyptian fleet and ground forces. The battle formation of the ground forces on the right flank was covered by fortifications, and on the left it was supported by the fleet. The fleet of the Philistines (a people living on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea) and their allies was defeated by the Egyptian fleet, after which they fled and ground army Philistines.
In the Egyptian army one can see the beginnings of the organizational forms of the army and battle formations, which consisted of the thoughtful placement of chariots, squads of archers, spearmen and others on the battlefield. The battle was started by war chariots, followed by infantry; the third line again consisted of war chariots, serving as combat support.
Thus, combat practice gradually developed certain rules of warfare and combat, placing its own demands on the troops and command.